Cucuteni-Trypillian culture

The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture, also known as Cucuteni culture (from Romanian),

Trypillian culture (from Ukrainian) or Tripolye culture (from Russian), is a Neolithic
Eneolithic archaeological culture which existed from approximately 4800 to 3000 BC,
from the Carpathian Mountains to the Dniester and Dnieper regions in modernday Romania, Moldova, and Ukraine, encompassing an area of more than
350,000 km2 (140,000 sq mi).[1][2]During the Trypillia BII, CI, and CI-II phases, populations
belonging to the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture built the largest settlements in Neolithic
Europe, some of which contained as many as 1,600 structures.[3] However, the majority
of Cucuteni-Trypillian settlements consisted of high-density, small settlements (spaced 3
to 4 kilometers apart), concentrated mainly in the Siret, Prut, and Dniester river valleys.
[4]

One of the most notable aspects of this culture was the periodic destruction of
settlements, with each single-habitation site having a roughly 60 to 80 year lifetime.
[5]
The purpose of burning these settlements is a subject of debate among scholars; some
of the settlements were reconstructed several times on top of earlier habitational levels,
preserving the shape and the orientation of the older buildings. One particular location,
the Poduri site (Romania), revealed thirteen habitation levels that were constructed on
top of each other over many years.[5]
Nomenclature
The culture was initially named after the village of Cucuteni in Iai County, Romania. In
1884 Teodor T. Burada visited the tell (a hill or mound formed by long-term human
occupation) there and found fragments of pottery and terracotta figurines. Burada and
other scholars from Iai, including the poet Nicolae Beldiceanu and archeologists Grigore
Butureanu, Dimitrie C. Butculescuand George Diamandi, subsequently began the first
excavations at Cucuteni in the spring of 1885.[6] Their findings were published in
1885[7] and 1889,[8] and presented in two international conferences in 1889, both in Paris:
at the International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropology and Archaeology by
Butureanu[6] and at a meeting of the Socit dAnthropologie de Paris by Diamandi.[9]
The first Ukrainian sites ascribed to the culture were discovered by Vicenty Khvoika. The
year of his discoveries has been variously claimed as 1893,[10] 1896[11] and 1887.[12] In
any case Khvoika presented his findings at the 11th Congress of Archaeologists in 1897,
which is considered the official date of the discovery of the Trypillian culture in Ukraine.
[10][12]
In the same year similar artifacts were excavated in the village
of Trypillia (Ukrainian: i, Russian: e) inKyiv Oblast, Ukraine. As a result,
this culture became identified in Soviet, Russian, and Ukrainian publications as the
'Tripolie' (or 'Tripolye'), 'Tripolian' or 'Trypillian' culture.

Today, the finds from both countries, as well as those from Moldova, are recognized as
belonging to the same cultural complex. This is generally known as the Cucuteni culture
in Romania and the Trypillian culture (variously romanized) in Ukraine. In English,
'Cucuteni-Tripolye culture' is most commonly used to refer to the whole culture,[13] with
the Ukrainian-derived term 'Cucuteni-Tripillian culture' gaining currency following the
collapse of the Soviet Union.
Geography
The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture flourished in present-day Moldova,Romania and Ukraine.
As of 2003, about 3,000 cultural sites have been identified,[5] ranging from small villages
to "vast settlements consisting of hundreds of dwellings surrounded by multiple ditches".
[14]

The culture extended northeast from the Danube River Basinaround the Iron Gates
gorge to the Black Sea and Dnieper River, with its historical core around the middle to
upper Dniester River.[2] It encompassed the centralCarpathian Mountains as well as the
plains, steppe and forest steppe on either side of the range. During the Atlantic and
Subboreal climatic periods in which the culture flourished, Europe was at its warmest and
moistest since the end of the last Ice Age, creating favorable conditions for agriculture in
this region.
Chronology Periodization
Traditionally separate schemes of periodization have been used for the Ukrainian
Trypillian and Romanian Cucuteni variants of the culture. The Cucuteni scheme, proposed
by the German archeologist Hubert Schmidt in 1932,[15] distinguished three cultures:
Precucuteni, Cucuteni and Horoditea-Folteti; which were further divided into phases
(Precucuteni I-III and Cucuteni A and B).[16] The Ukrainian scheme was first developed by
Tatiana Sergeyevna Passek in 1949[17] and divided the Trypillia culture into three main
phases (A, B and C) with further sub-phases (BI-II and CI-II).[16] Initially based on

informal ceramic seriation, both schemes have been extended and revised since first
proposed, incorporating new data and formalised mathematical techniques for artifact
seriation.[18](p103)
Today the majority of scholars agree that a three-phase division of the Cucuteni-Trypillian
culture into Early, Middle, and Late periods is appropriate, with varying smaller subdivisions marked by changes in settlement and material culture. The key point of
contention lies in how these phases correspond to radiocarbon data. The following
chart[16] represents this most current interpretation:
Early (Precucuteni I-III to Cucuteni A-B, Trypillia A to Trypillia BI-II):

