EE362 Ch8

Frequency Response Analysis
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Izmir Institute of Technology
Chapter 8
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE)
EE362 Feedback Control Systems
Chapter 8
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Frequency response analysis

Advantages and disadvantages of root locus design approach
Advantages of root locus design approach:

Good indicator of transient response.
Explicitly shows location of closedloop poles.
Tradeoffs are clear.
Disadvantages of root locus design approach:
Requires the transfer function of the plant to be known.
Difficult to infer all performance values.
Hard to extract steady state response (for sinusoidal inputs).
Frequency response methods can be used to supplement root locus:
Can infer performance and stability from same plot.
Can use measured data when no model is available.
Design process is independent of system order (# poles).
Time delays are handled correctly (exp (s )).
Graphical techniques (analysis/synthesis) are quite simple.
Chapter 8
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Frequency response
We want to know how a linear system responds to a sinusoidal input
in steady state.
Consider the system
Y (s)
= G (s) .
U (s)
Consider the input
u (t) = u0 sin (t) U (s) =
u0
.
+ 2
s2
For zero initial conditions, we obtain

Y (s) = G (s)
u0
.
+ 2
s2
Chapter 8
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Frequency response
After doing a partial fraction expansion (assume distinct roots)
1
n
0
0
+ +
+
+
s a1
s an
s + j s j
y (t) = 1 exp (a1 t) + + n exp (an t) +2 |0 | sin (t + )
{z
}
|
Y (s) =
if stable, these decay to zero
from which, we have
yss
= 2 |0 | sin (t + )
= Au0 sin (t + )
where A is the amplitude gain and is the phase shift.

Important LTI system fact:
If the input to a stable LTI system is a sinusoid, then the steady state
output is a sinusoid of the same frequency but with different
amplitude and phase.
Chapter 8
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Frequency response
Notice that, 0 is found using partial fraction expansion method, and
A and may be found from 0 as
A = |G (s)| |s=j
and
= |G (j)|
q
=
[R (G (j))]2 + [I (G (j))]2
= G (s) |s=j
= G (j)

I (G (j))
.
= tan1
R (G (j))
Transfer function along jaxis tells us response to a sinusoid.

But, it also tells us about the stability since jaxis is the stability
boundary!
Chapter 8
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Plotting frequency response

There are two common ways to plot a frequency response (i.e.,
plotting the magnitude and phase for all frequencies).
Consider the following simple circuit.
The transfer function is found as

G (s) =
1
.
1 + RCs
After letting RC = 1 and setting s = j, we obtain

G (j) =
1
.
1 + j
Chapter 8
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Plot method #1: Polar plot in splane
Evaluate G (j) at each frequency for 0 +.
Result will be a complex number in the form a + jb or A exp (j) for

each frequency.
Plot each point a + jb or A exp (j) on the complex plane obtained
for each frequency.
Result is a polar plot called a Nyquist plot.
Chapter 8
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For the RC circuit example, we obtain:
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
5.0
10.0
+
G (j)
1.0000.0
0.894 26.6
0.707 45.0
0.555 56.3
0.447 63.4
0.316 71.6
0.196 78.7
0.100 84.3
0.000 90.0
Chapter 8
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The polar plot is parametric in , so it is hard to read the frequency

response for a specific frequency from the plot.
Figure: Polar plot in splane
We will later see that the polar plot will help us determine stability
properties of the plant and the closedloop system.
Chapter 8
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Plot method #2: Magnitude and phase plots
We separate magnitude and phase information from rational

polynomials that are functions of j
magnitude of numerator
Magnitude =
magnitude of denominator
q
[R (num)]2 + [I (num)]2
= q
[R (den)]2 + [I (den)]2
and
Phase = phase of numerator phase of denominator

I (num)
I (den)
1
1
= tan
tan
.
R (num)
R (den)
For the RC circuit example, we obtain

1
tan1 () .
G (j) =
2
1+
Chapter 8
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We can plot the data by separating magnitude and phase plots.
Figure: Magnitude versus frequency plot for the RC circuit example
Chapter 8
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Figure: Phase versus frequency plot for the RC circuit example
These plots are in natural scale, but usually a loglog plot is preferred.
These are called Bode plots or Bode diagrams.
Chapter 8
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Bode plots
Simplest way to display the frequency response of a rational

polynomial transfer function is to use Bode plots.
Bode magnitude plot is the plot of logarithmic |G (j)| versus
logarithmic .
Bode phase plot is the plot of G (j) versus logarithmic .
Since
log10
ab
cd
= log10 (a) + log10 (b) log10 (c) log10 (d)
the factors of the transfer function can be split up and their

contributions can be evaluated separately.
Chapter 8
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Bode plots
Example
For
G (s) =
s +1
j + 1
G (s) |s=j = G (j) =
s/10 + 1
j/10 + 1
we obtain
|G (j)| =
and thus
|j + 1|
|j/10 + 1|
p
log10 |G (j)| = log10 1 + 2 log10
1+
2
10
Chapter 8
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Bode plots
Consider the following expression
s
log10
For n ,
log10
1+
1+
2
2
log10 1 = 0.
For n ,
log10
1+
2
log10
So, we obtain two straight lines on log scale intersecting at = n .

