Fluid Mechanics Lab

ME-224
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
I.I.T.BOMBAY

Spring 2015

Location of Experimental Setups

Sl. No:

Nameofthe experiment

Location

Calibration of Venturimeter and Orificeplate

2a

Calibration of DPT using dead weight tester

2b

Turbulent velocity profile in a circular pipe

Friction factor in internal pipe turbulent flow

Pressure distribution for flow around a circular

cylinder

FMFP Lab

Efficiency of a square curved diffuser

FMFP Lab

6a

Level of fluid in vortex flow

6b

Impacts of Jets

Characteristics of Submerged Jet

8a

Losses in pipe fittings

8b

Reynolds Apparatus

9a

Measurement of viscosity using Engler's Viscometer

9b

Falling ball viscometer

10

Performance characteristics of PeltonTurbine

101B
FMFP Lab
101B

FMFP Lab
101B
101B

ii

101B
FMFP Lab

Contents
Location of Experimental Setups .................................................................................................................. ii
F1: CALIBRATION OF VENTURIMETER AND ORIFICEMETER ......................................................................... 1
F2 (a): CALIBRATION OF DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER (DPT) USING DEAD WEIGHT TESTER ..... 9
F2 (b): TURBULENT VELOCITY PROFILE IN A CIRULAR PIPE ........................................................................ 14
F3: FRICTION FACTOR IN INTERNAL PIPE TURBULENT FLOW ..................................................................... 18
F4: PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION FOR FLOW AROUND A CIRCULAR CYLINDER ............................................... 22
F5: EFFICIENCY OF A SQUARE CURVED DIFFUSER ...................................................................................... 26
F6 (a): LEVEL OF THE FLUID IN VORTEX FLOW ............................................................................................ 30
F6 (b): IMPACT OF JETS ............................................................................................................................... 33
F7: CHARACTERISTICS OF A SUBMERGED JET ............................................................................................. 35
F8 (a): LOSSES IN PIPE FITTINGS .................................................................................................................. 39
F8 (b): REYNOLDS APPARATUS.................................................................................................................... 42
F9 (a): MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY USING ENGLERS VISCOMETER ...................................................... 44
F9 (b): FALLING BALL VISCOMETER ............................................................................................................. 47
F10: PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A PELTON TURBINE ................................................................ 50

iii

F1: CALIBRATION OF VENTURIMETER AND ORIFICEMETER

AIM: To calibrate Venturimeter and Orifice plate for a given fluid and study the variation of
coefficient of discharge Cd with Reynolds Number.
APPRATUS: Venturimeter, differential pressure transmitter, stop watch, calibrated measuring
tank, orifice plate.
THEORY: Venturimeter is used to measure the rate of flow through a pipe. Venturimeter
consists of a converging portion, throat and a diverging portion. The function of the converging
portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid and temporarily lower its static pressure. The
pressure difference between inlet and throat is developed. This pressure difference is correlated
to the rate of flow. The expression for theoretical flow rate is obtained by applying the continuity
equation and Bernoulli's equation at inlet and throat section, and assuming the fluid to be ideal is
given by:
2 p
d
Theoretical mass flow rate: mth A2
;
4
D
1
D = inlet diameter, d = throat diameter
mact
Coefficient of discharge:
Cd
mth
Where
A1and A2 are areas at inlet and throat &
P1 and P2 static pressures at inlet and throat respectively;
- Specific weight of the fluid.
Same equation for theoretical discharge holds good for orificemeter also. Construction of
orificemeter is simplest amongst all the flow meters in that it consists of a plate with a hole
drilled in it. In principle, it is essentially similar to a venturi since it obstructs the flow of fluid.
However, due to the absence of guiding passage on the downstream passage of the orificemeter,
fluid comes out in the form of a free jet. This difference in the flow physics of the two flow
meters leads to difference in the value of discharge coefficient and irrecoverable pressure loss
even when the area ratios for two are identical.
CALIBRATION OF FLOWMETERS:
All the flow-meters need calibration a prior where a known quantity of fluid is passed through
the flow-meter and the differential pressure across the flow meter is related to the actual
discharge through a discharge coefficient given as the ratio of actual to theoretical mass flow
rate.
PROCEDURE:
1) Check if all the valves are closed and then start the motor.
2) Now open the bypass valve so that all water is discharged into sump tank.

3) Now open the outlet valve of venturimeter keeping the outlet valve of orificemeter
closed.
4) First open the air valves of manometer and then open the venturimeter valves of
manometer. Remove all the air bubbles through circuit.
5) Adjust the discharge by closing the bypass valve. Note down the DPT reading. Calculate
the theoretical discharge Qth..
6) Note down the time for collection of 10 litres of water in the measuring tank and
determine the actual discharge Qact. Calculate the coefficient of discharge Cd. Repeat the
procedure for five mass flow rates for both Venturimeter and orificemeter.

ReD

4mact
D

7) ISO 5167 specifies value of discharge coefficient for orificemeter as a function of

diameter ratio and Reynolds number ReD1Cd

0.5961 0.0261

0.216

106
0.000521
R eD

0.7

Calculate the value of discharge coefficient for the orificemeter according to ISO
standard. Also note that the value of discharge coefficient for Venturimeter as specified
by ISO 5167 is 0.984.
GRAPHS:
Plot a graph of Cd vs ReD obtained by volume flow rate measurement and ISO 5167 on a single
graph paper.
RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS:-

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Time
t, sec
ReD
DPT
readin
g

(expt)

Venturimeter

Supply pipe diameter = 21mm

Venturimeter inlet (D) and outlet (d) diameter = 21.5mm and 15mm
Orificemeter inlet (D) and outlet (d) diameter = 20mm and 14mm

Volume
liter

DPT Differential Pressure Transmitter

Sr.
No
.

