Feature Report

Avoid Leakage in Pipe Systems

John C. Cox
Swagelok Company

eakage costs industry millions of

dollars every year. For example, a
few small leaks in a facility using
air at 100 psig, with an electric
consumption cost of about 6/kWh,
can waste more than $22,000 annually. Delaying the replacement of a
leaking $100 steam trap could waste
$50 per week; since an average facility
typically has hundreds of steam traps
throughout its operations, leaking
traps may be squandering hundred of
thousands of dollars each year. In addition to wasted dollars, unattended
leaks can result in downtime, affect
product quality, pollute the environment, and cause injury.
The following discussion is aimed at
minimizing leakage from process-piping, analytical-instrumentation, and
utility lines, such as those for steam
and compressed air. Such connections
are typically within the size range of
1/16 to 2 in. (250 mm). (For a detailed
look at flanged connections with gasket or O-ring seals, see CE, June 2005,
pp. 3845).

Causes of leakage

System vibration, pulsation, and thermal cycling are all common causes for
chemical-processing-system leakage.
One can assume that any type of
fitting connection may leak, regardless of whether pipe or tube is used,
especially when mechanical vibration
is present. This vibration fatigue is
an unavoidable factor that can be aggravated by poor metallurgical consistency within the fitting material
construction, undue stress imposed on
the connection from side load or other
system design characteristics, or simply improper installation practices.
Stress intensification and fatigue
have been widely researched. One
study conducted has produced the
Markl Fatigue relationship. This
stress curve (Figure 1) provides a
vertical axis S, which equates to the
40

Selection and proper installation of the

correct fitting will minimize leaks
amplitude of alternating stress caused
by vibration imposed on the test specimen (fitting connection) being examined. On the horizontal axis, N indicates the number of cycles to failure.
This S/N curve illustrates the number of cycles generated and how soon
the specimen will fail after repeated
stressing. The findings suggest that
the greater the amplitude of alternating stress on a specimen, the sooner
it will fail. A stress intensification factor, as it pertains to fittings, shows an
exacerbated onset of failure which can
relate to the deepness of the groove or
notch made in the pipe or tubing line
by the fitting as it is tightened.

Preventing leakage

Proper selection of components and

total system design, as well as product
technology, are often overlooked as important factors when developing effective, efficient fluid handling systems.
Two of the most critical areas contributing to leakage are:
Types of connecting devices used in
joining process pipe throughout the
system
The level of knowledge and practical
experience of those installing and
maintaining the application
Although the ideal connection offering total leak-free operation in every
system parameter requirement realistically does not exist, it is worthwhile
to evaluate the various fitting connection types available in a quest to help
prevent system leakage. In addition, regardless of the connection type selected,
proper and effective system energy
management must be a high priority.
Adoption of such an energy management program is an important factor
in maintaining effective fluid handling
systems, and will be discussed later.

Welded pipe fittings

The fitting connection most resistant

to both vibration and fatigue is a pipe

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006

butt-weld fitting. Its ability to resist

vibration and fatigue is determined by
the strength and integrity of the connection made.
However, pipe butt-weld-fitting connections do have some disadvantages.
The welding equipment and specialized training required to make the
connection can be costly. Additionally,
the amount of time required to install
pipe butt-weld fittings into a system is
greater than that of the other fitting installation options. The degree of knowledge required by the installer should be
factored into the equation, as well. Thorough training is essential to ensure that
quality weld connections are achieved.
Finally, accessibility for maintenance
in fluid-system piping is minimal, unless maintenance people are prepared
to carry a torch or hacksaw to cut their
way into a system line.

Threaded pipe fittings

One of the most common types of

connections found in process fluid
handling systems is the threaded or
screwed pipe fitting connection.
NPT fittings: Used as a workhorse in
industry since the inception of joining
pipe, NPT (National Pipe Thread) fittings have a tapered thread on both the
male and female ends. The seal is actually a crush seal between the joining
metal surfaces, and occurs on the flank,
crest, and root of the tapered thread.
Due to the affinity metal has for itself,
especially when mating carbon steel
or stainless steel, galling and tearing
of the metal will take place during the
installation procedure. When joining
NPT threaded connections, it is imperative to apply lubricant, or a sealant
with a lubricating agent, on the male
threads to prevent damage to them. A
popular thread sealant is PTFE tape.
The following factors are important
to consider when using tape to lubricate or fill voids in the thread crest,
root, and flanks:

Disadvantages of
threaded connections

FIGURE 1. Shown here are the results of rotary flexing testing of a tube fitting. Point A represents the maximum stress
at which there is 95% confidence that 90% or more of these
tube-fitting connections will survive greater than 107 cycles.
(i is a stress-intensification factor relative to a butt weld)

When applying tape to the threads,

two to three wraps of the male
threads is sufficient with most tapes
Never wrap tape over the end of the
first thread, as tape will eventually
splinter and enter into the fluid handling system, which may damage the
internals of system components
Wrap tape in a clockwise direction
as you are viewing the thread from
the end of the fitting. If not wrapped
in the correct direction, the tape will
not properly lubricate, potentially
causing leaks
Cut off excess tape and draw the free
end of the tape around the threads
tautly to conform to the thread.
Then, press on the tape firmly with
thumb and index finger at the overlay point. If the crests of the threads
protrude through the tape, galling
may occur, so additional tape will be
required
If threads are disassembled for
maintenance, be sure to remove
all excess tape and apply new tape
prior to reassembling the threaded
connections. Tape that has not been
removed from initial installation
may act as a leak point on subsequent assemblies
SAE straight thread fittings: Another thread type gaining popularity is the SAE (Society of Automotive
Engineers) straight thread. The SAE
straight threads are mechanical types,
designed to only hold the fitting in place;
SAE threads do not provide a seal. The
sealing function is provided by an elastomer, typically located at the base of
the male thread (Figure 2). The elastomer compresses against a boss or flat
surface near the entrance to the female

FIGURE 2.
SAE straight
threads are
mechanical
types; they do
not provide a seal

port. This type of threaded seal offers

the advantages of an NPT connection,
in that maintenance, accessibility, and
remake of the fitting are significantly
easier for the installer.
ISO parallel and tapered thread
fittings: ISO (International Standards Organization) thread fittings
work similarly to NPT tapered thread
fittings, relying on threads to perform
the sealing characteristics, and SAE
straight threads, using either an elastomer, bonded metal washer, or gasket
as a backup seal.
NPTF national pipe tapered dryseal fittings: Dryseal threads have
roots that are more truncated than the
crests, so an interference fit causes the
roots to crush the crests of the mating threads. The theory behind this
thread concept is that when the crest,
root, and flank of the threads are engaged, there is always mating contact,
creating a seal without lubrication.
Unfortunately, due to inherent properties of some metals such as carbon
steel and stainless steel, galling will
occur in this type of seal without lubrication, making initial installation
difficult and remake impossible.
37 deg. AN flare fittings: These fittings use straight mechanical threads
similar to the SAE and ISO straight or
parallel thread design. These straight
threads are used only for holding,
while a 37 deg. male flared end, machined on the end of the fitting, mates
with a female flared surface at the
base of the female threaded port.
This type of connection is found predominantly in hydraulic applications
and is commonly referred to as an AN
(Army-Navy) fitting.

Although threaded connections of any

type have been a popular
fitting choice in industry for
fluid systems, there is an
inherent disadvantage to
using pipe in both process
and instrumentation lines. Pressure
drop or head loss due to friction from
the internal surface of a piping system
can prevent applications from achieving necessary flow characteristics. This
pressure drop effect may be illustrated
through application of the Reynolds
Number, combined with internal geometry, an application with which chemical engineers are well familiar.
The Reynolds Number (Re) is expressed as
Re = DV/
where D is the inside diameter of the
tube or pipe, V is the average fluid velocity, is the fluid density, and is
the kinetic viscosity. An internal friction factor is calculated by first determining the Reynolds Number for the
fluid flow in the pipe. Then by combining the relative roughness of the pipe
surface with the Reynolds Number,
the friction factor is determined. Tests
conducted with this formula indicate
that due to the internal surface roughness of pipe versus tube, flow in pipe
typically will be more turbulent and
will require greater pressure drop.
Furthermore, to create a directional
change with pipe, 45- or 90-deg. elbows
must be used. Elbows impose abrupt
ID changes and rough edges, adding to
turbulence and even greater pressure
drop. Although directional elbows are
available for tubing systems, the ability to bend tubing provides a smoother
transition, reducing the amount of
pressure drop or turbulence created.