Chapter 8
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Bode plots
Typically, we plot 20 log10 |G (j)|; which is in dB.

A transfer function is made up of:
first order zeros and poles,
complex zeros and poles,
constant gains,
delays.
We will see how to make straight line approximations for magnitude
and phase plots, and combine them to form Bode plots.
Figure:
Chapter 8
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Bode magnitude plots

Constant gain
We have 20 log10 |K |dB which is not a function of frequency.

So, it is a horizontal straight line.
If |K | < 1, then 20 log10 |K | is negative.
If |K | > 1, then 20 log10 |K | is positive.
Figure: Bode magnitude plot for constant gain

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Zero at origin
For a zero at the origin, G (s) = s.

So, we obtain
20 log10 |G (j)| = 20 log10 |j| = 20 log10 dB.
Figure: Bode magnitude plot for a zero at origin

Chapter 8
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Pole at origin
For a pole at the origin, G (s) = 1/s.

So, we obtain
20 log10 |G (j)| = 20 log10 |j| = 20 log10 dB.
Figure: Bode magnitude plot for a pole at origin

Chapter 8
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Zero or pole at origin
For a zero or pole at the origin,

Both are straight lines with a slope of 20dB per decade of frequency.
Line intersects axis at = 1 (since log10 1 = 0).
For an nth order pole or zero at the origin, we obtain

20 log10 |(j)n | = 20 log10 n = 20n log10
which are still straight lines,
which still intersect axis at = 1,
which have a slope of 20n per decade.
Chapter 8
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Zero on real axis, but not at origin
For a zero on the real axis (LHP or RHP), the standard Bode form is
G (s) =
s
1
n
which ensures unity DC gain.

If we are given something like
G (s) = s n
then we factor the DC gain n as
G (s) = n

s
1
n
and draw the constant gain n separately from the term (s/n 1).
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An LHP or RHP zero has the following standard Bode form

s
1 G (j) = j
1.
G (s) =
n
n
So, we obtain
20 log10 |G (j)| = 20 log10

For n ,
20 log10
20 log10
For n ,
1+
1+
1+
2
20 log10
2
20 log10
2
1 = 0.
.
Chapter 8
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Figure: Bode magnitude plot for a zero on real axis, but not at origin
Chapter 8
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Pole on real axis, but not at origin
For a pole on the real axis (LHP or RHP), standard Bode form is
G (s) =

1
1
s
G (j) = j
1
.
1
n
n
So, we obtain
s
1+
2
1+
2
20 log10 |G (j)| = 20 log10

= 20 log10
which is same as zero on real axis, but not at origin except for a
minus sign.
Chapter 8
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Pole on real axis, but not at origin
Figure: Bode magnitude plot for a pole on real axis, but not at origin
Chapter 8
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Complex zero pair
For a complex zero pair (LHP or RHP), standard Bode form is

2

s
s
G (s) =
2
+1
n
n
which ensures unity DC gain.
If we are given something like
G (s) = s 2 2n s + n2
then we factor the DC gain n2 as

"
#

s 2
s
2
G (s) = n
+1
2
n
n
and
the constant gain n2 separately from the term
draw

2
s
s
2
n
n + 1 .
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Complex zero pair
Complex zero pair does not lend themselves very well to straight line
approximation.
We write complex zero pair (LHP or RHP) as
"
#

s 2
s
G (s) =
2
+1 .
n
n
At = n , magnitude value = 20 log10 (2) dB.
For n , magnitude value 0 dB.
Chapter 8
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Complex zero pair
Figure: Bode magnitude plots for complex zero pairs
Chapter 8
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Complex pole pair
We write complex pole pair (LHP or RHP) as

G (s) =
"
s
n
2
s
n
#1
+1
At = n , magnitude value = 20 log10 (2) dB.

Chapter 8
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Complex pole pair
Figure: Bode magnitude plots for complex pole pairs
Chapter 8
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Time delay
The transfer function for time delay is given by

G (s) = exp (s ) |G (j)| = |exp (j )| = 1.
So, we obtain
20 log10 |G (j)| = 20 log10 1 = 0 dB
which obviously does not change the magnitude response.
Chapter 8
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Example
Draw the Bode magnitude response for

G (s) =
2000 (s + 0.5)
.
s (s + 10) (s + 50)
First, rewrite in standard Bode form

G (s) =
=
2000 0.5
10 50 s
2
s
10
G (j) = 2
j
+1

1
.
s
50 + 1
s
0.5 +
+1
Next, make the change s = j
s
10
s
0.5 +
s
50

+1

+1

.
+ 1 j
+
1
50
j
10

1
j
0.5
Chapter 8
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Example
The components of the Bode magnitude plot may be obtained

separately.
For the DC gain of 2:
20 log10 2 = 6 dB.
For the real zero not at origin (n = 0.5):
For 0.5, a straight line with a slope of 0 dB.
For 0.5, a straight line with a slope of 20 dB.
So, we obtain two straight lines on log scale intersecting at = 0.5.

For the pole at origin:
A straight line with a slope of 20 dB per decade of frequency and
intersecting the axis at = 1.
Chapter 8
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Example
Two real poles not at origin (n = 10 and n = 50):

For n = 10:
For 10, a straight line with a slope of 0 dB.
So, we obtain two straight lines on log scale intersecting at = 10.