4800 to 4000 BC

Middle (Cucuteni B, Trypillia BII to CI-II):

4000 to 3500 BC

Late (Horoditea-Folteti, Trypillia CII):

3500 to 3000 BC

Early period (4800-4000 BC)

The roots of Cucuteni-Trypillian culture can be found in the Starevo-KrsCri and Vina cultures of the 6th to 5th millennia,[5] with additional influence from the
Bug-Dniester culture (6500-5000 BC).[19] During the early period of its existence (in the
5th millennium BC), the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture was also influenced by the Linear
Pottery culture from the north, and by theBoian-Giulesti culture from the south.
[5]
Through colonization and acculturation from these other cultures, the formative
Precucuteni/Trypillia A culture was established. Over the course of the fifth millennium,
the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture expanded from its 'homeland' in the Prut-Siret region along
the eastern foothills of the Carpathian Mountains into the basins and plains of
the Dnieperand Southern Bug rivers of central Ukraine.[20] Settlements also developed in
the southeastern stretches of the Carpathian Mountains, with the materials known locally
as the Ariud culture (see also: Prehistory of Transylvania). Most of the settlements
were located close to rivers, with fewer settlements located on the plateaus. Most early
dwellings took the form of pit houses, though they were accompanied by an everincreasing incidence of above-ground clay houses.[20] The floors and hearths of these
structures were made of clay, and the walls of clay-plastered wood or reeds. Roofing was
made of thatched straw or reeds.

The inhabitants were involved with animal husbandry,

agriculture, fishing and gathering. Wheat, rye and peas were grown. Tools
included plows made of antlers, stone, bone and sharpened sticks. The harvest was
collected with scythes made of flint-inlaid blades. The grain was milled into flour by stone
wheels. Women were involved in pottery, textile- and garment-making, and played a
leading role in community life. Men hunted, herded the livestock, made tools from flint,
bone and stone. Of their livestock, cattle were the most important,
with swine, sheep and goats playing lesser roles. The question of whether or not
the horse wasdomesticated during this time of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture is disputed
among historians; horse remains have been found in some of their settlements, but it is
unclear whether these remains were from wild horses or domesticated ones.
Clay statues of females and amulets have been found dating to this period. Copper
items, primarily bracelets, rings and hooks, are occasionally found as well. A hoard of a
large number of copper items (a Treasure - see image) was discovered in the village
of Crbuna, Moldova, consisting primarily of items of jewelry, which were dated back to
the beginning of the 5th millennium BC. Some historians have used this evidence to
support the theory that a social stratification was present in early Cucuteni culture, but
this is disputed by others.[5]
Pottery remains from this early period are very rarely discovered; the remains that have
been found indicate that the ceramics were used after being fired in a kiln. The outer
color of the pottery is a smoky gray, with raised and sunken relief decorations. Toward
the end of this early Cucuteni-Trypillian period, the pottery begins to be painted before
firing. The white-painting technique found on some of the pottery from this period was
imported from the earlier and contemporary (5th millennium) Gumelnia-Karanovo
culture. Historians point to this transition to kiln-fired, white-painted pottery as the
turning point for when the Precucuteni culture ended and Cucuteni Phase (or CucuteniTrypillian Culture) began.[5]

Cucuteni and the neighbouring Gumelnia-Karanovo cultures seem to be largely

contemporary,
"Cucuteni A phase seems to be very long (4600-4050) and covers the entire evolution of
Gumelnia culture A1, A2, B2 phases (maybe 4650-4050)."[21]

Middle period (4000-3500 BC)

In the middle era the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture spread over a wide area from Eastern
Transylvania in the west to the Dnieper River in the east. During this period, the
population immigrated into and settled along the banks of the upper and middle regions
of the Right Bank (or western side) of the Dnieper River, in present-day Ukraine. The
population grew considerably during this time, resulting in settlements being established
on plateaus, near major rivers and springs.
Their dwellings were built by placing vertical poles in the form of circles or ovals. The
construction techniques incorporated log floors covered in clay, wattle-and-daub walls
that were woven from pliable branches and covered in clay, and a clay oven, which was
situated in the center of the dwelling. As the population in this area grew, more land was
put under cultivation. Hunting supplemented the practice of animal husbandry of
domestic livestock.
Tools made of flint, rock, clay, wood and bones continued to be used for cultivation and
other chores. Much less common than other materials, copper axes and other tools have
been discovered that were made from ore mined in Volyn, Ukraine, as well as some
deposits along the Dnieper river. Pottery-making by this time had become sophisticated,
however they still relied on techniques of making pottery by hand (the potter's
wheel was not used yet). Characteristics of the Cucuteni-Trypillian pottery included
a monochromic spiral design, painted with black paint on a yellow and red base. Large
pear-shaped pottery for the storage of grain, dining plates, and other goods, was also
prevalent. Additionally, ceramic statues of female "Goddess" figures, as well as figurines
of animals and models of houses dating to this period have also been discovered.
Some scholars have used the abundance of these clay female fetish statues to base the
theory that this culture was matriarchal in nature. Indeed, it was partially the
archeological evidence from Cucuteni-Trypillian culture that inspired Marija
Gimbutas, Joseph Campbell, and some latter 20th century feminists to set forth

