AIQ Bibliography With 2012 Updates

The Aspects of Identity Questionnaire:
History and Bibliography
Jonathan M. Cheek
Wellesley College
Linda R. Tropp1
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Nathan N. Cheek
Swarthmore College
1st ed.: April, 1994
2nd ed.: July, 1995
3rd ed.: June, 1998
4th ed.: July, 2012
Comments, corrections, and additions appreciated:

Department of Psychology
Wellesley College
Wellesley, MA 02481-8203 USA
phone: (781) 283-3130

fax: (781) 283-3730
email: jcheek@wellesley.edu
Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003;

tropp@psych.umass.edu
I. History of the Development of the

Aspects of Identity Questionnaire
Identity orientations refer to the relative importance that individuals place on various identity attributes
or characteristics when constructing their self-definitions (Cheek, 1989). The development of the Aspects of
Identity Questionnaire began with the selection of items from Sampson's (1978) list of identity characteristics
that were judged to represent the domains of personal and social identity (Cheek & Briggs, 1981, 1982).
Subsequently, some items were reworded, others eliminated, and new items were developed to improve the
reliability and content validity of the measures (Cheek, 1982/83; Cheek & Hogan, 1981; Hogan & Cheek,
1983). Psychometric analyses indicated that certain items originally scored in the social identity category (e.g.,
"Being a part of the many generations of my family") were tending to cluster on a third factor representing
communal or collective identity. A third scale for this domain was developed (Cheek, Underwood, & Cutler,
1985) and has now been expanded (Cheek, Tropp, Chen, & Underwood, 1994). Neither the social nor collective
scales focus on intimate relationships with close friends or romantic partners, so a fourth scale for relational
identity orientation (Being a good friend to those I really care about) was added to the AIQ-IV (Cheek, Smith,
& Tropp, 2002).
A. Personal and Social Identity scales. (Original version)

Source: Cheek, J. M. & Briggs, S. R. (1981, August). Self-consciousness, self-monitoring, and
aspects of identity. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological
Association, Los Angeles, CA. (Part of which was published as Cheek & Briggs, 1982).
Cheek, J. M., & Briggs, S. R. (1982). Self-consciousness and aspects of identity. Journal
of Research in Personality, 16, 401-408.
Adapted from: Sampson, E. E. (1978). Personality and the location of identity. Journal
of Personality, 46, 552-568.
Number of Items:
6 personal identity characteristics

5 social identity characteristics
B. Personal and Social Identity scales. (Second version)

Source: Cheek, J. M., & Hogan, R. (1981, August). The structure of identity: Personal and social
aspects. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological
Association, Los Angeles, CA. (Published in the section "Some Evidence" (pages
351-356) of Hogan & Cheek, 1983).
Hogan, R. & Cheek, J. M. (1983). Identity, authenticity, and maturity. In T. R. Sarbin &
K. E. Scheibe (Eds.), Studies in Social Identity (pp. 339-357). New York: Praeger.
Adapted from: Cheek & Briggs (1981, 1982)
Number of Items:
6 personal identity items

6 social identity items
C. Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ).

(Third version of the Personal and Social Identity scales)
Source: Cheek, J. M. (1982/83). The Aspects of Identity Questionnaire: Revised scales assessing
personal and social identity. Unpublished manuscript, Wellesley College.
Adapted from: Cheek & Hogan (1981); Hogan & Cheek (1983)
Number of Items:

(one of which was replaced in a March, 1993 "update")
D. Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ-III).

(Fourth version of the Personal and Social Identity scales; first version of the Collective
Identity scale)
Source: Cheek, J. M., Underwood, M. K., & Cutler, B. L. (1985). The Aspects of Identity
Questionnaire (III). Unpublished manuscript, Wellesley College.
Cheek, J. M. (1989). Identity orientations and self-interpretation. In D. M. Buss & N.
Cantor (Eds.), Personality Psychology: Recent Trends and Emerging Directions (pp.
275-285). New York: Springer-Verlag. (Table 1 presents the Personal and Social
Identity items, but not the Collective Identity items, of the AIQ-III).
Adapted from: Cheek (1982/83)
Number of Items:

7 collective identity items
E. Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ-IIIx)2.