1
2
3
4
5

Cd
ISO

DPT
reading

Orifice plate

Cd

(expt)

Cd
ISO

Graph

Notes on Venturimeter and orifice plate

Volume flow rate measurement in Pipes
It is often necessary to determine experimentally the volume flowrate in a pipe. Three of the
most common devices used to measure the instantaneous flowrate in pipes are the orifice meter,
the nozzle meter, and the Venturi meter. Each of these meters operates on the principle that a
decrease in flow area in a pipe causes an increase in velocity that is accompanied by a decrease
in pressure. Correlation of the pressure difference with the velocity provides a means of
measuring the flowrate. In the absence of viscous effects and under the assumption of a
horizontal pipe, application of the Bernoulli equation between points (1) and (2) (see Fig. 1)
results in

A1V1

P1

(1)

A2V2

V12
2

Qideal

g z1

A2V2

P2

V22

g z2

2
2 P1

P2

(1

with
)

Ideal flow hL = 0

gh L ;

(2)
(3)

D2
D1

Fig. 1 Typical pipe flow meter geometry (Munson et al., 2000)

The difficulty in including the head loss is that there is no accurate expression for it. The net
result is that empirical coefficients are used in the flow rate equations to account for the complex
real world effects brought on by the nonzero viscosity. The coefficients are discussed below.

A typical orifice-meteris constructed by inserting between two flanges of a pipe a flat plate with
a hole, as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Typical orificemeter construction (Figiola and Beasley, 2000)

The pressure at point (2) within the vena contracta is less than that at point (1). Non-ideal effects
occur for two reasons.
First, the vena contracta area is less than the area of the hole, by an unknown amount. Thus, A2 =
CcAo, Cc where is the contraction coefficient (Cc< 1).
Second, the swirling flow and turbulent motion near the orifice plate introduce a head loss that
cannot be calculated theoretically. Thus, an orifice discharge coefficient, Cd, is used to take these
effects into account. That is,

C d Qideal

C d Ao

2 P1

P2

(1

(4)

Ao - area of the hole in the orifice plate

The value of the coefficient of discharge Cd is a function of (

= d/D) and the Reynolds

number Re = VD/ where V=Q/A1. Typical values of coefficient of discharge of orifice meter
are given in Fig. 3. Coefficient of the discharge depends on the specific construction of
6

the orifice-meter (i.e., the placement of pressure taps, whether the orifice plate edge is square or
beveled etc.). According ISO 5167, the coefficient of discharge for D-D/2 tapping is given by

Cd
A

0.5961
19000
ReD

0.0261
0.8

d
D

0.216

10 6
0.000521
Re D

(5)

0.7

0.0188 0.0063 A

3.5

10 6
Re D

0.3

Cd

Fig. 3 Orificemeter discharge coefficient (Munson et al. 2000)

The most precise and most expensive obstruction-type flow meters is the Venturi meter shown in
Fig. 4 (G. B. Venturi (17461822)). Although the operating principle for this device is the same
as for the orifice, the geometry of the Venturi meter is designed to reduce head losses to a
minimum. This is accomplished by providing a relatively streamlined contraction which
eliminates separation ahead of the throat 2 and a very gradual expansion downstream of the
throat which eliminates separation in this decelerating portion of the venturimeter. Most of the
head loss that occurs in a well-designed Venturimeter is due to friction losses along the walls
7

rather than losses associated with separated flows and the inefficient mixing motion that
accompanies such flow.

Fig. 4 Typical venturimeter construction (Figiola and Beasley, 2000)

References
1. Munson B.R, Donald F. Young and Theodore H Okiishi, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics,
Fourth Edition, 2000, John Wiley and sons.
2. Figliola R.S and Beasley, D.E., Theory and Design of Mechanical Measurement, Fourth
Edition, 2002, John Wiley and sons.

F2 (a): CALIBRATION OF DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER

(DPT) USING DEAD WEIGHT TESTER

AIM: Study of dead weight tester for calibrating pressure measuring device like pressure gauge.
APPARATUS: Well-equipped dead weight tester, differential pressure transmitter to be
calibrated.

THEORY: A dead weight tester is used as a laboratory standard for the calibration of pressure
measuring devices over the pressure range from 70 7 107 Pa. This device determines the
pressure directly through its fundamental definition of force per unit area.
A dead weight tester consists of an internal chamber filled with a liquid, and a closed fitting
piston and cylinder. Chamber pressure is produced by the compression of the liquid, usually oil,
by the adjustable plunger. This pressure acts on the end of the carefully machined piston.
9

A static equilibrium will exist when the external pressure exerted by the piston on the fluid
balances with the chamber pressure. This external piston pressure is created by a downward
force acting over the equivalent area, Ae, of the piston. The weight of the piston plus the
additional weight of calibrated masses are used to provide this external force F.
At static equilibrium the piston will float, and the chamber pressure can be deduced
as p F / Ae . A pressure measuring device, such as a pressure transducer/pressure gauge, can
be connected to the reference port and calibrated by comparison to the chamber pressure.
PROCEDURE: First of all, rotate the screw pump handle (4) anticlockwise completely and
clockwise direction. This is to remove the air bubbles trapped inside. Now, with the screw handle
(4) in full anticlockwise position, fix the gauge/differential pressure transmitter to be tested on
gauge connector (5).
Load the necessary weights on the piston carrier (6), and then start rotating the screw pump
handle clockwise until the pressure generated is just sufficient to lift the weights so that weights
can float on the oil. Rotate the weight and the piston to reduce the effect of friction.
Note the reading on the pressure gauge/differential pressure transmitter to be calibrated
corresponding to the weights on the carrier. Repeat the experiments for different weights so as to
generate different operating pressures on the gage/DPT as given in the observation table.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Pressure corresponding to the weight of the carrier alone = 0.2 bar
Sr. no.
K

Actual pressure
(Y) (bar)

Pressure measured
in DPT(X)
(bar)

X k Yk

X k2

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Xk
k 1

Yk

X k Yk

k 1

k 1

10

k 1

X k2

( NX

X kYk
k 1
N

(N
N

(
C

k 1

k 1

Xk2

Actual
pressure (Y)
(bar)

k 1
N

k 1

k 1

Yk

Xk

Pressure measured
in DPT(X)
(bar)

X kYk )
k 1

Yk )

k 1

Xk2

k 1

X k )2 )

k 1
N

(N

Sr. no.
K

Xk2

Xk

k 1

X k )2 )

Pressure
calculated
(Z)
(bar)

