Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 2
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 1 / 62
Mathematical modeling
Q. What is a model?
A. The term model, as it is used and understood by control engineers,
primarily means a set of differential equations that describe the
dynamic behaviour of the system.
The first step in designing a controller is to develop a mathematical
description (also called the dynamic model) of the process to be
controlled.
Developing the model is the 80%-90% of the effort in designing a
controller.
Mathematical model is required to:
– Understand system behavior (analysis).
– Design a controller (synthesis).
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 2 / 62
System identification
When we generate models of system dynamics, we are performing
system identifications.
Q. How is a model obtained?
A. When we use known properties from physics and knowledge of the
system’s structure we are performing white–box system identification
(analytical system modeling).
A. If the system is very complex, or if the underlying physics is not well
understood, we need to use input/output data to generate a system
model, so we perform black–box system identification (empirical
system identification).
System identification is a topic for a whole course!
No model is exact!
Inaccuracies are due to:
– Unknown parameter values.
– Unmodeled dynamics (to obtain simpler models).
As far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not
certain, and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality.
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 3 / 62
Linear time–invariant systems
y (t − t0 ) = T [x (t − t0 )] ∀t0 .
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 4 / 62
A resistor model
v (t) = i (t) R
where v (t) is the voltage, i (t) is the current, and R is the resistance.
Is the resistor model LTI?
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 5 / 62
A resistor model
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 6 / 62
Important components of translational mechanical systems
The fundamental law governing mechanical systems is Newton’s
second law:
X
F = ma
Vector sum of forces = mass of object × inertial acceleration
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 7 / 62
Cruise control model
Write the equations of motion for the speed and forward motion of a
car assuming the engine imparts a forward force of u (t).
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 8 / 62
Cruise control model
b 1
v̇ (t) + v (t) = u (t) .
m m
Is this model accurate?
What are some of the unmodeled dynamics?
What parameters could be uncertain?
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 9 / 62
A two–mass system
A system consisting of one quarter of the car mass is referred to as
quarter–car model.
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 10 / 62
A two–mass system
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 11 / 62
A two–mass system
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 12 / 62
Important components of rotational mechanical systems
Newton’s second law is modified as
X
M = Iα
Vector sum of moments = moment of inertia × angular acceleration
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 13 / 62
Satellite attitute control model
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 14 / 62
Satellite attitute control model
Fc (t) d = I θ̈ (t)
d
⇒ θ̈ (t) = Fc (t) .
I
The output of the system θ (t) integrates torque twice which is called
as double integrator plant.
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 15 / 62
Summary of developing models for rigid bodies
Assign variables such as x (t) and θ (t) that are both necessary and
sufficient to describe any arbitrary position of the object.
Draw a free–body diagram of each component, and indicate all forces
acting on each body and the accelerations of the center of mass with
respect to an inertial reference.
Apply Newton’s laws:
P
⋆ F = ma
P
⋆ M = Iα
Combine the equations to eliminate internal forces.
The final form must be in terms of only the input to the system and
its derivatives, and the output of the system and its derivatives.
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 16 / 62
Dynamics of electrical circuits
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 17 / 62
Dynamics of electrical circuits
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 18 / 62
Important elements of electric circuits
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 19 / 62
Bridged tee circuit
Determine the differential equations for the bridged tee circuit where
v1 is the input and v3 is the output.
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 20 / 62
Bridged tee circuit
v3 + R2 C2 (v̇3 − v̇1 ) = v2 .
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 21 / 62
Bridged tee circuit
Substituting the above expression in the expression for the KCL at
node 2 and then rearranging results in
(v3 + R2 C2 (v̇3 − v̇1 )) − v1
0 =
R1
(v3 + R2 C2 (v̇3 − v̇1 )) − v3
+
R2
+C1 (v̇3 + R2 C2 (v̈3 − v̈1 )) .
After rearranging the above expression, we obtain
0 = [(v3 + R2 C2 (v̇3 − v̇1 )) − v1 ] + R1 C2 (v̇3 − v̇1 )
+R1 C1 (v̇3 + R2 C2 (v̈3 − v̈1 )) .
After rearranging the above expression, we obtain
R1 R2 C1 C2 v̈3 + (R2 C2 + R1 C2 + R1 C1 ) v̇3 + v3
= R1 R2 C1 C2 v̈1 + (R2 C2 + R1 C2 ) v̇1 + v1 .
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 22 / 62
Op–amp
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 23 / 62
Op–amp
The equations of the (ideal) op–amp circuit above are
vi (t)
i (t) =
R1
v0 (t) = −R2 i (t) − vc (t) .
dia (t)
ea (t) = Ra ia (t) + La + eb (t)
dt
dθ (t)
eb (t) = Ke
dt
τ (t) = Kτ ia (t)
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 26 / 62
DC motor
Rearranging results in
Kτ Ke Kτ
J θ̈ (t) + + b θ̇ (t) = ea (t) .
Ra Ra
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 27 / 62
DC generator
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 28 / 62
DC generator
dif (t)
ef (t) = Rf if (t) + Lf
dt
where ef (t) is the input and if (t) is the output.