(Personal and Social Identity scales with second version of the Collective Identity scale)
Source: Cheek, J. M., Tropp, L. R., Chen, L. C., & Underwood, M. K. (1994, August). Identity
Orientations: Personal, social, and collective aspects of identity. Paper presented at
the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles, CA.
Adapted from: Cheek, Underwood & Cutler (1985)
Number of Items:

7 original collective identity items and 3 experimental items
(1 experimental item subsequently retained for 8-item revised
version of the Collective Identity scale)
A copy of the AIQ-IIIx is included on the following two pages, one version with the scoring key and one version
that is "copy-ready" for administration.
F. Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ-IV) (First version of the Relational Identity scale)3
Source: Cheek, J. M., Smith, S.M., & Tropp, L. R. (2002, February). Relational identity orientation: A fourth
scale for the AIQ. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Personality and Social
Psychology, Savannah, GA.
Robins, R. W., Norem, J. K., & Cheek, J. M. (1999). Naturalizing the self. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John
(Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 443-477). New York, NY:
The Guilford Press. (Table 18.3 presents a conceptualization and description of the four aspects
of identity to be measured by the AIQ IV).
Alexander, R. (2009, April). The four ingredients of you. Psychologies Magazine, 67-71. (Contains an
abridged version of the AIQ IV and brief descriptions of the four identity orientations it
measures).
Number of Items: 10 personal identity items
8 collective identity items
10 relational identity items
A copy of the AIQ-IV and its scoring guide is included on pages 7-9.
AIQ - IIIx
INSTRUCTIONS: These items describe different aspects of identity. Please read each item carefully and consider how it applies to
you. Fill in the blank next to each item by choosing a number from the scale below.
1 = Not important to my sense of who I am
2 = Slightly important to my sense of who I am
3 = Somewhat important to my sense of who I am
4 = Very important to my sense of who I am
5 = Extremely important to my sense of who I am
SP 1. The things I own, my possessions
SP 20. My social class, the economic group I belong

to whether lower, middle, or upper class
PI 2. My personal values and moral standards

SI 3. My popularity with other people
CI 4. Being a part of the many generations
of my family
PI 21. Knowing that I continue to be essentially the

same inside even though life involves many
external changes
SI 22. My gestures and mannerisms, the impression
I make on others
PI 5. My dreams and imagination

CI 23. My feeling of belonging to my community
SI 6. The ways in which other people react
to what I say and do
PI 24. My self-knowledge, my ideas about what

kind of person I really am
CI 7. My race or ethnic background

PI 8. My personal goals and hopes for the
future
SI 9. My physical appearance: my height, my
weight, and the shape of my body
CI 10. My religion
PI 11. My emotions and feelings
SI 25. My social behavior, such as the way I act

when meeting people
CI 26. My feeling of pride in my country, being
proud to be a citizen
SP 27. My physical abilities, being coordinated and
good at athletic activities
PI 28. My personal self-evaluation, the private
opinion I have of myself
SI 12. My reputation, what others think of me

SP 29. Being a sports fan, identifying with a sports team
CI 13. Places where I live or where I was raised
SP 30. My occupational choice and career plans
PI 14. My thoughts and ideas
SI 15. My attractiveness to other people
SP 16. My age, belonging to my age group or
being part of my generation
PI 17. The ways I deal with my fears and
anxieties
SP 18. My sex, being a male or a female
CI 31. My commitments on political issues or my

political activities
SP 32. My academic ability and performance, such
as the grades I earn and comments I get
from teachers
CI 33. My language, such as my regional accent or
dialect or a second language that I know
SP 34. My role of being a student in college
PI 19. My feeling of being a unique person, being

SP 35. My sexual orientation, whether heterosexual,
distinct from others
homosexual, or bisexual
[Scoring Key: PI=Personal Identity Scale, SI=Social Identity Scale, CI=Collective Identity Scale; SP=Special items,
to be used as either single-item moderator variables, demographic questions, or as unscored filler items]
AIQ - IIIx
INSTRUCTIONS: These items describe different aspects of identity. Please read each item carefully and consider
how it applies to you. Fill in the blank next to each item by choosing a number from the scale below.
____ 1. The things I own, my possessions
____ 20. My social class, the economic group I belong

to whether lower, middle, or upper class
____ 2. My personal values and moral standards

____ 3. My popularity with other people
____ 4. Being a part of the many generations
of my family
____ 21. Knowing that I continue to be essentially the

same inside even though life involves many
external changes
____ 22. My gestures and mannerisms, the impression
I make on others
____ 5. My dreams and imagination

____ 23. My feeling of belonging to my community
____ 6. The ways in which other people react
to what I say and do
____ 24. My self-knowledge, my ideas about what

____ 7. My race or ethnic background

____ 8. My personal goals and hopes for the
future
____ 9. My physical appearance: my height, my
____ 10. My religion
____ 11. My emotions and feelings
____ 25. My social behavior, such as the way I act

when meeting people
____ 26. My feeling of pride in my country, being
____ 27. My physical abilities, being coordinated and
good at athletic activities
____ 28. My personal self-evaluation, the private
____ 12. My reputation, what others think of me