Square of the deviation

(Pactual-Pcalculated)2

Yk

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
N

Yk
k 1

Yk

Zk 2

k 1

N 1

11

Zk 2

Zk 2

Method of least squares to calculate m and C:Y mX C is the fit to ( Xk ,Yk) experimental points
Error = E
mX k C Yk 2
Tominimize the error E,
E
E
0
m
C
E
0
2( mX C Y )X 0
m
E
0
2( mX C Y )1 0
C
m X2 C X
XY 0
m

CN

solving;
1
( N XY
X Y)
D
1
C
( X2 Y
X XY )
D
where,D N X 2 ( X )2
m

Standard deviation =

1 N
mxk C
N-1 k 1

2
yk

This standard deviation would possibly be the same if one repeated the actual point measured
point calibration over and over again.Assuming same standard deviation would occur even if a
particular reading were to be repeated over and over again.
For 99.7% confidence level ie., 3, the actual value = (mX + C) 3.
GRAPHS: Plot a graph with actual pressure (based on weights) along the y-axis and pressure
indicated by gage/DPT along the x-axis. Apply method of least squares to fit a curve between Y
and X in the form of Y = mX + C

12

GRAPH

13

F2 (b): TURBULENT VELOCITY PROFILE IN A CIRULAR PIPE

AIM: To study the velocity distribution for turbulent flow through circular pipe
APPRATUS:
Pipes with pressure tappings, Pitot tube, mercury manometer, arrangement for traversing Pitot
tube through the pipe, volumetric tank, stop watch etc.
THEORY:
In turbulent flow, the adjacent layers mix intimately so that there are velocity fluctuations
which are superimposed on the mean average flow. Due to this mixing of the fluid layers there
is a momentum transfer in the direction normal to the flow resulting in a flatter velocity profile
than that in laminar flow.
The energy loss for turbulent flow in a pipe depends upon the density of the fluid, velocity
of the flow V, diameter of the pipe D, dynamic viscosity of the fluid, absolute roughness of the
pipe and length of the pipe L. Dimensional analysis for pressure drop (P) in a straight circular
pipe shows that P/V2is a function of Reynolds number ,V D/ , relative pipe roughness e/D
and length to diameter ratio (L/D).
The pressure drop P in pipe is related by Darcy- Weisbach equation:

p
where

fLV 2
2 gD

is the specific weight of fluid.

As such the friction factor f is a function of Reynolds number Re and e/D. Moodys
diagram for pipe friction factor gives the variation of friction factor f with Reynolds
number for various relative roughness e/D of the pipes. For most of the flows the fluid velocity is
zero at the wall to satisfy no slip condition and is a maximum at the centerline of the pipe.
The way in which the velocity of fluid particles varies from zero at the wall to maximum at the
center is a characteristic of that regime. For the turbulent flow regime the velocity profile
equation of the fluid particles follows the power law as given by-

V
Vmax

r
1
R

1
n

where,
V Velocity of fluid particle at a particular point in the pipe cross-section,
Vmax- velocity of the fluid particles at the centerline of the flow,
r- Radial distance of the fluid particle having velocity u from the centerline of the pipe
R- Radius of the pipeline.

14

The exponent n is a function of the Reynolds number Re of the flow. Thus value of n and hence
the Reynolds number Re of the flow, decides the velocity profile variation across the pipe
cross-section.
Also the exponent n relates the average and maximum velocity of the flow by the
following correlation-

2n 2
2n 1 n 1

Vavg
Vmax
PROCEDURE:

For velocity profile determination traverse the pitot tube through the entire pipe crosssection to determine the position of the pitot tube coinciding with the centerline of the
pipe. Traverse the pitot tube in the lower half of the pipe using the scale provided with
the traversing arrangement. Note the stagnation pressure at all these radial positions of the
pipe. Repeat the procedure for the upper half of the pipe.
SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:

2 p
air

Velocity at a given point,

RESULTS/DISCUSSIONS:
1. Write down the observations.
2. Try to explain the results from theory.
Fitting exponential curve by least squares:

a0 x a1

ln y lna0 a1 ln x
Yi a0 a1 X i
N

Yi a0 a1 X i

i 1

D
a0

Yi a0 a1 X i

i 1

15

D
a1

Yi a0 a1 X i

Xi

i 1

Solving above equations simultaneously for

N

Yi
a0

a1

i 1

Xi
i 1

N
N

N
a1

a0 and a1 ,

X iYi
i 1

i 1

Xi
i 1

Xi

Yi
i 1
2

Xi
i 1

16

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Diameter of the pipes, D
Density of air,
Dynamic viscosity of air,
Sr.
No.

Vernier
scale
reading,
r
(mm)

Manometer
reading,

hm

Velocity
V
(m/s)

50 mm
1.125 kg/m3
1.7894 10-5 Pa.s

ln(1-r/R)
(X)

ln(V/Vmax)
(Y)

(X2)

(XY)

(mm of
water)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
N

Xi
i 1

i 1

17

Yi

X iYi
i 1

i 1

X i2

F3: FRICTION FACTOR IN INTERNAL PIPE TURBULENT FLOW

AIM: To experimentally study the frictional losses in pipe.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP: Four pipes of different diameters and different material, control
valves, sump tank U-tube manometers.
THEORY: When a fluid flows through a pipe, it is subjected to resistance due to shear forces
between fluid and wall and also between fluid layers. This resistance is called as frictional
resistance. This resistance is depends on various factors such as flow velocity, type of flow
(laminar or turbulent), wall surface conditions etc.
PROCEDURE: Fill the sump tank with sufficient clean water. Open the outlet valve of pump
and start the pump. Open the outlet valve of pipe to be tested. Remove all the air bubbles from
manometer and connecting pipe. Adjust the flow such that the manometer head is readable.
Note down the manometer head and flow rate. Now increase the flow (operate outlet valve also
so that there is no overflow) and take readings. Repeat the same procedure for other pipes.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Four pipes:
G.I. (Galvanized iron) pipe with internal diameter (I.D.) 21 mm
G.I. pipe with I.D. 17 mm
Copper pipe with I.D. 14.5 mm
Aluminum pipe with I.D. 12.5 mm
Test length of pipe = L = 1 m
SPECIMEN CACULATIONS:
1. Discharge:

Q = Volume/Time

2. Velocity of flow:

V=

where,

Q
A

m3/sec

m/sec

Area, A =

D 2 m2

3. According to Darcy-Weisbach equation,

fLV 2
hf
where, f = friction factor
2 gD
Then,
2 gDh f
f
LV 2
4. According to Von-Karman correlation

18

(D = inside diameter of pipe.)