Tube fittings

Tubing also offers a variety of fitting

selections for making connections:
Compression fittings: The compression fitting, which was the first tube
fitting to be developed, is made up of
three components: nut, body, and gasket ring or ferrule. This design utilizes
a friction grip (Figure 3) on the tube.
One advantage is that no special tools
are required in assembly, unlike pipe

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41

Feature Report

connections, which require thread

chasers and dies to make the threads.
Further, the seals can be (but are not
always) line-type, which creates a
dominant force in one small area and
is one of the most effective metal-tometal seals available. However, the
disadvantages of this type of connection are that it can withstand only minimal pressure, it is available in just a
few materials of construction (mostly
brass), and it does not often function
well in systems having vibration, thermal cycling, and other dynamic forces.
Additionally, disassembly and remake
of this type of connection is very difficult because of variables in the fitting that may prevent the reseal in
the same line-type area. Factors such
as manufacturing inconsistencies,
scratches or blemishes on the sealing
surface can contribute to the compression designs inability to reseal.
Flare fittings: The flare fitting was the
next variation in tube fitting designs.
As compared to the original compression fitting, the flare fitting can handle
higher pressures and wider system parameters, is available in a greater variety of materials, and has a larger seal
area, which provides remake capabilities in maintenance applications.
The fitting is made up of three components: nut, sleeve, and body with a flare
or coned end. In some instances, the
sleeve is used as a self-flaring option,
usually on thinner wall or softer tubing materials. The disadvantage of this
fitting is that ease of assembly takes
a step backwards. Special flaring tools
are required to prepare the tubing for
installation. Additionally, flaring of the
tubing may cause stress risers at the
base of the flare or cause axial cracks
on thin or brittle tubing. Uneven tube
cuts with poorly designed rotational
tube cutters or ineffective hacksaws
will create an uneven sealing surface.
Sealing with this design is dependant
on the effectiveness of the flared tubing.
A quality flare by the installer should
provide a successful seal.
Bite-type fittings: The bite-type fitting needs no special tools for assembly and accommodates higher pressure
ratings than the original compression
design. This design is comprised of a
fitting with a nut, body and ferrule(s)
having a sharp leading edge, which
42

FIGURE 3. No special tools

are required to assemble
compression fittings

bites into the skin of the tubing to

achieve holding ability. A second seal
is made on the long, deep surface between the ferrule and internal body
taper. Original bite-type fittings are
typically single ferrule in design. This
requires the nose of the ferrule to perform two functions: bite into the tube
to make the grip, and provide a sealing element for the coupling body, an
action which can too easily compromise one or both functions. A two-ferrule bite-type fitting performs separation of functions (the first, or front,
ferrule to seal, the second, or back,
ferrule to grip the tube). This separation permits each of the elements to be
designed specifically for the task it is
required to address. Once again, a line
seal is being created, similar to that
of the compression design, which may
create resealing problems.
Mechanical grip-type fittings: Mechanical grip-type fittings are typically two-ferrule in design. This fitting may also utilize a live-loaded seal
characteristic, which means the fitting
pull-up spring loads the front ferrule
as it seals by coining the surfaces of
the tubing and coupling body. A radial
colleting or holding action of the back
ferrule grips the tube for a distance
just out-board from the tube holding
point of the ferrule nose, to enhance
vibration resistance.
A hinging-colleting feature of a mechanical grip-type fitting is the most
desirable in achieving both tube grip
and vibration resistance. Colleting of
the gripping or back ferrule simply
means that the more material of the
back ferrule comes in contact with the
tubing to reduce the damaging effects
of system dynamics. As an example,
if you place a notch in the middle of
a wood pencil and apply downward
pressure on either side with your