For n = 50:
So, we obtain two straight lines on log scale intersecting at = 50.
Chapter 8
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Example
Figure: Bode magnitude plot for G (s) =

2000(s+0.5)
s(s+10)(s+50)
Chapter 8
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Steady state errors
Recall our discussion of steady state errors to step/ramp/parabolic

inputs versus system type.
Consider a unity feedback system.
If the openloop plant transfer function has N poles at s = 0, then
the system is type N.
Also recall that,
Kp is the error constant for type 0 systems,
Kv is the error constant for type 1 systems,
Ka is the error constant for type 2 systems.
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Steady state errors
For a unity feedback system, Kp = lims0 G (s) is nonzero for a type

0 system.
At low frequencies, a type 0 system will have G (s) = Kp .
We can read this off from the Bode magnitude plot directly.
Kp is equal to the horizontal y intercept at low frequencies.
So, we will have ess = 1/ (1 + Kp ) for a step input.
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Example
Consider the below Bode magnitude diagram:
Horizontal as 0, so we know this system is type 0.
Intercept the y axis at 6 dB, so Kp = 6 dB or Kp = 2 in linear units.

Chapter 8
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Steady state errors
For a unity feedback system, Kv = lims0 sG (s) is nonzero for a

type 1 system.
At low frequencies, a type 1 system will have G (s) Kv /s.
At low frequencies, |G (j)| Kv / results in a slope of 20

dB/decade.
Use the above approximation to extend the low frequency asymptote
to = 1.
The asymptote (not the original |G (j)|) evaluated at = 1 is Kv .
So, we will have ess = 1/Kv for a ramp input.
Chapter 8
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Example
Consider the below Bode magnitude diagram:
Slope is 20 dB/decade as 0, so we know the system is type 1.
Extend the slope at low frequency to = 1, and read the magnitude

as 20 dB, so Kv = 20 dB or Kv = 10 in linear units.
Chapter 8
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Steady state errors
For a unity feedback system, Ka = lims0 s 2 G (s) is nonzero for a

type 2 system.
At low frequencies, a type 2 system will have G (s) Ka /s 2 .
At low frequencies, |G (j)| Ka / 2 results in a slope of 40

dB/decade.
Use the above approximation to extend the low frequency asymptote
to = 1.
The asymptote (not the original |G (j)|) evaluated at = 1 is Ka .
So, we will have ess = 1/Ka for a parabolic input.
Similar for higher order systems.
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Bode phase plots
Bode plots we have seen so far consist of only the magnitude plots.
There are also phase plots.
They differ depending on whether the dynamics (the poles and the
zeros) are at the RHP or the LHP.
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Bode phase plots

Finding the phase of a complex number
Plot the location of the number as a vector in the complex plane.

Use trigonometry to find the phase.
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Bode phase plots

Finding the phase of a complex number
Finding the phase of a complex function of is the same as finding

the phase of a complex number.
For complex numbers with positive real part,

I (Complex number)
1
(Complex number) = tan
.
R (Complex number)
For complex numbers with negative real part,

I (Complex number)
1
.
(Complex number) = 180 + tan
R (Complex number)
Note that
ab
cd
= (a) + (b) (c) (d) .

Chapter 8
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Bode phase plots

Constant gain
For G (s) = K ,
(K ) =
0
for K 0
180 for K < 0
which has a constant phase of 0 or 180 .
Chapter 8
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Bode phase plots

Zero or pole at origin
For a zero at origin, we have G (s) = s, so

G (j) = j = 90 .
For a pole at origin, we have G (s) = 1/s, so
G (j) =
j
1
1
= = 90 .
j
So both of them have constant phase of 90 .
Chapter 8
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Bode phase plots

Real LHP zero

For a real LHP zero, we have G (s) = si + 1 .
So,

j
1
+ 1 = tan
G (j) =
.
i
i
Figure: Bode phase plot of a real LHP zero

Chapter 8
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Bode phase plots

Real LHP pole
For a real LHP pole, we have G (s) =

So,
G (j) = (1)
s
i
1
.
+1

j
1
+ 1 = tan
.
i
i
Figure: Bode phase plot of a real LHP pole

Chapter 8
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Bode phase plots

Real RHP zero

For a real RHP zero, we have G (s) = si 1 .
So,

j
1
G (j) =
1 = 180 +tan
= 180 tan
.
i
i
i
Figure: Bode phase plot of a real RHP zero

Chapter 8
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Bode phase plots

Real RHP pole
For a real RHP pole, we have G (s) =

So,
G (j) = (1)
s
i
1
.
1

j
1
1 = 180 + tan
.
i
i
Figure: Bode phase plot of a real RHP pole

Chapter 8
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Bode phase plots

Complex LHP zero pair
Complex LHP zero pair causes phase to go from 0 to 180 .
Figure: Bode phase plots for complex LHP zero pairs

Chapter 8
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Bode phase plots

Complex LHP pole pair
Complex LHP pole pair causes phase to go from 0 to 180 .
Figure: Bode phase plots for complex LHP pole pairs

Chapter 8
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Bode phase plots

Complex RHP zero pair
Complex RHP zero pair causes phase to go from 360 to 180 .
Figure: Bode phase plots for complex RHP zero pairs

Chapter 8
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Bode phase plots

Complex RHP pole pair
Complex RHP pole pair causes phase to go from 360 to 180 .
Figure: Bode phase plots for complex RHP pole pairs

Chapter 8
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Bode phase plots

Time delay
The transfer function for time delay is given by

so
G (s) = exp (s ) G (j) = exp (j ) = 1

G (j) = in radians = 56.3 in degrees.
Figure: Bode phase plot for time delay
Notice that, a line becomes a curve in log scale.