1
f

2.0 log10

D
3.7

GRAPHS:
1. Plot a graph of friction factor, f (exp) vs Reynolds number.
CONCLUSION/DISCUSSION ON THE RESULT:
1. What is the roughness of the pipe?
2. Write down the observations.
3. Try to explain the results from theory studied earlier.

19

21 mm G.I.

1
2
3
4

Manometer
reading hm
(mm of water)

OBSERVATION TABLE:

17 mm G.I.

1
2
3
4

Pipe

14.5 mm Cu

1
2
3
4

Sr.
No.

12.5 mm Al

1
2
3
4

Time for 10
liters to fill t
(sec)

Discharge
Q
(m3/sec)

20

Velocity
V
(m/s)

f
(expmt)

Re

/D (VonKormans
relation)

/D
(Moodys
chart)

Graph

21

F4: PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION FOR FLOW AROUND A CIRCULAR

CYLINDER
AIM: To study the pressure distribution for flow around a circular cylinder and compare it with
the theoretical predictions.
APPRATUS: Circular cylinder, static pressure probe fitted in the cylinder, static pressure
tapping at the test section, Utube manometers, protractor for angular measurement, variable
speed blower etc.
THEORY: The pressure distribution around the circular cylinder based on the ideal fluid flow
theory is expressed by pressure coefficient Cpgiven by:
P P

1 4 sin2
V2
2
where P is the pressure on the surface of the cylinder at any angle , P is the upstream static
pressure and V is the upstream velocity of flow.
Cp

PROCEDURE: Set a particular flow rate of air from the blower by adjusting the rheostat. Set
the static pressure probe at = 0 degree position. Note down deflections h1 and (h2) = 0. Rotate
the cylinder and note down deflections h2 at various positions of the static pressure probe
between 0o to 180o for every 5o rotation of the cylinder for one flow rate and for every 10 o
rotation of the cylinder for two flow rates. Tabulate the readings and draw a neat schematic
sketch of the experimental set up.
SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:22

Average velocity,

2 P

in m / s ; Reynolds number, Re

V D

air

P P
air
; Theoretical,
C p 1 4sin 2
V2
2
GRAPHS: Plot the variation of Cp,expt. with angle for various Reynolds numbers and compare
the result with theoretical pressure coefficient Cp,theoretical.

Experimental,

CP

OBERVATION TABLE:Diameter of the cylinder, D

Density of air at room temperature air
Kinematic viscosity of air at room temperature
Density of water at room temperature water

0.008 m
1.202 kg/m3
0.000016 m2 / s
1000 kg / m3

Smooth Cylinder:
Sr.
No.

Angular
Position
(degrees)

h2- h1
(m)

V (m/s)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Rough Cylinder
23

Cp
Experimental

Cp
Theoretical

Sl.
No.

Angular
Position
(degrees)

h2- h1
(m)

V (m/s)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

24

Cp
Experimental

Cp
Theoretical

GRAPH

25

F5: EFFICIENCY OF A SQUARE CURVED DIFFUSER

AIM: To determine the pressure recovery efficiency of square curved diffuser of various
geometries.
APPARATUS:
Square curved diffusers, Pitot tube arrangement with water manometers, thermocouples.
THEORY:
A subsonic diffuser is a diverging flow passage where velocity of fluid particles decreases and
pressure increases in the direction of flow. The diffusers find application in turbomachines,
Venturimeter, wind tunnels and many other fluid handling systems.
Energy losses in a diffuser can be divided into two parts: Frictional losses and expansion losses.
Theoretically, the pressure will increase as the area ratio (A2 / A1) increases but at higher area
ratios, fluid particles have tendency to separate from the boundary of the diffuser resulting in
high eddy losses, reducing the pressure recovery.
As such, for a given inlet condition, there is an optimum geometry of the diffuser for efficient
pressure recovery. The pressure recovery efficiency is the ratio of actual pressure rise to the
theoretical pressure rise and is given by-

P2
P

P1

2
1

2
2

V
2

V12 V22
Losses
2
V12 V22
2

Theoretically the pressure rise will increase as the area ratio (A2 / A1) increases. However at
higher area ratios, fluid particles have a tendency to separate from the boundary of the diffuser
resulting in high separation losses and reduction in pressure recovery.
The various factors which influence the diffuser performance are area ratio, angle of divergence,
entrance conditions of flow, exit conditions of flow, shapes of the walls and wall roughness.
PROCEDURE:
Note down the geometrical parameters (inlet area, outlet area) of the diffuser which is connected
to the experimental setup. Adjust a particular flow rate for the blower and note down the reading
hmax (in terms of height of water) of the Pitot tube fixed at the center of the duct.
Note down the differential pressure of the diffuser P2-P1from the water manometerand
temperatures T1and T2from the thermocouple. As the diffuser is discharging into the atmosphere,
the outlet pressure P2is atmospheric. Note down hmax, P, T1and T2for at least 5 different flow
rates by operating the regulating plate at the suction of the blower.

26

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Atmospheric Pressure
Inlet area of diffuser
Outlet area of diffuser
Particular gas constant R
Density of water water

101325 Pa
40 mm 40 mm
154 mm 44.5 mm

287 J/kg. K
1000 kg/m3

PART 1: Calculation of pressure recovery efficiency of a given diffuser

Sl.
No.

Pitot tube
reading
(mm of
water)

T1

T2

(mV)

(mV)

P=P2-P1
(Pa)

Umax
(m/s)

1
2

(m /s)

Re

Pressure
recovery
efficiency
p

1
2
3
4
5

PART 2: Pressure distribution along the given diffuser.