____ 29. Being a sports fan, identifying with a sports team
____ 13. Places where I live or where I was raised
____ 30. My occupational choice and career plans
____ 14. My thoughts and ideas
____ 15. My attractiveness to other people
____ 16. My age, belonging to my age group or
____ 17. The ways I deal with my fears and
anxieties
____ 18. My sex, being a male or a female
____ 31. My commitments on political issues or my

____ 32. My academic ability and performance, such
as the grades I earn and comments I get
from teachers
____ 33. My language, such as my regional accent or
dialect or a second language that I know
____ 34. My role of being a student in college
____ 19. My feeling of being a unique person, being

____ 35. My sexual orientation, whether heterosexual,
homosexual, or bisexual
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Age:
Gender: Male Female (Circle one)
Race or ethnic background:
AIQ-IV
INSTRUCTIONS: These items describe different aspects of identity. Please read each item carefully and
consider how it applies to you. Fill in the blank next to each item by choosing a number from the scale below:
_____1. The things I own, my possessions
_____21. My feeling of being a unique person, being

_____2. My personal values and moral standards

_____22. My relationships with the people I feel
close to
_____3. My popularity with other people

_____4. Being a part of the many generations of my
family
_____23. My social class, the economic group I

belong to whether lower, middle, or upper
class
_____24. My feeling of belonging to my community
_____5. My dreams and imagination

_____6. The ways in which other people react to
what I say and do
_____25. Knowing that I continue to be essentially

the same inside even though life involves
many external changes
_____7. My race or ethnic background

_____8. My personal goals and hopes for the future
_____26. Being a good friend to those I really care

about
_____9. My physical appearance: my height, my

_____27. My self-knowledge, my ideas about what

_____10. My religion
_____28. My commitment to being a concerned

relationship partner
_____11. My emotions and feelings

_____29. My feeling of pride in my country, being
_____12. My reputation, what others think of me

_____13. Places where I live or where I was raised
_____30. My physical abilities, being coordinated

and good at athletic activities
_____14. My thoughts and ideas

_____15. My attractiveness to other people
_____31. Sharing significant experiences with my

close friends
_____16. My age, belonging to my age group or

_____32. My personal self-evaluation, the private

_____17. My gestures and mannerisms, the

impression I make on others
_____33. Being a sports fan, identifying with a sports

team
_____18. The ways I deal with my fears and

anxieties
_____34. Having mutually satisfying personal

relationships
_____19. My sex, being a male or a female

_____35. Connecting on an intimate level with
another person
_____20. My social behavior, such as the way I act

when meeting people

_____36. My occupational choice and career plans
_____37. Developing caring relationships with others
_____42. My language, such as my regional accent

or dialect or a second language that I know
_____38. My commitments on political issues or my

_____43. My feeling of connectedness with those I

am close to
_____39. My desire to understand the true thoughts

and feelings of my best friend or romantic partner
_____44. My role of being a student in college

_____45. My sexual orientation, whether
heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual
_____40. My academic ability and performance,

such as the grades I earn and comments I get
from teachers
_____41. Having close bonds with other people
Scoring for the AIQ-IV