the popular theory of an Old European culture of peaceful, matriarchal, Goddesscentered Neolithic European societies that were wiped out by patriarchal,Sky Fatherworshipping, warlike, Bronze-Age Proto-Indo-European tribes that swept out of The
Steppes east of the Black Sea. This theory has been mostly discredited in recent years,
[22]
but there are still some people who adhere to it, at least to some degree.
Late period (3500-3000 BC)
During the late period the Cucuteni-Trypillian territory expanded to include the Volyn
region in northwest Ukraine, the Sluch and Horyn Rivers in northern Ukraine, and along
both banks of the Dnieper river near Kiev. Members of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture who
lived along the coastal regions near the Black Sea came into contact with other cultures.
Animal husbandry increased in importance, as hunting diminished; horses also became
more important. The community transformed into a patriarchal structure. Outlying
communities were established on the Don and Volga rivers in present-day Russia.
Dwellings were constructed differently from previous periods, and a new rope-like design
replaced the older spiral-patterned designs on the pottery. Different forms of ritual burial
were developed where the deceased were interred in the ground with elaborate burial
rituals. An increasingly larger number of Bronze Age artifacts originating from other lands
were found as the end of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture drew near. [5]
Decline and end
Main article: Decline and end of the CucuteniTrypillian culture
There is a debate among scholars regarding how the end of the Cucuteni-Trypillian
culture took place.
According to the Kurgan hypothesis as this had first appeared by the archeologist Marija
Gimbutas in her book "Notes on the chronology and expansion of the Pit-grave
culture" (1961), and later expanded by her and others, the culture's end came in a rather
violent way connected with the territorial expansion of the Kurgan culture. Combining
archaeological evidences with linguistics, concluded that the people of Kurgan culture (a
term grouping the Pit Grave culture and its predecessors) of the Pontic steppe, being
most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language, effectively destroyed the
Cucuteni-Trypillian culture in a series of invasions undertaken during their expansion to
the west. Based on these archaeological evidences Gimbutas seeing a distinctive cultural
difference between the patriarchal, warlike Kurgan culture, over the more
peaceful matriarchal Cucuteni-Trypillian culture which was at large a part of the "Old
European cultures" that finally extinct in a process visible in the progressing appearance
of the fortified settlements, the hillforts, the religious transformation from the matriarchy
to patriarchy, and the graves of warrior-chieftains, in a correlated geographical and
temporal direction from the east to the west.[23] To this, "the process of IndoEuropeanization was a cultural, not a physical, transformation and must be understood
as a military victory in terms of successfully imposing a new administrative system,

language, and religion upon the indigenous groups.[24] Accordingly the Kurgan Hypothesis
holds that this violent clash took place during the Third Wave of Kurgan expansion,
between 3000-2800 BC permanently ending the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture.
In 1989 Irish-American archaeologist J.P. Mallory in his book "In Search of the IndoEuropeans" summarizing the three existed theories over the end of the CucuteniTrypillian culture, mentions that archaeological findings in the region indicates that part
of the Kurgan culture (which he refers to, by their more accepted name of Yamna culture)
had established settlements in the eastern part of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture's area,
co-existing for some time with those of the Cucuteni-Trypillian's before that culture
ended.[4] Artifacts from both cultures found within each of their respective archaeological
settlement sites, attest an open trade that took place for a period between them.
[4]
Although he points out that from the archaeological evidences is clear that the area
was led to what he called "a dark age" with its population seeking refuge to every
possible direction except eastern. Using caves, islands and hilltops where they could
more easily fortify themselves, abandoning in the process 600-700 settlements, he is
leaving open a possibility for a rather gradual transformation procedure than a violent
onslaught that brought about the extinction of the culture.[4] The obvious issue with that
theory is the limited common historical life-time between the Cucuteni-Trypillian (48003000 BC) and the Yamna culture (3600-2300BC); given that the earliest archaeological
findings of the Yamna culture (3600-3200 BC) are located to the Volga-Don basin, not in
the Dniester and Dnieper area where the cultures came in touch, while the Yamna culture
came to its full extension in the Pontic steppe at the earliest at around 3000 BC, ie the
time the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture ended[25] thus indicating an extremely short time of
survival after coming in contact with the Yamna culture. Another contradicting indication
is that the kurgans that replaced the traditional horizontal graves in the area now
contains human remains of a fairly diversified skeletal type approximately ten
centimetres taller than the previous population.[4]
In the 1990s and 2000s, another theory regarding the end of the Cucuteni-Trypillian
culture emerged based on climatic change that took place at the end of their culture's
existence that is known as the Blytt-Sernander Sub-Boreal phase. Beginning around 3200
BC the earth's climate became colder and drier than it had ever been since the end of
the last Ice age, resulting in the worst drought in the history of Europe since the
beginning of agriculture.[26] The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture relied primarily on farming,
which would have collapsed under these climatic conditions in a scenario similar to
the Dust Bowl of the American Midwest in the 1930s.[27]According to The American
Geographical Union, "The transition to today's arid climate was not gradual, but occurred
in two specific episodes. The first, which was less severe, occurred between 6,700 and
5,500 years ago. The second, which was brutal, lasted from 4,000 to 3,600 years ago.
Summer temperatures increased sharply, and precipitation decreased, according to
carbon-14 dating. According to that theory, the neighboring Yamna culture people
were pastoralists, and were able to maintain their survival much more effectively in