Pressure
Tap No.
Outer
edge

Manometer
reading
(mm of water)

1
2
3
4
1

Inner
edge

2
3

27

P
(Pa)

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:Subscript 1 - Diffuser inlet

2 - Diffuser outlet
P1
P2
1
; 2
; avg
1
R T1
R T2
2
2 P

U max

avg

V1 0.8 U max (Assuming turbulent flow- check whether the flow is turbulent or not)
Re

V1 D1

4 c / s Area at inlet
;
Wetted perimeter at inlet

, where D1 mean hydraulic diameter

P1

P2

V12 V22
2

GRAPHS:
Plot p vs. Re.
RESULTS/DISCUSSIONS:
1. Write down the observations.
2. Try to explain the results from theory.

Viscosity vs. temperature chart for air:

Temperature
(K)
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500

Kinematic viscosity
(m2/s)
1.923 10-6
4.343 10-6
7.49 10-6
9.49 10-6
15.68 10-6
20.76 10-6
25.90 10-6
28.86 10-6
37.90 10-6

28

GRAPH

29

F6 (a): LEVEL OF THE FLUID IN VORTEX FLOW

AIM: To study the parabolic curve for forced vortex flow and same for free vortex flow.
APPRATUS: Cylindrical vessels 300 mm diameter with central bottom outlet, mounted over
rotating platform. D.C. motor with controller to rotate the sump tank, Measuring tank 300 300
300 mm mounted over the sump tank, Centrifugal pump to circulate the water, x-y co-ordinate
measurement probe.
THEORY: When a liquid contained in a cylindrical vessel is forced to rotate either due to
rotation of vessel about vertical axis or due to tangential velocity of water, surface of water no
longer remains horizontal but it depresses at the centre and rises near the walls of the vessel.
The rotating mass of fluid is called VORTEX and motion of rotating mass of fluid is vortex
motion. Vortices are of two types viz. forced vortex and free vortex. When a cylinder is rotated
by external means then a vortex is called forced vortex. It is a case of rotational flow wherein the
water molecules rotate about their own axis other than the revolution about the center of the tank.
There is no shear in this case as this is a solid body rotation.
In case of free vortex there is no application of external force. It is a case of irrotational vortex
where vorticity is Zero everywhere except at r=0. Angular momentum is conserved.
Apparatus consist of a Perspex cylinder with drain at center of bottom. The cylinder is fixed over
a rotating platform, which can be rotated with the help of a D.C. motor at different speed. A
tangential water supply rip is provided with flow control valve. The whole unit is mounted over
the sump tank. Water is supplied by a centrifugal pump.
PROCEDURE:
A) Forced Vortex:
Close the drain valve of the cylinder vessel. Fill up some water (say 4-5 cm height from bottom)
in the vessel. Switch ON the supply and slowly increase motor speed. Do not start the sump.
Keep motor speed constant and wait till the vortex formed in the cylinder stabilizes. Once the
vortex is stabilized, note down the co-ordinate of the vortex complete the observation table and
with the surface speed attachment of Tachometer, measure outside surface speed of vessel and
note down in the observation table
SPECIMEN CALCULATION:
A) Forced Vortex
Rotational speed

2 N / 60 ;

Average velocity

For forced vortex

S
d

2r 2
z1
2g

2r 2
2 rad/sec
2g

2r 2
1 z2
2g

30

2r 2
2
2g

Similarly calculate values of Z at different r

OBSERVATION TABLE:
In the experiment Perspex cylinder is rotating at 95 RPM
Pipe diameter,
d
1.6 cm
Perspex cylindrical vessel diameter
300 mm
Measuring Tank
300 300 300 mm
Forced Vortex
Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Radius
(cm)
14
13.5
13.3
13
12.8
12.5
12.2
12
11.8
11.5
11.2
11
10.8
10.5
10.2
10
9.8
9.3

Height
(cm)

Theoretical
Height

RPM
of the
shaft
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95
95

GRAPHS:
Plot the variation of Z for different r for both experimental as well as theoretical for Forced
vortex.
RESULTS /DISCUSSIONS:
1. Write down the observations.
2. Try to explain the results from theory.

31

GRAPH

32

F6 (b): IMPACT OF JETS

AIM: To study the impact of jets on Stationary surfaces.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP: chamber, flat & hemispherical vane, nozzle, sliding weight,
balance weight, pump, sump tank, measuring tank.
THEORY: When the flow of fluid is obstructed by the surface, there is change in momentum of
the fluid. By Newtons 2nd law, this change in momentum results in external force on the fluid.
Again by Newtons 3rd law, the same force acts on the obstructing surface.
PROCEDURE: Fill up sufficient water in sump tank. Do the priming. Fix the required vane
(flat or hemispherical) to the fixing rod. Fix the nozzle in Perspex box at center and close the top
cover. Adjust the balance weight, so that vane fixing rod is in horizontal position. Open the
bypass valve fully. Start the pump. Slowly close the bypass valve. The jet strikes the vane. Vane
fixing rod will become unbalanced. Put the sliding weight over the rod and adjust its distance
such that the rod is horizontal. Note down the balance weight and its distance from the pivot
using scale. Close the discharge valve of measuring tank. Turn the funnel to measuring tank and
measure the time for 10 liters. Repeat the procedure for other vane and nozzle.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Nozzle: 6 mm
Vane: 1. Flat (deflection angle is 90)
2. Hemispherical (deflection angle is 180)
SPECIMEN CACULATIONS:
1. Actual discharge,
2. Velocity of jet,

Qa = V/ t m3/sec
V=

3. Force exerted by vane :(a) For flat vane,

Ftheo = AV2

(b) For hemispherical vane,

4. Experimental force,

Ftheo = 2AV2
Fexpt 0.135 = (W

L),

W =Weight of sliding weight N

L = distance of sliding weight from fulcrum,

33

Sr.
No.

1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5

Type
vane

of Weight
added
m
(kg)

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Nozzle
diameter
d
(mm)

Flat
Vanes

Hemispherical
Vanes

Distance of Time for Discharge

sliding
10
liters Q
weight
rise
in (m3/sec)
L
measuring
(m)
tank
t (sec)

RESULTS/DISCUSSIONS:
1 Write down the observations.
2 Try to explain the results from theory studied earlier.