The relation between the field circuit and the rotor circuit can be
expressed as
dθ (t)
eg (t) = K φ
dt
where K depends on the generator structure, and φ is the flux which
is proportional to if (t). Since dθ(t)
dt is the constant angular velocity,
we obtain
eg (t) = Kg if (t) .
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 29 / 62
DC generator
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 30 / 62
Linearity of a model
ẋ = Ax + Bu
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 31 / 62
Torsional pendulum
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 32 / 62
Torsional pendulum
Rearranging results in
b k 1
θ̈ (t) + θ̇ (t) + θ (t) = τ (t) .
J J J
Let
x1 (t) θ (t)
x (t) = = .
x2 (t) θ̇ (t)
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 33 / 62
Torsional pendulum
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 34 / 62
Pendulum
Consider the below pendulum model.
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 35 / 62
Pendulum
Moment of inertia = I = ml 2
X
M = I θ̈ (t)
⇒ I θ̈ (t) = τ (t) − mgl sin (θ (t))
g 1
⇒ θ̈ (t) + sin (θ (t)) = τ (t) .
l ml 2
The expression above is nonlinear due to the sin (θ (t)) term.
Why? Can you show it?
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 36 / 62
Pendulum
Let
x1 (t) θ (t)
x (t) = = .
x2 (t) θ̇ (t)
So the dynamic model becomes
We can linearize the sin (θ (t)) term for small θ (t) values
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 38 / 62
Small signal linearization
Approximation using Taylor series expansion of the differential
equation (ẋ = f (x, u)) around some operating condition (equilibrium
value where ẋ0 = 0 = f (x0 , u0 ) where x0 is the operating state and u0
is the nominal control value).
Let
x = x0 + δx
u = u0 + δu.
After Taylor series expansion, we obtain
ẋ = ẋ0 + δẋ ≈ f (x0 , u0 ) + Aδx + Bδu + H.O.T..
Subtracting out the equilibrium solution ẋ0 = f (x0 , u0 ) and after
neglecting the higher order terms result in
δẋ = Aδx + Bδu
which is linear.
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 39 / 62
Small signal linearization
θ3 θ5
sin (θ) = θ − + + H.O.T..
3! 5!
≈ θ.
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 40 / 62
Feedback linearization (computed torque)
Design
τ (t) = u (t) + mgl sin (θ (t))
where u (t) is the auxiliary input and the other term cancels the
nonlinear term.
Substitute the above control into the dynamic model to obtain
ml 2 θ̈ (t) = u (t) .
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 41 / 62
Analogous systems
Differential equations of many very different physical systems appear
identical. They behave in similar ways (dynamic response) and can be
controlled with similar controllers.
Mechanical Translational mẍ (t) + b ẋ (t) = u (t)
Mechanical Rotational J θ̈ (t) + b θ̇ (t) + kθ (t) = τ (t)
Satellite I θ̈ (t) = Fc (t) d
Op-Amp R1 C v̇0 (t) = −R2 C v̇i (t) − vi (t)
Kτ Ke Kτ
DC motor (for La = 0) J θ̈ (t) + Ra + b θ̇ (t) = Ra ea (t)
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 44 / 62
Block diagrams
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 45 / 62
Block diagrams
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 46 / 62
Block diagrams
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 48 / 62
Block diagrams
The auxiliary signals U1 (s), Y2 (s) and U2 (s) can be obtained as
U1 (s) = R (s) − Y2 (s)
Y2 (s) = H2 (s) U2 (s)
U2 (s) = H1 (s) U1 (s) .
From the second and third expressions, we can obtain
Y2 (s) = H2 (s) H1 (s) U1 (s)
and substituting this into the first expression results in
U1 (s) = R (s) − H2 (s) H1 (s) U1 (s)
R (s)
⇒ U1 (s) = .
1 + H2 (s) H1 (s)
Finally, we obtain
H1 (s)
Y (s) = H1 (s) U1 (s) = R (s) .
1 + H2 (s) H1 (s)
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 49 / 62
Block diagrams
Example
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 50 / 62
Block diagrams
Example
The relation between the field circuit and the rotor circuit can be
expressed as
dθ (t)
eg (t) = K φ
dt
where K depends on the generator structure, and φ is the flux which
is proportional to if (t).
Since dθ(t)
dt is the constant angular velocity, we obtain
eg (t) = Kg if (t) .
Laplace transform of the above expression is
Eg (s) = Kg If (s) .
The transfer function of the above expression is
Eg (s)
= Kg .
If (s)
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 52 / 62
Block diagrams
Example
Ea (s) = Zl Ia (s) .
Ea (s)
= Zl .
Ia (s)
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 53 / 62
Block diagrams
Example
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 54 / 62
Block diagrams
Example
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 55 / 62
Block diagrams
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 56 / 62
Block diagrams
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 57 / 62
Block diagrams
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 58 / 62
Block diagrams
Example
Simplify
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 59 / 62
Block diagrams
Example
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 60 / 62
Block diagrams
Example
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 61 / 62
Block diagrams
Example
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 2 62 / 62