drought conditions. This has led some scholars to come to the conclusion that the
Cucuteni-Trypillian culture ended not violently, but as a matter of survival, converting
their economy from agriculture to pastoralism, and becoming integrated into the Yamna
culture.[19][26][27][28] However, the BlyttSernander approach as a way to identify stages of
technology in Europe with specific climate periods is an oversimplification not generally
accepted. A conflict with that theoretical possibility is that during the warm Atlantic
period, Denmark was occupied by Mesolithic cultures, rather than Neolithic,
notwithstanding the climatic evidence. Moreover, the technology stages varied widely
globally. To this must be added that the first period of the climate transformation ended
some 500 years before the end of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture and the second
approximately 1,400 years after.
Economy
Main article: Economy of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture
Throughout the 2,750 years of its existence, the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture was fairly
stable and static; however, there were changes that took place. This article addresses
some of these changes that have to do with the economic aspects. These include the
basic economic conditions of the culture, the development of trade, interaction with
other cultures, and the apparent use of barter tokens, an early form of money.
Members of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture shared common features with other Neolithic
societies, including:
An almost nonexistent social stratification
Lack of a political elite
Rudimentary economy most likely a subsistence or gift economy
Pastoralists and subsistence farmers
Earlier societies of hunter gatherer tribes had no social stratification, and later societies
of theBronze Age had noticeable social stratification, which saw the creation
of occupational specialization, the state, and social classes of individuals who were of the
elite ruling or religiousclasses, full-time warriors, and wealthy merchants, contrasted with
those individuals on the other end of the economic spectrum who were poor, enslaved,
and hungry. In between these two economic models (the hunter gatherer tribes and
Bronze Age civilizations) we find the later Neolithic and Eneolithic societies such as the
Cucuteni-Trypillian culture, where the first indications of social stratification began to be
found. However, it would be a mistake to overemphasize the impact of social
stratification in the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture, since it was still (even in its later phases)
very much an egalitarian society. And of course, social stratification was just one of the
many aspects of what is regarded as a fully established civilized society, which began to
appear in the Bronze Age.[19]
Like other Neolithic societies, the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture had almost no division of
labor. Although this culture's settlements sometimes grew to become the largest on
earth at the time (up to 15,000 people in the largest), there is no evidence that has been

discovered of labor specialization. Every household probably had members of the

extended family who would work in the fields to raise crops, go to the woods to hunt
game and bring back firewood, work by the river to bring back clay or fish, and all of the
other duties that would be needed to survive. Contrary to popular belief, the Neolithic
people experienced considerable abundance of food and other resources. [2] Since every
household was almost entirely self-sufficient, there was very little need for trade.
However, there were certain mineral resources that, because of limitations due to
distance and prevalence, did form the rudimentary foundation for a trade network that
towards the end of the culture began to develop into a more complex system, as is
attested to by an increasing number of artifacts from other cultures that have been
dated to the latter period.[4]
Toward the end of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture's existence (from roughly 3000 BC to
2750 BC), copper traded from other societies (notably, from the Balkans) began to
appear throughout the region, and members of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture began to
acquire skills necessary to use it to create various items. Along with the raw copper ore,
finished copper tools, hunting weapons and other artifacts were also brought in from
other cultures.[2] This marked the transition from the Neolithic to the Eneolithic, also
known as the Chalcolithic or Copper Age. Bronze artifacts began to show up in
archaeological sites toward the very end of the culture. The primitive trade network of
this society, that had been slowly growing more complex, was supplanted by the more
complex trade network of the Proto-Indo-European culture that eventually replaced the
Cucuteni-Trypillian culture.[2]