34

Velocity
V
(m/s)

Theoretical
force
Ftheo
(N)

Experimental
force
Fexpt
(N)

Efficiency
(%)

F7: CHARACTERISTICS OF A SUBMERGED JET

AIM: To study the velocity decay characteristics of a submerged jet.
APPARATUS: Air jet issued from a nozzle, Pitot tube and a manometer.
THEORY: A submerged jet issuing into a surrounding medium entrains the ambient fluid and
spreads in laterally as it moves along. As the jet imparts momentum to the surrounding fluid,
which is entrained, the average velocity decreases continuously.
Since the jet spreads at constant pressure, there are no bounding walls the momentum flux at any
cross section (at a given distance along the jet axis) remains a constant. For the submerged jet,
therefore, the cross-section of the jet increases, velocity profile becomes non-uniform and a part
of the surrounding fluid is entrained in the main flow.
R

2 r u dr

Discharge, Q
0

2 r u 2 dr

Momentum, M
0

Momentum remains constant in the absence of external forces,

R

2 r u 3 dr

Energy, E
0

Energy may drop due to losses due to the entrainment action. Typical velocity profile of the
submerged jet is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Typical velocity profile of the submerged jet (Malmstrom et al. 1997)
PROCEDURE:

35

Part 1
Traverse the pitot probe along the centerline of the submerged jet and take manometer readings
for centerline velocity decay at axial locations from 0 to 20d in steps of 2d (where d = nozzle exit
diameter) from the nozzle.
The centerline velocity decay in axisymmetric jets is typically modeled by simple decay
equation:
U
d
K
Uo
Z
U Velocity at a given axial location (m/s)
Uo Velocity at the exit of the nozzle (m/s)
d nozzle diameter (mm)
Z Axial location (mm)

U
Uo

1
Z/d

c ;Let

U
Uo

1
Z/d

Y and X

Find m and C using the relations given below Table. 1

PART 2: Traverse the pitot tube laterally from the centre to outward for velocity profile at
locations 8d and 14d. Take the readings at an interval of r =1 mm. Discharge at each location is
given by(area under the graph u vs. r2). Similarly, momentum is given by(area under
the graph u2vs. r2) and energy is given by(area under the graph u3vs. r2). Calculate the
discharge and momentum at both locations.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
PART 1: Table 1
Sr.
No.
k
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Z/d

h
U
(mm of (m/s)
water)

1/(Z/d)
[X]

U/Uo
[Y]

[XY]

[X2]

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
N

Yk

Xk

k 1

k 1

36

X k Yk
k 1

k 1

X k2

(N

X k Yk
k 1
N

k 1
N

k 1

(
C

Xk2

k 1

Yk )
k 1

Xk2 (

(N
N

Xk

X k )2 )

k 1
N

Yk
k 1
N

Xk
k 1

Xk2 (

(N
k 1

X k Yk )
k 1

X k )2 )

k 1

PART 2:
At 8d:
Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

r
h
U
(mm) (mm of (m/s)
water)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

U2

r2

r
h
U
(mm) (mm of (m/s)
water)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

U2

r2

At 14d:
Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

37

Method of least squares to calculate m and C

Y

C is the fit to ( Xk ,Yk) experimental points

mX

mX k C
Error = E
To minimize the error E,
E
E
0
m
C
N
E
0
2( mX k C Yk
k 1
m
N
E
0
2( mX k C Yk
k 1
C
N

k 1

k 1

)X k

)1 0

Xk2 C

Yk 2

Xk

X k Yk

k 1
N

k 1

Xk

CN

k 1

Yk

solving;
N

( NX

X k Yk
k 1
N

(N
N

(
C

k 1

Xk2

k 1

N
k 1

Yk

Standard deviation =

Yk )

k 1

Xk2 (

k 1

X k )2 )

k 1
N

(N

k 1

Xk2 (

k 1

Xk

Xk

X k Yk )
k 1

N
k 1

X k )2 )
1 N
mX k C
N-1 k 1

2
Yk

This standard deviation would possibly be the same if one repeated the actual point measured
point calibration over and over again.Assuming same standard deviation would occur even if a
particular reading were to be repeated over and over again.
For 99.7% confidence level i.e. 3, the actual value = (mX + C)
RESULTS/DISCUSSION:
1

Write down the observations.

Try to explain the results from theory

38

3.

F8 (a): LOSSES IN PIPE FITTINGS

AIM: To experimentally study the head losses in various pipe fittings such as bend, elbow,
sudden expansion, sudden contraction etc.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:Fittings- bend, elbow, sudden expansion, sudden contraction etc,
pressure tapping at inlet & outlet of each fitting, common differential manometer, pump, bypass
valve to control water flow.
THEORY:While installing the pipeline to transfer a fluid, it is not possible to install a long
straight pipe of same size throughout due to space restriction, location of outlet etc. Hence, we
use various fittings. All these fittings cause head loss.
PROCEDURE:Fill the sump tank with sufficient clean water. Open the pump discharge valve &
bypass valve fully. Keep manometer cocks closed. Start the pump and open the manometer
connection of bend, operate both the cocks simultaneously. Ensure that there is no air bubble in
the line. Note the manometer reading and flow rate, repeat the procedure for different flow rates.
Close the manometer cocks. Connect other fitting to manometer and repeat the above procedure.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Basic pipe of diameter,
d = 15 mm
Bend diameter,
db= 19 mm
Elbow diameter,
de = 14 mm
Sudden expansion from 16 mm to 27.5 mm
Sudden contraction from 27.5 mm to 16 mm
Density of water,
= 1000 kg/s
Viscosity of water,
= 0.0007975 Pa.s
hp pump to circulate water
SPECIMEN CACULATIONS:
1. Bend:
In bend, loss of head occurs due to change in direction of water.
Mean area, A =

d2

m2

Mean velocity of flow, V =

where,
Q=

Re

0.01
t

Q
A

m/sec

m3/sec

Vd

Loss coefficient,

39

p
1
V2
2

2. Elbow :
Similar to bend in elbow, loss of head occurs due to change in direction of water. But due to
abrupt change in direction the head loss in more than bend.
Mean area, A =

d2

m2

Mean velocity of flow, V =

where,
Q=

0.01
t

Q
A

m/sec

m3/sec

Vd

Re

Loss coefficient,

3. Sudden expansion and contraction :

K

p
;
1
2
V
2

pressure drop across sudden exp ansion / contraction

RESULTS/DISCUSSION:
1. Write down the observations.
2. Try to explain the results from theory studied earlier.