Chapter 8
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Bode phase plots

Example
Draw the Bode phase response for

G (s) =
2000 (s + 0.5)
.
s (s + 10) (s + 50)
First, rewrite in standard Bode form

G (s) =
=
2000 0.5
10 50 s
2
s
10
G (j) = 2
j
+1

1
.
s
50 + 1
s
0.5 +
+1
Next, make the change s = j
s
10
s
0.5 +
s
50

+1

+1

.
+ 1 j
+
1
50
j
10

1
j
0.5
Chapter 8
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Bode phase plots

Example
The components of the phase plot can be obtained separately.

For the DC gain of 2:
Zero phase contribution.
One real LHP zero (i = 0.5):
Phase changes from 0 at 0.1i = 0.05 to 90 at 10i = 5.
Pole at origin:
Constant phase contribution of 90 .
Two real LHP poles (i = 10 and i = 50):

For i = 10:
Phase changes from 0 at 0.1i = 1 to 90 at 10i = 100.

For i = 50:
Phase changes from 0 at 0.1i = 5 to 90 at 10i = 500.

Chapter 8
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Bode phase plots

Example
Figure: Bode phase plot for G (s) =

2000(s+0.5)
s(s+10)(s+50)
Chapter 8
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Nonminimum phase systems

A system is called nonminimum phase if it has pole(s) or zero(s) in
the RHP.
Consider
s+1
G1 (s) = 10 s+10
s1
G2 (s) = 10 s+10
o
o
zero at
pole at
zero at
pole at

1
10
+1
10
minimum
phase
nonminimum
phase
The magnitude responses of these two systems are found as
|j+1|
+1
|G1 (j)| = 10 |j+10|
= 10 2 +100
|j1|
=
|G2 (j)| = 10 |j+10|
2 +1
10 2 +100
which are the same.

Chapter 8
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s+1
s1
Figure: Bode magnitude plot for G1 (s) = 10 s+10
and G2 (s) = 10 s+10
Chapter 8
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However, the phase responses are very different:
s+1
s1
Figure: Bode phase plots for G1 (s) = 10 s+10
and G2 (s) = 10 s+10
Note that, the change in phase of G1 is much smaller than the change
of phase in G2 .
Hence G1 is minimum phase and G2 is nonminimum phase.
Chapter 8
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Nonminimum phase is usually associated with delay.

After writing G2 (s) in terms of G1 (s), we obtain the following
expression
s 1
G2 (s) = G1 (s)
+ 1}
|s {z
Delay
s1
where we notice that s+1
is very similar to a first order Pade
approximation of a delay.
Chapter 8
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Bode plots
Stability revisited
If we know the closedloop transfer function of a system in rational

polynomial form, we can use Routh test to find stable ranges for K.
What if we only have openloop frequency response?
Consider the following system (for now, we assume that we know the
transfer function of the system, so that we can plot the root locus)
where
D (s) = K , G (s) =
1
s (s + 1)2
Chapter 8
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Bode plots
Stability revisited
Root Locus
3
Imaginary Axis
3
5
Real Axis
Figure: Root locus plot for G (s) =

1
s(s+1)2
with D (s) = K
Chapter 8
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Bode plots
Stability revisited
We can find that there is neutral stability at K = 2 (i.e., the system is

stable for K < 2 and unstable for K > 2).
Recall that a point is on the root locus if |KG (s)| = 1 and
G (s) = 180 .
If system is neutrally stable, jaxis will have a point (or points)

where |KG (j)| = 1 and G (j) = 180 .
Chapter 8
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Bode plots
Stability revisited
Consider the Bode magnitude plots of KG (s) for K = 0.1, K = 2 and

K = 10.
Chapter 8
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Bode plots
Stability revisited
Consider the Bode phase plot of KG (s).
Chapter 8
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Bode plots
Stability revisited
A neutral stability condition from Bode plots is obtained when

|KG (j0 )| = 1 and G (j0 ) = 180 at the same frequency 0 .
In this case, increasing K results in instability (which also means that

stability is obtained when |KG (j)| < 1 at G (j0 ) = 180 ).
In some cases, decreasing K results in instability (which also means
that stability is obtained when |KG (j)| > 1 at G (j0 ) = 180 ).
We can find neutral stability point on Bode plot, but we dont (yet)
have a way of determining if the system is stable or not.
Nyquist found a frequency domain method to do so.
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Nyquist stability
If the poles of a closedloop transfer function are in RHP, then the
system is unstable.
Nyquist found a way to count the closedloop poles in RHP.
If the count is greater than zero, then the system is unstable.
Idea:
First, find a way to count closedloop poles inside a contour.
Second, make the contour equal to the RHP.
Nyquists technique is a graphical method to determine:
system stability,
regions of stability,
margins of stability.
It involves graphing complex functions of s as a polar plot.
Counting is related to complex functional mapping.
Chapter 8
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Nyquist stability
Complex functional mapping
Plotting a real function f (x) of a real variable x.
This can be done.