Bronze artifacts from later Cucuteni-Trypillian period

Few copper artifacts have been found, many copper tools were imported from the
Balkans.
Around 4000 this treasure was buried on a Dniester river terrace

Diet
The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture was a society of subsistence farmers. Cultivating the soil
(using anard or scratch plough), harvesting crops and tending livestock was probably the
main occupation for most people. Typically for a Neolithic culture, the vast majority of
their diet consisted of cereal grains. They cultivated club wheat, oats, rye, proso

millet, barley and hemp, which were probably ground and baked as unleavened bread in
clay ovens or on heated stones in the home. They also grew peas and
beans, apricot, cherry plum and wine grapes though there is no solid evidence that
they actually made wine.[29][30] There is also evidence that they may have kept bees[31]
The zooarchaeology of Cucuteni-Trypillian sites indicate that the inhabitants practiced
animal husbandry. Their domesticated livestock consisted primarily of cattle, but
included smaller numbers of pigs, sheep and goats. There is evidence, based on some of
the surviving artistic depictions of animals from Cucuteni-Trypillian sites, that the ox was
employed as a draft animal[29]
Both remains and artistic depictions of horses have been discovered at CucuteniTrypillian sites. However, whether these finds are of domesticated or wild horses is
debated. Before they were domesticated, humans hunted wild horses for meat. On the
other hand, one hypothesis of horse domestication places it in the steppe region
adjacent to the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture at roughly the same time (40003500 BC), so
it is possible the culture was familiar with the domestic horse. At this time horses could
have been kept both for meat or as a work animal.[32] The direct evidence remains
inconclusive.[33]
Hunting supplemented the Cucuteni-Trypillian diet. They used traps to catch their prey,
as well as various weapons, including the bow-and-arrow, the spear, and clubs. To help
them in stalking game, they sometimes disguised themselves with camouflage.
[32]
Remains of game species found at Cucuteni-Trypillian sites include red deer, roe
deer, aurochs, wild boar, fox and brown bear.[citation needed]
Salt
The earliest known salt works in the world is at Poiana Slatinei, near the village
of Lunca in Romania. It was first used in the early Neolithic, around 6050 BCE, by
the Starevo culture, and later by the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture in the Pre-Cucuteni
period.[34] Evidence from this and other sites indicates that the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture
extracted salt from salt-laden spring-water through the process of briquetage. First, the
brackish water from the spring was boiled in large pottery vessels, producing a
dense brine. The brine was then heated in a ceramic briquetage vessel until all moisture
was evaporated, with the remaining crystallized salt adhering to the inside walls of the
vessel. Then the briquetage vessel was broken open, and the salt was scraped from the
shards.[35]
The provision of salt was a major logistical problem for the largest Cucuteni-Trypillian
settlements. As they came to rely upon cereal foods over salty meat and fish, Neolithic
cultures had to incorporate supplementary sources of salt into their diet. Similarly,
domestic cattle need to be provided with extra sources of salt beyond their normal diet
or their milk production is reduced. Cucuteni-Trypillian mega-sites, with a population of
likely thousands of people and animals, are estimated to have required between 36,000

and 100,000 kg of salt per year. This was not available locally, and so had to be moved in
bulk from distant sources on the western Black Sea coast and in the Carpathian
Mountains, probably by river.[36]
Technology and material culture
The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture is known by its distinctive settlements, architecture,
intricately decorated pottery and anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines, which are
preserved in archaeological remains. At its peak it was one of the most technologically
advanced societies in the world at the time,[4] developing new techniques for ceramic
production, housing building and agriculture, and producing woven textiles (although
these have not survived and are known indirectly).
Settlements
In terms of overall size, some of Cucuteni-Trypillian sites, such as Talianki (with a
population of 15,000 and covering an area of some 335[37] hectares) in the province
of Uman Raion, Ukraine, are as large as (or perhaps even larger than) the more
famous city-states of Sumer in the Fertile Crescent, and these Eastern European
settlements predate the Sumerian cities by more than half of a millennium.[38]
Archaeologists have uncovered an astonishing wealth of artifacts from these ancient
ruins. The largest collections of Cucuteni-Trypillian artifacts are to be found in museums
in Russia, Ukraine, and Romania, including the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg and
the Archaeology Museum Piatra Neam in Romania. However, smaller collections of
artifacts are kept in many local museums scattered throughout the region. [19]
These settlements underwent periodical acts of destruction and re-creation, as they were
burned and then rebuilt every 6080 years. Some scholars have theorized that the
inhabitants of these settlements believed that every house symbolized an organic,
almost living, entity. Each house, including its ceramic vases, ovens, figurines and
innumerable objects made of perishable materials, shared the same circle of life, and all
of the buildings in the settlement were physically linked together as a larger symbolic
entity. As with living beings, the settlements may have been seen as also having a life
cycle of death and rebirth.[39]
The houses of the Cucuteni-Trypillian settlements were constructed in several general
ways:
Wattle and daub homes.
Log homes, called (Ukrainian: ploadki).
Semi-underground homes called Bordei.
Some Cucuteni-Trypillian homes were two-storeys tall, and evidence shows that the
members of this culture sometimes decorated the outsides of their homes with many of
the same red-ochre complex swirling designs that are to be found on their pottery. Most
houses had thatched roofs and wooden floors covered with clay.[38]