40

p
1
V2
2

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Fitting

Bend

Elbow

Sr.
No.

Time for 10
liters rise in
measuring tank
t (sec)

Discharge
Q
(m3/sec)

Velocity
V
(m/s)

(Pa)

Vo
(m/s)

p
(Pa)

Re

Re

1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4

Fitting

Sr.
No.

Sudden expansion

1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4

Sudden contraction

Manometer
reading hm
(mm of Hg)

Manometer
reading hm
(mm of
Hg)

Time for 10
liters rise in
measuring
tank
t (sec)

Discharge
Q
(m3/sec)

41

Vi
(m/s)

F8 (b): REYNOLDS APPARATUS

AIM: To study laminar and turbulent flow and the transition from laminar to
turbulent with the help of Reynolds apparatus.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP: Constant head supply tank, dye tank, transparent tube
dye injection system, sump tank, regulating valve.
THEORY:
Whenever a fluid flows through a pipe, the flow is either laminar or turbulent. When
fluid is flowing in parallel layers sliding one over another it is called laminar flow.
On the other hand, when fluid particles flow in random directions i.e. there is no
motion in layers, it is called turbulent flow. Existence of these two flows was first
demonstrated by Osborne Reynolds.
PROCEDURE:
Fill the sump tank with sufficient clean water up to the mark. Put sufficient dye of
Potassium permanganate in dye tank. Open the pump discharge valve & bypass valve
fully. Start the pump and adjust the water flow to a small rate.
Start the dye injection. Wait for some time. A steady dye line is observed. Slowly
increase the flow rate, ensure that water level in supply tank is constant. At certain
flow rate, the dye line will disturbed, note down this flow rate using measuring flask
and stopwatch. Further increase the flow, dye line diffuses over entire cross section,
note down this reading also.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Internal diameter (I.D.) of glass pipe = 25 mm
Density of water = = 1000 kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity of water = = 0.0007975 N-s/m2
SPECIMEN CACULATIONS:
1.
2.

Discharge,
Velocity of flow,

3.

Reynolds number,

Q = Volume/Time
V = Q/A
VL
VL
Re
; Re

where,
L = characteristic linear dimension.
= kinematic viscosity =
OBSERVATION TABLE:
42

m3/sec
m/sec

Sr.
No.

Time to collect Discharge

1
liter
in Q (m3/sec)
measuring flask
t (Sec)

Velocity
V
(m/s)

Re

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

RESULTS/DISCUSSIONS:
1. Write down the observations.
2. Try to explain the results from theory studied earlier.

43

Remarks

F9 (a): MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY USING ENGLERS

VISCOMETER
AIM: To determine the kinematic viscosity of a given sample of liquid at different
temperatures.
APPARATUS: Englers Viscometer with heating bath, Thermometers, Stop watch,
measuring flask.
THEORY: Viscosity is a measure of resistance offered by a fluid to its relative
motion. The viscosity of the fluid is due to the cohesive forces and molecular activity,
as such, it depends upon temperature and pressure. It is represented by two
coefficients namely absolute or dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity.
The unit of dynamic viscosity is poise (N-s/m2 or dyne-s/cm2). Englers viscometer
basically consists of a central cylinder with a standard orifice at the bottom and
surrounded by water bath with heating arrangement. The fluid of which viscosity is to
be measured is filled in the central cylinder upto a fixed level. The time taken for the
fixed flow rate through the orifice is the measure of viscosity of the fluid at that fluid
temperature.
PROCEDURE: Close the orifice of the central cylindrical container tightly. Pour
carefully the oil sample into the viscometer upto the needle points. Fill the viscometer
bath with water and heat it slightly above 90C. Wait until the sample of the oil attains
the desired temperature.
For uniform heating of the oil, stir the bath continuously and adjust the heat supply
rate as necessary. Place the clear dry measuring flask under the orifice outlet. Stir the
liquid sample with the thermometer carefully turning the container cover around the
plunger. Wait for five minutes.
Note down the temperature (T1) of sample of oil and quickly take out the plunger
while simultaneously pressing the stop watch knob. When the liquid level in the
measuring flask exactly reaches 200 cc mark stop the watch and read outlet time t.
Note down the temperature (T2) of the sample of oil in the container. Take the average
of these two temperatures (T1& T2) as the temperature of the oil. Repeat the
experiment for five different temperatures. Manufacturers of this viscometer have
calibrated it and have given the following empirical equation relating time T in
seconds to kinematic viscosity in stokes.

Kinematic Vis cosity in stokes,

44

0.00147 t

3.74
t

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr.
No.

Initial
Final
Average
Time for Viscosity
Temperature Temperature Temperature 200 cc
in
T1 (C)
T2 (C)
T (C)
t (sec) (Stokes)

Viscosity
in
(m2/s)

1
2
3
4
5
6

Room
Temp.

GRAPH: Plot the variation of kinematic viscosity with temperature of liquid.

45

Graph

46

F9 (b): FALLING BALL VISCOMETER

AIM: To determine the kinematic viscosity of a given sample of liquid using Falling
Body Viscometer.
APPARATUS: Falling body viscometer set, stop watch.
THEORY: Falling Ball Viscometer measures the viscosity of transparent Newtonian
liquids. This viscosity is correlated to the time a ball takes to fall a defined distance.
The heart of the instrument is the measuring tube made of glassand a ball. This tube
carries two ring marks A and B, which are spaced 100 mm apart and which limit the
measuring distance (ring mark C is equidistant between A and B). The measuring tube
is jacketed by means of an outer glass tube, which encloses a room (space) to be filled
with a temperature controlled liquid. The measuring tube is fastened to the stand in
such a way that its axis is inclined with respect to the vertical by 10 during the
measurement.
The measuring tube together with the jacket may be pivoted in order to turn the tube
upside down again to let the ball return to the initial position before a measurement.
The measuring tube is closed on both sides by two stoppers, one of which contains a
capillary and a small reservoir.
This stopper prevents undesirable changes of pressure in the liquid sample and has a
passage for air bubbles when the temperature is being changed. The stand may be
leveled by means of its water level and the leveling screws. The easily
interchangeable thermometer allows a precise temperature control.