Plotting a complex function F (s) of a complex variable s.
No, this is wrong!

Chapter 8
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Nyquist stability
We must draw mapping of points or lines from splane to F (s)plane.
Chapter 8
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Nyquist stability
Map points A, B, C, D by F (s) = 2s + 1.
Chapter 8
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Nyquist stability
Map a square contour (closed path) by F (s) = s/ (s + 2).
Idea:
By drawing maps of a specific contour, using a mapping function
related to the plant openloop frequency response, we will be able to
determine closedloop stability of systems.
Chapter 8
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Nyquist stability
Mapping function: Poles of the function
When we map a contour containing (encircling) poles and zeros of

the mapping function, this map will give us information about how
many poles and zeros are encircled by the contour.
We practice drawing maps when we know poles and zeros.
Notice that, when we evaluate G (s) at s0
G (s) |s=s0
= G (s0 )
where
=
= |G (s0 )| exp (j)
zeros
poles.
Chapter 8
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Nyquist stability
Consider the below plots
where there are no zeros or poles inside the contour c1 .

The phase increases and decreases, but never undergoes a net
change of 360 (i.e., F (c1 ) does not encircle the origin).
Chapter 8
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Nyquist stability
where there is one pole inside the contour c2 .

Resulting map undergoes 360 net phase change (i.e., F (c2 ) encircles
the origin).
Chapter 8
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Nyquist stability
where there are two poles inside the contour c3 .

The map F (c3 ) encircles the origin twice.
These examples give heuristic evidence of the general rule known as
Cauchys theorem.
Chapter 8
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Nyquist stability
Cauchys Theorem
Theorem
Let F (s) be the ratio of two polynomials in s.
Let the closed curve C in the splane be mapped into the complex plane
through the mapping F (s).
If the curve C does not pass through any zeros or poles of F (s) as it is
traversed in the CW direction, the corresponding map in the F (s)plane
encircles the origin N = Z P times in the CW direction, where
Z
= # of zeros of F (s) in C ,
P = # of poles of F (s) in C .
Chapter 8
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Nyquist stability
Cauchys Theorem
Consider the system
where the transfer function is

T (s) =
D (s) G (s)
.
1 + D (s) G (s) H (s)
For closedloop stability, we want no poles of T (s) to be in RHP.

This is equivalent to saying, we want no zeros of 1 + D (s) G (s) H (s)
to be in RHP.
Chapter 8
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Nyquist stability
Cauchys Theorem
Let F (s) = 1 + D (s) G (s) H (s), and count the number of zeros of
F (s) in RHP using Cauchys theorem where the contour is the entire
RHP.
Chapter 8
80 / 129
Nyquist stability
Cauchys Theorem
Note that, for F (s) = 1 + D (s) G (s) H (s), from Cauchys Theorem,
N = # of encirclements of origin.
Chapter 8
81 / 129
Nyquist stability
Nyquist criterion
After a simple modification, Nyquist proposed

F (s) = D (s) G (s) H (s) and N = # of encirclements of 1.
The Nyquist criterion simplifies Cauchys criterion for feedback

D(s)G (s)
systems of T (s) = 1+D(s)G
(s)H(s) form.
Chapter 8
82 / 129
Nyquist stability test

We think of Nyquist path as four parts
I. The origin (which is sometimes a special case as we will see later),

II. +jaxis which is the frequency response of the openloop system
(we will plot it in polar form),
III. For physical systems = 0,
IV. jaxis (i.e., complex conjugate of the region in part II).
Chapter 8
83 / 129

So, for most physical systems, the Nyquist plot, used to determine
closedloop stability, is basicly a polar plot of loop frequency response
D (j) G (j) H (j).
We dont even need a mathematical model of the system. Measured
data of G (j) combined with known D (j) and H (j) are enough
to determine the closedloop stability.
N = # of encirclements of 1 for F (s) = D (s) G (s) H (s).
P = # of poles of 1 + F (s) in RHP = # of openloop unstable poles

(assuming that H (s) is stable which is a reasonable assumption).
Z = # of zeros of 1 + F (s) in RHP = # of closedloop unstable
poles
Z = N + P.
The system is stable iff Z = 0.
Chapter 8
84 / 129

You need to be careful when counting encirclements.
A safe way is to draw a line from 1 in any direction, and to count #
of crossings of line and diagram, and
N = # of clockwise crossings # of counterclockwise crossings.
Chapter 8
85 / 129
Enhanced Nyquist stability test
Note that, changing the gain K of F (s) magnifies the entire plot.
This magnification property allows an enhanced test to obtain ranges
of K for stability.
For the loop transfer function KD (s) G (s) H (s), N = # of
encirclements of 1/K point when F (s) = D (s) G (s) H (s) where
the rest of test is the same.
Chapter 8
86 / 129
Nyquist stability
Example
Consider the system with