Pottery

Most Cucuteni-Trypillian pottery was hand coiled from local clay. Long coils of clay were
placed in circles to form first the base and then the walls of the vessel. Once the desired
shape and height of the finished product was built up the sides would then be smoothed
to create a seamless surface. This technique was the earliest form of pottery shaping
and the most common in the Neolithic; however, there is some evidence that they also
used a primitive type of slow-turning potter's wheel, an innovation that did not become
common in Europe until the Iron Age.[32]
Characteristically vessels were elaborately decorated with swirling patterns and intricate
designs. Sometimes decorative incisions were added prior to firing, and sometimes these
were filled with colored dye to produce a dimensional effect. In the early period, the
colors used to decorate pottery were limited to a rusty-red and white. Later, potters
added additional colors to their products and experimented with more advanced ceramic
techniques.[5] The pigments used to decorate ceramics were based on iron oxidefor red
hues, calcium carbonate, iron magnetite and manganese Jacobsite ores for black,
andcalcium silicate for white. The black pigment, which was introduced during the later
period of the culture, was a rare commodity: taken from a few sources and circulated (to
a limited degree) throughout the region. The probable sources of these pigments
were Iacobeni in Romania for the iron magnetite ore and Nikopol in Ukraine for the
manganese Jacobsite ore.[40][41] No traces of the iron magnetite pigment mined in the
easternmost limit of the Cucuteni-Trypillian region have been found to be used in
ceramics from the western settlements, suggesting exchange throughout the entire
cultural area was limited. In addition to mineral sources, pigments derived from organic
materials (including bone and wood) were used to create various colors.[42]
In the late period of Cucuteni-Trypillian culture, kilns with a controlled atmosphere were
used for pottery production. These kilns were constructed with two separate chambers

the combustion chamber and the filling chamber separated by a grate. Temparatures
in the combustion chamber could reach 10001100C but were usually maintained at
around 900C to achieve a uniform and complete firing of vessels. [40]
Toward the end of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture, as copper became more readily
available, advances in ceramic technology leveled off as more emphasis was placed on
developing metallurgical techniques.
Ceramic figurines
An anthropomorphic ceramic artifact was discovered during an archaeological dig in
1942 onCetatuia Hill near Bodeti, Neam County, Romania, which became known as the
"Cucuteni Frumusica Dance" (after a nearby village of the same name). It was used as a
support or stand, and upon its discovery was hailed as a symbolic masterpiece of
Cucuteni-Trypillian culture. It is believed that the four stylized feminine silhouettes facing
inward in an interlinked circle represented a hora, or ritualistic dance. Similar artifacts
were later found in Bereti and Drgueni.
Extant figurines excavated at the Cucuteni sites are thought to represent religious
artefacts, but their meaning or use is still unknown. Some historians as Gimbutas claim
that:
...the stiff nude to be representative of death on the basis that the color white is
associated with the bone (that which shows after death). Stiff nudes can be found in
Hamangia, Karanovo, and Cucuteni cultures[43]
Textiles

No examples of Cucuteni-Trypillian textiles have yet been found preservation of

prehistoric textiles is rare and the region does not have a suitable climate. However,
impressions of textiles are found on pottery sherds (because the clay was placed there
before it was fired). These show that woven fabrics were common in Cucuteni-Trypillian
society.[44][45] Finds of ceramic weights with drilled holes suggest that these were
manufactured with a warp weighted loom.[46] It has also been suggested that these

weights, especially "disposable" examples made from poor quality clay and inadequately
fired, were used to weigh down fishing nets. These would probably have been frequently
lost, explaining their inferior quality.[47]
Other pottery sherds with textile impressions, found at Frumusica[disambiguation
needed]
and Cucuteni, suggest that textiles were also knitted (specifically using a technique
known as nalbinding).[48]
Weapons and tools