Fig. 1 Falling ball viscometer set

47

Fig.2 Functional elements

PROCEDURE: By turning over the jacket tube, the ball is set to the measuring
position. The falling time of the ball moving from the ring mark A to ring mark B is
determined by using a stop watch. The time period starts when the lower periphery of
the ball touches the ring mark A, which must appear as a straight line.
The falling time ends when the lower periphery of the ball touches the ring mark B,
which again must appear as a straight line. If one uses the distance AC or CB to
reduce very long falling times for high viscous liquids the double of the measuring
time period must be taken into account. Turning the jacket tube 180 again the ball
returns to its start position. It is good practice to take the mean value out of several
falling time values (3 to 5).

48

SPECIFICATIONS:
Ball
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6

Made of
Boron silica glass
Boron silica glass
Nickel iron alloy
Nickel iron alloy
W.-No. 4034
W.-No. 4034

Density in
g/cm3
2.2
2.2
8.1
8.1
7.78.1
7.78.1

Diameter of
ball in mm
15.81 0.01
15.6 0.05
15.6 0.05
15.2 0.1
14.0 0.5
11.0 1

Constant K in
mPa.s.cm3/g.s
0.007
0.09
0.09
0.7
4.5
33

CALCULATIONS:
The dynamic viscosity,
(in mPa.s) is calculated using the following equation:
K 1
2 t
Where,
K = ball constant in mPa.s.cm3/g.s
1 = density of the ball in g/cm3
2 = density of the liquid to be measured at the measuring temperature in g/cm 3
t = falling time of the ball in seconds.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr.
No.

Ball number

Falling time in
seconds

1
2
3
4
5

49

Dynamic
viscosity in
mPa.s

Kinematic
viscosity in
mm2/s

F10: PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A PELTON

TURBINE
AIM:
To determine the performance characteristics of a Pelton turbine (output and
efficiency variation with speed) for different openings of the nozzle at a constant input
head.
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP:
Experimental set-up consists of Pelton turbine, inlet pressure gauge, centrifugal pump,
and tachometer, calibrated orificemeter connected to mercury manometer, brake drum
dynamometer with rope and mass loading arrangement.
THEORY:
Pelton turbine is a high head impulse turbine. It is used for high head and low flow
rate applications. Single jet Pelton turbines are built for specific speeds less than 50.
The input pressure head is converted into high velocity jet by means of a nozzle.
The jet impinges on the double cupped buckets mounted around the periphery of the
runner disc, making the runner to rotate. The flow through the runner is at
atmospheric pressure. Hence, the turbines are called constant pressure turbines.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
Keep the spear rod full open position of the nozzle and adjust the inlet pressure P (at
2.8 kgf/cm2 or 28.5 m of water column indicated by a Bourdon tube pressure gauge)
by operating the bypass line valve. Note down the reading of the mercury manometer
connected to a calibrated orificemeter from which determine volume flow rate
through the nozzle Q using the supplied calibration chart.
Keep on loading the Pelton turbine by adding masses from 2kg upto 30 kg (or until
the Pelton wheel stops) in steps of 2kg. At each loading, note down the rotational
speed (rpm) of the turbine using a tachometer. Repeat the procedure for half opening
of the nozzle, keeping each time supply head constant at 2.8 kgf/cm2.

OBSERVATION TABLE
Density of water = = 1000 kg/m3
Brake drum diameter = D =0 .45 m
Rope diameter = d = 0.020m
Mass of hanger = 2 kg
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m/s2
Calibration curve of the orifice plate
0.5842
Q(m 3 / s) = 0.0003(DP)
DP in mm of Hg

50

I 11

I10

I9

I8

I 7.

I 6.

I 5.

I 4.

I 3.

I 2.

I 1.

Sl
No.

24 kg

22 kg

20 kg

18 kg

16 kg

14 kg

12 kg

10 kg

8 kg

6 kg

4 kg

2 kg

Mass
added on
the drumM
(kg)

Nozzle
opening

I 12

Input
headH in
m of water
column
Speed
(rpm)

(mm of Hg)

Orificemeter
reading

Q(m3/s)

(N.m)

Discharge Torque

OBSERVATION TABLE 1 OPEN NOZZLE POSITION OF PELTON TURBINE

Spring balance
readingS(kg)

Net mass
acting on
the drumMS(kg)

51

(W)

Input
power

(W)

Output
power

Efficiency

II 9

II 8

II 7.

II 6.

II 5.

II 4.

II 3.

II 2.

II 1.

20 kg

18 kg

16 kg

14 kg

12 kg

10 kg

8 kg

6 kg

4 kg

2 kg

Sl No.

II10

22 kg

Nozzle
opening

Mass
added
on the
drum

II 11

24 kg

M (kg)

II 12

Spring
balance
reading
S(kg)

Speed

(rpm)

(mm of Hg)

Orificemeter
reading

(m3/s)

open Nozzle position of Pelton Turbine

Input head

H in(m of water
column)

Table 2
Net
mass
acting
on the
drumMS(kg)

52

Torque

(N.m)

(W)

Input
power

(W)

Output
power

Efficiency

SPECIMEN CALCULATION
Input power = g Q H

D d
2

Torque T = M

S g

Output power =

2 N T
60

Efficiency = =

output Power
Input power

GRAPHS TO BE PLOTTED:
Graph 1: x-axis is Speed, Y-axis is output power and efficiency for fully open nozzle position.
Graph 2: x-axis is Speed, Y-axis is output power and efficiency for half open nozzle position.

CONCLUSIONS/DISCUSSION ON THE RESULTS

1. Write down the observations
2. Try to explain the observations from the theory studied in turbo machines course

53

GRAPH

54

GRAPH

55

GRAPH

56

GRAPH

57

GRAPH

58