G (s) =
5
(s + 1)2
, D (s) = H (s) = 1.
We have:
I. For s = 0, G (s) = 5.
II. For s = j, G (j) = 5/ (j + 1)2 .
III. For |s| = , G (s) = 0.
IV. For s = j, G (j) = 5/ (j + 1)2 = G (j).
Chapter 8
87 / 129
Nyquist stability
Example
R (G (j)) I (G (j))
0.0000
5.0000
0.0000
0.0019
4.9999
0.0186
0.0040
4.9998
0.0404
0.0088
4.9988
0.0879
0.0191
4.9945
0.1908
0.0415
4.9742
0.4135
0.0902
4.8797
0.8872
0.1959
4.4590
1.8172
0.4258
2.9333
3.0513
R (G (j)) I (G (j))
0.9253
0.2086
2.6856
2.0108
0.5983
0.7906
4.3697
0.2241
0.1082
9.4957
0.0536
0.0114
20.6351
0.0117
0.0011
44.8420
0.0025
0.0001
97.4460
0.0005
0.0000
500.0000 0.0000
0.0000
Chapter 8
88 / 129
Nyquist stability
Example
The Nyquist plot is obtained as:
No encirclements of 1: N = 0.
No openloop unstable poles: P = 0.
So, Z = N + P = 0, thus, closedloop system is stable.
No encirclements of 1/K for any K > 0.
So, the system is stable for any K > 0.
Chapter 8
89 / 129
Nyquist stability
Example
Lets confirm by checking Routh array.

Check the stability of a (s) = 1 + KG (s) = s 2 + 2s + 1 + 5K .
The routh array is obtained as
1
s2
1
s
2
s 0 1 + 5K
1 + 5K
so the system is stable for any K > 0.
Chapter 8
90 / 129
Nyquist stability
Example

G (s) =
50
2
(s + 1) (s + 10)
, D (s) = H (s) = 1.
We have:
I. For s = 0, G (s) = 50/10 = 5.
II. For s = j, G (j) =
50
.
(j+1)2 (j+10)
III. For |s| = , G (s) = 0.
IV. For s = j, G (j) =
50
(j+1)2 (j+10)
= G (j).
Chapter 8
91 / 129
Nyquist stability
Example
R (G (j)) I (G (j))
0.0
5.0000
0.0000
0.1
4.9053
0.8008
0.2
4.4492
1.8624
0.5
2.4428
3.2725
1.2
0.5621
2.0241
2.9
0.4764
0.1933
7.1
0.0737
0.0262
17.7 0.0046
0.0064
43.7 0.0002
0.0006
100
0.0000
0.0000
Chapter 8
92 / 129
Nyquist stability
Example
Chapter 8
93 / 129
Nyquist stability
Example
Note the loop to the left of the origin
so the system is not stable for all K > 0.

Chapter 8
94 / 129
Nyquist stability
Pole at the origin

G (s) =
1
, D (s) = H (s) = 1.
s ( s + 1)
Note that there is a pole at the origin.

Warning: We cannot blindly follow procedure.
Nyquist path goes through a pole at the origin.
Remember from Cauchys theorem that the path cannot pass directly
through a pole or a zero.
Remember that we want to count the closedloop poles inside a
contour that encompasses the RHP.
Chapter 8
95 / 129
Nyquist stability
Pole at the origin
So, we use a slightly modified Nyquist path
where the bump at the origin makes a detour around the offending
pole.
Chapter 8
96 / 129
Nyquist stability
Pole at the origin
Bump is defined by the curve

s = lim exp (j)
0
where 0 90 .
From above,
G (s) |s= exp(j) =
1
exp (j) ( exp (j) + 1)
where 0 90 .
Chapter 8
97 / 129
Nyquist stability
Pole at the origin
Magnitude when 0 is

lim G (s) |s= exp(j) =
1
1
.
| exp (j) + 1|
Phase when 0 is
lim G (s) |s= exp(j) = ( exp (j) + 1) .
So,
lim G ( exp (j)) lim

1
+
This is an arc of infinite radius, sweeping from 0 to 90+ (a little

more than 90 because of contribution from 1/ ( s + 1) term).
We cannot draw this to scale!
Chapter 8
98 / 129
Nyquist stability
Pole at the origin
N = # of encirclements of 1: N = 0.
P = # of loop transfer function poles inside the modified contour:

P = 0.
So, Z = N + P = 0, thus, the closedloop system is stable.
Chapter 8
99 / 129
Nyquist stability
Example

G (s) =
1
, D (s) = H (s) = 1.
s 2 (s + 1)
We will use the modified Nyquist path again.