Cucuteni-Trypillian tools were made from knapped and polished stone, organic materials
(bone, antler and horn), and in the later period, copper. Local Miorcani flint was the most
common material for stone tools, but a number of other types are known to have been
used, including chert, jasper and obsidian. Presumably these tools were hafted with
wood, but this is not preserved. Weapons are rare but not unknown, implying the culture
was relatively peaceful.[49]
The following types of tools have been discovered at Cucuteni-Trypillian sites: [citation needed]
Tool

Woodworking

Lithic
reduction

Textiles

Typical materials
Adzes
Burins
Scrapers
Awls
Gouges/chisels
Pressure flaking tools, e.g.
abrasive pieces,
plungers, pressing and retouching
tools
Anvils
Hammerstones
Soft hammers
Polishing tools
Knitting needles
Shuttles
Sewing needles

Stone
Stone, antler, horn, copper
Stone, bone

Stone

Antler, horn
Bone
Bone
Bone, copper

Spindles and spindle whorls

Clay
Loom weights
Hoes
Antler, horn
Ards
Ground
Farming
Stone
stones/metatesand grinding slabs
Flint pieces inlaid into antler or
Scythes
wood blades
Harpoons
Bone
Fishing
Fish hooks
Bone, copper
Axes, including double-headed
axes,
Stone, copper
hammer axes and possible battle
axes
Other/multipur Clubs
Stone
pose
Knives and daggers
Stone, bone, copper
Arrow tips
Handles
Bone
Spatulas
Ritual and religion

Main article: Religion and ritual of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture

Some Cucuteni-Trypillian communities have been found that contain a special building
located in the center of the settlement, which archaeologists have identified as sacred
sanctuaries. Artifacts have been found inside these sanctuaries, some of them having
been intentionally buried in the ground within the structure, that are clearly of a religious
nature, and have provided insights into some of the beliefs, and perhaps some of the

rituals and structure, of the members of this society. Additionally, artifacts of an apparent
religious nature have also been found within many domestic Cucuteni-Trypillian homes.
Many of these artifacts are clay figurines or statues. Archaeologists have identified many
of these as fetishes or totems, which are believed to be imbued with powers that can
help and protect the people who look after them.[18] These Cucuteni-Trypillian figurines
have become known popularly as Goddesses, however, this term is not necessarily
accurate for all female anthropomorphic clay figurines, as the archaeological evidence
suggests that different figurines were used for different purposes (such as for
protection), and so are not all representative of a Goddess.[18] There have been so many
of these figurines discovered in Cucuteni-Trypillian sites[18] that many museums in
eastern Europe have a sizeable collection of them, and as a result, they have come to
represent one of the more readily identifiable visual markers of this culture to many
people.
The noted archaeologist Marija Gimbutas based at least part of her famous Kurgan
Hypothesis andOld European culture theories on these Cucuteni-Trypillian clay figurines.
Her conclusions, which were always controversial, today are discredited by many
scholars,[18] but still there are some scholars who support her theories about how
Neolithic societies were matriarchal, non-warlike, and worshipped an "earthy" Mother
Goddess, but were subsequently wiped out by invasions ofpatriarchal Indo-European
tribes who burst out of the Steppes of Russia and Kazakhstan beginning around 2500 BC,
and who worshiped a warlike Sky God.[50] However, Gimbutas' theories have been
partially discredited by more recent discoveries and analyses.[4] Today there are many
scholars who disagree with Gimbutas, pointing to new evidence that suggests a much
more complex society during the Neolithic era than she had been accounting for.[51]
One of the unanswered questions regarding the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture is the small
number of artifacts associated with funerary rites. Although very large settlements have
been explored by archaeologists, the evidence for mortuary activity is almost invisible.
Making a distinction between the eastern Trypillia and the western Cucuteni regions of
the Cucuteni-Trypillian geographical area, American archaeologist Douglass W. Bailey
writes:
There are no Cucuteni cemeteries and the Trypillia ones that have been discovered are
very late.[18](p115)
The discovery of skulls is more frequent than other parts of the body, however because
there has not yet been a comprehensive statistical survey done of all of the skeletal
remains discovered at Cucuteni-Trypillian sites, precise post excavation analysis of these
discoveries cannot be accurately determined at this time. Still, many questions remain
concerning these issues, as well as why there seems to have been no male remains
found at all.[52] The only definite conclusion that can be drawn from archeological
evidence is that in the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture, in the vast majority of cases, the
bodies were not formally deposited within the settlement area.[18](p116)

Vina-Turda script
The mainstream academic view holds that writing first appeared during the Sumerian
civilizationin southern Mesopotamia, around 33003200 BC. in the form of the Cuneiform
script. This first writing system did not suddenly appear out of nowhere, but gradually
developed from less stylized pictographic systems that
used ideographic and mnemonic symbols that contained meaning, but did not have the
linguistic flexibility of the natural language writing system that the Sumerians first
conceived. These earlier symbolic systems have been labeled as proto-writing, examples
of which have been discovered in a variety of places around the world, some dating back
to the 7th Millennium BC.[53]