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006

FIGURE 4. Mechanical grip-type

fittings have a hinging-colleting
feature for achieving both tube
grip and vibration resistance

hands, the obvious breaking or

cracking point would occur at
the notch. This same scenario
may occur on bite-type fittings,
where the gripping or biting ferrule places an indent or a stress
riser on a single point on the tubing, which puts the fittings grip
into a potential failure mode. In this
same pencil example, colleting would
be described as placing the notch in
the middle of the pencil and wrapping
your entire hand over the notched
area. With this additional support,
bending the pencil would not create
breakage or cracking at the notch,
but rather some place outboard of the
notch, reducing the intensity of the indent or stress riser on the tube.
Another strong advantage that this
design offers over the bite-type fitting is that dissassembly and remake
of the fitting after installation can be
more successfully accomplished without damage to either the fitting components or the tubing. This is a result
of a burnishing or polishing contact
between the sealing ferrule and the
body bevel, which does create an effective line, or point of contact seal, but
also generates a back-up sealing area
because the polishing effect provides
a longer or secondary sealing. In addition, some manufacturers offer an
inspector gauge to ensure proper and
sufficient pull-up on initial installation. Under-tightening of tube fittings,
especially in harder materials such as
stainless steel, is considered a major
cause for tube fitting leakage.

Energy management programs

In addition to selecting the proper fitting for a system, process system energy management can also be an important factor in maintaining effective
fluid handling systems. While there
are many types of energy management programs to consider, the following discussion and recommendations
are outlined from the viewpoint of:
Process and instrumentation lines
Plant utilities ( compressed air, hot
water, steam, and chilled water)
Hydraulic systems

The chemical industry is the second

largest energy user within the U.S.
manufacturing sector. Energy costs
represent approximately 9% of the
value of shipments. To identify opportunities for energy conservation and
cost saving measures, consider an energy audit, which can be performed by
an experienced entity within your own
organization.
Periodic maintenance plays an important role in reducing energy consumption and costs. For example,
consider compressed air leaks, clogged
filters, and warm air leaks into the
compressor. Steam system auditors
have documented that a typical plant,
without a preventive, predictive maintenance program in place, will have
approximately 28% of its steam traps
in a failure mode at any given time.
To significantly improve steam utilization, employ proper testing of steam
traps to identify leakage, repair the
leaks, and when appropriate, replace
steam traps not working properly.
Another example of important periodic maintenance can be found in
checking for air leaks in a compressed
air system. Working from as many as
1,000 check points in a typical system,
about 24 to 30% of the points can be
identified as leaking. This statistic
is then applied to the companys cost
per kilowatt-hour and losses are determined. A performance contract is
established to correct the problems.
Studies show that properly installed
fittings from certain manufacturers
correct leakage to less than 3%.
The audit should encompass energy
supply and consumption, including
a detailed analysis of the past years
energy bills. Energy supply considerations will show the current rate
schedule and costs from alternative
suppliers. Opportunities for energy efficiencies will begin surfacing as this
work continues. Energy and cost savings calculations should include estimated costs for implementation.

Gaugeable-tube fittings

Using a gaugeable-tube fitting can

often solve many leakage problems at
a plant. After the connection has been
made, a so-called no-go gauge is inserted between the hex of the fitting nut
and body. If the gauge does not fit, in

the case of several tube fitting designs,

then the tube fitting has been safely
and sufficiently installed to the recommended manufacturers installation instructions. Although there are multiple
gauge types available on the market,
the key objective is to assure safe reliable connections. The consistency, the
quality and the ease of use in a gauge is
imperative in its appropriate use.
As an example of the benefits of an
energy survey and the use of gaugeable fittings, consider the following.
One specific energy survey conducted
for a pulp and paper company revealed
23% leakage in its pneumatic systems.
When gaugeable tube fittings were installed, the leak rate dropped to zero.
Typically, all fittings in a given area of
a plant where gas (not liquid) service
is common are tested for leaks. Once
leaks are identified, the use of gaugeable tube fittings can lead to improved
equipment reliability and energy conservation.

This case is just one example of how

focusing on proper component selection, total system design, and energy
management programs can help develop an effective, efficient fluid handling system.
If you would like to conduct an energy audit and require additional
information, readers are welcome to
contact the author. Additional information and resources can be found on
the Alliance to Save Energy web site

(www.ase.org).
Edited by Gerald Ondrey

Author
John Cox is business development manager and product
specialist at Swagelok Co.
(31500 Aurora Road, Solon,
Ohio 44139; Phone 440-3495934; Fax: 440-349-5843;
Email:
john.cox@swagelok.
com). He has been with
Swagelok for over 30 years,
working in field sales, sales
management, training coordination and product design.
He has a B.A. degree in communications from
Midland Lutheran College.

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006

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