Near the origin, we will have a bump defined by curve
s = lim exp (j)
0
where 0 90 .
From above,
G (s) |s= exp(j) =
1
2 exp (j2) ( exp (j)
+ 1)
where 0 90 .
Chapter 8
100 / 129
Nyquist stability
Example
Magnitude when 0 is
lim |G ( exp (j))| =
1
1
2.
2 | exp (j) + 1|
Phase when 0 is
lim G (s) |s= exp(j) = 2 ( exp (j) + 1) 2+ .
So,
lim G ( exp (j)) lim
where
90 .
1
2+
2
Chapter 8
101 / 129
Nyquist stability
Example
This is an arc of infinite radius, sweeping from 0 to 180+ (a little

more than 180 because of contribution from 1/ (s + 1) term).
N = # of encirclements of 1: N = 2.
P = # of loop transfer function poles inside the modified contour:
P = 0.
So, Z = N + P = 2, thus, closedloop system is unstable for K = 1.
In fact, the system is unstable for any K > 0.
Chapter 8
102 / 129
Stability margins
A large fraction of systems to be controlled are stable for small gain
but become unstable if gain is increased beyond a certain point.
The distance between the current (stable) system and an unstable
system is called a stability margin.
We can have a gain margin and a phase margin.
Gain Margin: Factor by which the gain is less than the neutral
stability value.
Gain margin measures How much can we increase the gain of the
loop transfer function D (s) G (s) H (s) and still have a stable
system?
Phase Margin: Phase factor by which phase is greater than neutral
stability value.
Phase margin measures How much delay can we add to the loop
transfer function and still have a stable system?
Chapter 8
103 / 129
Stability margins
Many Nyquist plots are like this one:
Increasing loop gain magnifies the plot.

GM = 1/(distance between origin and place where Nyquist map
crosses real axis).
If we increase gain, Nyquist map stretches and we may encircle 1.
For a stable system, GM > 1 (linear units) or GM > 0 dB.
Chapter 8
104 / 129
Stability margins
Many Nyquist plots are like this one:
PM = Angle to rotate Nyquist plot to achieve neutral stability =

intersection of Nyquist with circle of radius 1.
If we increase openloop delay, Nyquist map rotates and we may
encircle 1.
For a stable system, PM > 0 .
Chapter 8
105 / 129
Stability margins
This is usually easier to check on Bode plot, even though derived on
Nyquist plot.
Define gain crossover as frequency where Bode magnitude is 0 dB.
Define phase crossover as frequency where Bode phase is 180 .
PM = Bode phase at gain crossover (180 ).
GM = 1/(Bode gain at phase crossover frequency) if Bode gain is

measured in linear units = (Bode gain at phase crossover frequency)
[dB] if Bode gain measured in dB.
Chapter 8
106 / 129
Stability margins
We can also determine stability as K changes.

Instead of defining gain crossover where |G (j)| = 1, use the
frequency |KG (j)| = 1.
You need to be careful using this test.
It works only if the system is minimum phase.

Nyquist plot is the safest way for this test.
Chapter 8
107 / 129
Bode compensator design
The frequency response methods we have seen so far largely tell us

about stability and stability margins of a closedloop system based on
openloop response.
Now, we look at frequency response based design methods which
primarily aim at improving stability margins.
Also, given the relationship between PM and performance, we have
some idea of transient response as well.
Start thinking of Bode magnitude and Bode phase plots as lego to
make the frequency response we want.
Chapter 8
108 / 129

P control
Consider the system
where
D (s) = K .
Similar to the root locus method, we use the characteristic equation
in the form
cl (s) = 1 + KG (s)
to examine the stability and the performance of Bode plot parameters.
Chapter 8
109 / 129

P control
Consider the Bode plots
Gain crossover frequency is denoted by p and is equal to the

frequency where |KG (j)| = 0 dB.
Phase crossover frequency is denoted by and is equal to the
frequency where KG (j) = 180 .
Recall that PM = 180 + G (jp ).
If PM < 0 , the closedloop system is unstable.
Recall that GM = 1/ |KG (j )| (linear units).
If GM < 1 (linear units), the closedloop system is unstable.
Chapter 8
110 / 129

P control
A bonus of computing PM from the openloop frequency response

graph is that it can help us predict the closedloop performance of
the system.
The Bode design parameters are related to the root locus design
parameters according to
qp
p = n
1 + 4 4 2 2
PM = tan1 qp
1 + 4 4 2 2
where n is the natural frequency and is the damping ratio.

The phase margin is also approximately related to the damping ratio
as follows
PM/100 for PM 60 .
Chapter 8
111 / 129

P control
Remember that is a measure of relative stability:
Hence, PM is also a measure of relative stability.

Chapter 8
112 / 129

Example
Consider the system
where
G (s) =
s
2
1
, D (s) = K .
+1
Find K so that PM = 45 for the closedloop system.
Chapter 8
113 / 129

Example
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Outline of the solution:

Find the closedloop denominator in the form cl (s) = 1 + KG (s).
Plot |KG (j)| and G (j) by assuming K = 1.
From the given (desired) PM, calculate the desired G (jp ) (i.e.,
desired G (jp ) =PM180 ).
From the desired G (jp ) and the G (j) plot, find the desired p .
Raise or lower the magnitude plot so that it crosses the 0 dB level at
the desired value of p .
Find the distance between the desired magnitude plot and the original
magnitude plot at the desired value of p (i.e., desired + original =
shift in dB).
Calculate K by using the following formula derived from the
magnitude condition
K = 10(shift/20) .
Chapter 8
114 / 129

Example
1. The closedloop denominator is in the root locus form

cl (s) = 1 + K
2. The Bode plot for KG (s) when K = 1:
s
2
1
.
+1
Chapter 8
115 / 129

Example
3. Desired G (jp ) = PM180 = 45 180 = 135 .

4. The desired p is found from the desired G (jp ) and the G (j)
plot.
Also note that, the actual PM = 180 118 = 62 for K = 1.