An example of a Sumerian
tablets
Cuneiform clay tablet

One of the three Trtria tablets,

One of the Gradeshnitsa

dated 5300 BC

One such early example of a proto-writing system is the Vina script, which is a set of
symbols depicted on clay artifacts associated with the Vina culture, which flourished
along the Danube River in the Pannonian Plain, between 6000 and 4000 BC. The first
discovery of this script occurred at the archaeological site in the village
of Turda (Romania), and consisted of a collection of artifacts that had what appeared to
be an unknown system of writing. In 1908, more of these same kinds of artifacts were
discovered at a site near Vina, outside the city of Belgrade, Serbia. Scholars
subsequently labeled this the "Vina Script" or "Vina-Turda" Script". There is a
considerable amount of controversy surrounding the Vina script as to how old it is, as
well as whether it should be considered as an actual writing system, an example of
proto-writing, or just a collection of meaningful symbols. Indeed, the entire subject
regarding every aspect of the Vina script is fraught with controversy. [53]
Beginning in 1875 up to the present, archaeologists have found more than a thousand
Neolithic era clay artifacts that have examples of symbols similar to the Vina script
scattered widely throughout south-eastern Europe. This includes the discoveries of what
appear to be barter tokens, which were used as an early form of currency. Thus it
appears that the Vina or Vina-Turda script is not restricted to just the region around
Belgrade, which is where the Vina culture existed, but that it was spread across most of

southeastern Europe, and was used throughout the geographical region of the CucuteniTrypillian culture. As a result of this widespread use of this set of symbolic
representations, historian Marco Merlini has suggested that it be given a name other
than the Vina script, since this implies that it was only used among the Vina culture
around the Pannonian Plain, at the very western edge of the extensive area where
examples of this symbolic system have been discovered. Merlini has proposed naming
this system the Danube Script, which some scholars have begun to accept.[53] However,
even this name change would not be extensive enough, since it does not cover the
region in Ukraine, as well as the Balkans, where examples of these symbols are also
found. Whatever name is used, however (Vina script, Vina-Tordos script, Vina symbols,
Danube script, or Old European script), it is likely that it is the same system.[53]

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Studia Antiqua et Archaeologica, IX, Iai, 2003 The Human Bone with Possible
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Marius Alexianu, Gheorghe Dumitroaia and Dan Monah, The Exploitation of the
Salt-Water Sources in Moldavia: an Ethno-Archaeological Approach, in (eds.) D.
Monah, Gh. Dumitroaia, O. Weller et J. Chapman, L'exploitation du sel travers le
temps, BMA, XVIII, Piatra-Neamt, 2007, p. 279-298;

Cuco, tefan (1999). "Faza Cucuteni B n zona subcarpatic a Moldovei (Cucuteni

B period in the lower Carpathian region of Moldova)". BMA: Bibliotheca Memoriae
antiquitatis (Memorial Library antiquities) (Piatra Neam, Romania: Muzeul de
Istorie Piatra Neam (Piatra Neam Museum of History)) 6. OCLC 223302267.

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See also

Barter tokens of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture

Prehistoric Romania

History of Ukraine

Vina culture

Sredny Stog culture

Samara culture

Khvalynsk culture

Yamna culture

Dnieper-Donets culture

Proto-Indo-Europeans

Prehistory of Southeastern Europe

Linear Pottery culture

Neolithic Europe

Chalcolithic Europe

Copper Age

External links

Cucuteni Culture The French Government's Ministry of Culture's page on Cucuteni

Culture (in English).

Cucuteni Culture The Romanian Dacian Museum page on Cucuteni Culture (in
English).

Trypillian Culture from Ukraine A page from the UK-based group "Arattagar" about
Trypillian Culture, which has many great photographs of the group's trip to the
Trypillian Museum in Trypillia, Ukraine (in English).

The Institute of Archaeomythology The homepage for The Institute of

Archaeomythology, an international organization of scholars dedicated to fostering
an interdisciplinary approach to cultural research with particular emphasis on the
beliefs, rituals, social structure and symbolism of ancient societies. Much of their
focus covers topics that relate to the Cucuteni-Trypillian Culture (in English).

The Vdastra Village Project A living history museum in Romania, supported by

many international institutions.

National Museum of Romanian History in Bucharest. Their web site is in Romanian.

National History Museum of Moldova in Chiinu.

The Lost World of Old Europe: The Danube Valley, 5000-3500 BC an exhibit at
the Institute for the Study of the Ancient World in New York City, from November
10, 2009 to April 25, 2010 .

360 Virtual Tour of Cucuteni Museum from Piatra-Neamt (in Romanian).