Chapter 8
116 / 129

Example
5. Raise or lower magnitude plot by changing K :
6. The difference between the desired magnitude plot and the original
magnitude plot is
shift = desired + original = 0 9 = 9 dB.
Chapter 8
117 / 129

Example
7. Calculate K by using the following formula derived from the

magnitude condition
K = 10(shift/20) = 10(9/20) = 2.8.
Note that, for this problem, the below specifications are equivalent:
PM = 45 ,

= 0.45,
Desired closedloop poles are at 1 j2.
Chapter 8
118 / 129

Example
Consider the system
where
G (s) =
(s + 1)
s
10
1

+1
s
100
, D (s) = K .
+1
Find K so that PM = 45 for the closedloop system.
Chapter 8
119 / 129

Example
1. The closedloop denominator is in the root locus form

cl (s) = 1 + K
(s + 1)
s
10
2. The Bode plot for KG (s) when K = 1:
1

+1
s
100
.
+1
Chapter 8
120 / 129

Example
3. Desired G (jp ) = PM180 = 45 180 = 135 .

4. The desired p is found from the desired G (jp ) and the G (j)
plot.
Also note that, the actual PM = 180 0 = 180 for K = 1.

Chapter 8
121 / 129

Example
5. Raise or lower magnitude plot by changing K :
Chapter 8
122 / 129

Example
6. The difference between the desired magnitude plot and the original
magnitude plot is
shift = desired + original = 0 20 = 20 dB.
7. Calculate K by using the following formula derived from the
magnitude condition
K = 10(shift/20) = 10(20/20) = 10.
Chapter 8
123 / 129

PD control
Controller has the form D (s) = K (1 + TD s).

We have seen from root locus that this has a stabilizing effect.
Magnitude and phase effects of a PD controller:
PD control increases phase for frequencies over 0.1/TD .

Locate 1/TD < crossover so that phase margin at crossover is better.
Problem: Magnitude response continues to increase as frequency
increases. This amplifies high frequency sensor noise.
Chapter 8
124 / 129

Lead compensator
Lead compensator has the form D (s) = K
Ts+1
Ts+1
where < 1.
This is an approximate of PD control for frequencies up to

= 1/ (T ).
Magnitude and phase effects of a lead compensator:
Chapter 8
125 / 129

Lead compensator
The phase contributed at frequency is

= tan1 (T ) tan1 (T ) .
If we need more phase improvement, we can use a doublelead
compensator

Ts + 1 2
D (s) = K
.
Ts + 1
Need to compromise between good phase margin and good sensor
noise rejection at high frequency.
Chapter 8
126 / 129

PI control
In many problems, it is important to keep bandwidth low, and also

reduce steady state error.

PI controller has the form D (s) = K 1 + T1I s .
Magnitude and phase effects of a PI controller:
Chapter 8
127 / 129

PI control
Infinite gain at zero frequency.

Reduces steady state error to step, ramp, etc reference inputs.
But also has integrator antiwindup problems.
Adds phase below break point.
We want to keep break point frequency very low to keep from
destabilizing system
1
c .
TI
Chapter 8
128 / 129

Lag compensator
Approximates PI controller, but without integrator

overflow.

Ts+1
Lag compensator has the form D (s) = K Ts+1 where > 1.
Primary objective of lag compensator design is to add 20 log10 dB

gain to low frequencies without changing PM.
Magnitude and phase effects of a lag compensator:
Steady state response improves with little effect on transient response.

Chapter 8
129 / 129

EE362 Ch8

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Frequency Response Analysis

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE)

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

Frequency response analysis

Advantages of root locus design approach:

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE)

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

For zero initial conditions, we obtain

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE)

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

if stable, these decay to zero

from which, we have

where A is the amplitude gain and is the phase shift.

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

Transfer function along jaxis tells us response to a sinusoid.

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

Plotting frequency response

The transfer function is found as

After letting RC = 1 and setting s = j, we obtain

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

Plotting frequency response

Evaluate G (j) at each frequency for 0 +.

Result will be a complex number in the form a + jb or A exp (j) for

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE)

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

Plotting frequency response

For the RC circuit example, we obtain:

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE)

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

Plotting frequency response

The polar plot is parametric in , so it is hard to read the frequency

Figure: Polar plot in splane

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

Plotting frequency response

We separate magnitude and phase information from rational

Phase = phase of numerator phase of denominator

For the RC circuit example, we obtain

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

Plotting frequency response

We can plot the data by separating magnitude and phase plots.

Figure: Magnitude versus frequency plot for the RC circuit example

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE)

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

Plotting frequency response

Figure: Phase versus frequency plot for the RC circuit example

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

Simplest way to display the frequency response of a rational

= log10 (a) + log10 (b) log10 (c) log10 (d)

the factors of the transfer function can be split up and their

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE)

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE)

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

So, we obtain two straight lines on log scale intersecting at = n .

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

Typically, we plot 20 log10 |G (j)|; which is in dB.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE)

EE362 Feedback Control Systems

Bode magnitude plots

We have 20 log10 |K |dB which is not a function of frequency.

Figure: Bode magnitude plot for constant gain

EE362 Feedback Control Systems