[version 4, which adds RI to AIQ-IIIx, thus adding 10 new RI items and changing sequence= item #s of some
old items] (Summer 2001 for 2002 SPSP Poster)
For details of AIQ-IIIx and its history and bibliography, see Identity Orientations.
PI = Personal Identity Orientation
RI = Relational Identity Orientation
SI = Social Identity Orientation
CI = Collective Identity Orientation
(SP = Special items [not scored on scales])
Each of the scale scores is the sum of the answers (1-5) given to those items. For AIQ-IV 45 items, the scoring
numbering is:
PI = 2 5 8 11 14 18 21 25 27 32 [sum of answers to 10 items]
RI = 22 26 28 31 34 35 37 39 41 43 [ "" 10 items]
SI = 3 6 9 12 15 17 20 [ "" 7 items]
CI = 4 7 10 13 24 29 38 42 [ "" 8 items]
[SP = 1 16 19 23 30 33 36 40 44 45 (10 items not scored on scales)]**
**Dollinger et al. (1996) created a new AIQ -IIIx scale named "Superficial Identity" by summing 5 items [AIQIIIx SP's # 1, 16, & 18 plus SI's # 9 & 15] as "a measure of an emphasis on surface qualities of self immediately
visible to others" (M = 17.46, SD = 3.39). Superficial identity orientation correlated .19 with PI, .75 corrected to
.61 with the partly overlapping SI, and .36 with CI. (Dollinger, S. J., Preston, L. A., O'Brien, S. P., & DiLalla,
D. L. (1996). Individuality and relatedness of the self: An autophotographic study. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 71, 1268-1278.) ("Superficial" on AIQ-IV = 1 9 15 16 19)
***Additional use of an ad hoc "scale" of SP items and single items: In a set of analyses of additional data from
the sample described above, Dollinger created a new AIQ-IIIx scale named "Academic Identity" by summing 3
SP items pertaining to the importance of career plans, academic performance, and the student role [AIQ-IIIx
SP's # 30, 32, & 34; M =11.9, SD = 2.0] to relate to Achievement coding of the autophotography essays
(obtained r = .27). In addition, the AIQ religion item [CI # 10] correlated .16 with the Religion photo code, and
the AIQ-IIIx physical abilities item [AIQ-IIIx SP # 27] correlated .23 with the Athletics code for the
autobiographical photo essays. (Dollinger, S. J. (1996). Autophotographic identities of young adults: With
special reference to alcohol, athletics, achievement, religion and work. Journal of Personality Assessment , 67,
384-398.) ("Academic/college" on AIQ-IV = 36 40 44)
**Note: AIQ-IV #23 ('social class') loaded on both SI and CI in college students (especially on SI at
Dartmouth) but we expect it should probably load as a CI item among non-college adults.
In general, the SP items are intended to provide at least single item assessment of the subjective importance of
dimensions that have been included in various theories and measurement models of multidimensional selfesteem (e.g., Briggs, S. R. & Cheek, J. M. (1986). The role of factor analysis in the development and evaluation
of personality scales. Journal of Personality, 54, 106-148.)
II. Bibliography of the Use of the Aspects of Identity Questionnaire
Cheek, J. M. (1982). Aggregation, moderator variables, and the validity of personality tests:
A peer-rating study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(6), 1254-1269.
Version used: Second version of the Personal Identity and Social Identity scales
(Cheek & Hogan, 1981; Hogan & Cheek, 1983)
Reliabilities for scales: (not reported)
Summary of Research: Aggregating the Personal Identity and Private Self-Consciousness scales
into a global measure of Inward Orientation, Cheek (1982) found that self-ratings and peerratings of personality characteristics were most strongly correlated for subjects who scored
high on both Inward Orientation and Acting (as measured by the Acting subscale of Snyder's
(1974) Self-Monitoring Scale).
Cheek, J. M. & Busch, C. M. (1982, April). Self-monitoring and the inner-outer metaphor:
Principled versus pragmatic self? Paper presented at the meeting of the Eastern
Psychological Association, Baltimore, MD.
Version used: Second version of the Personal Identity and Social Identity scales
(Cheek & Hogan, 1981; Hogan & Cheek, 1983)
Summary of Research: Cheek & Busch (1982) found social identity to be positively correlated with
measures of public self-consciousness, sociability, and institutional and altruistic selves;
Social Identity was also positively correlated with the total score and extraversion subscale of
Snyder's (1974) Self-Monitoring Scale. Personal identity was positively correlated with private selfconsciousness, need for uniqueness and achievement-oriented self. Personal identity was neither
positively nor negatively correlated with the Self-Monitoring Scale or any of its subscales.
Cheek, J. M., & Hogan, R. (1983). Self-concepts, self-presentations, and moral judgements. In
J. Suls and A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological Perspectives on the Self (Vol. 2, pp.
249-273). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Version used: Intermediate version between Cheek & Hogan (1981) and Cheek (1982/83):
9 Personal Identity items, 7 Social Identity items
Reliabilities for scales: .70 (Personal Identity), .70 (Social Identity)
Summary of Research: Cheek and Hogan (1983) found that Personal Identity correlated
significantly more strongly with guilt feelings than with shame, whereas Social Identity
correlated significantly more strongly with shame than with guilt.
Hogan R. & Cheek, J. M. (1983). Identity, authenticity, and maturity. In T.R. Sarbin &
10
K. E. Scheibe (Eds.), Studies in Social Identity (pp. 339-357). New York: Praeger.
Version used: Personal and Social Identity Scales (Cheek & Hogan, 1981)
Summary of Research: Using Barron's (1953) Independence of Judgement Scale, Hogan and Cheek
(1983) found that respondents who scored high on Personal Identity and low on Social
Identity had significantly higher Independence of Judgement scores than any other group of
respondents. In a regression equation, Personal Identity and Social Identity together served as
a better predictor for Independence of Judgement scores than either scale alone.
Liebman, W. E. & Cheek, J. M. (1983, August). Shyness and body image. Paper presented as
part of APA Convention Symposium "Progress in Research on Shyness," Anaheim, CA.
Version used: Social Identity item pertaining to physical appearance (Cheek, 1982/83)
Summary of Research: Using a single Social Identity item to measure importance of physical
appearance, Liebman and Cheek (1983) found that shyness and self-evaluation of physical
appearance were strongly correlated negatively when physical appearance was considered very
or extremely important, but they were only slightly correlated negatively when physical
appearance was considered slightly or somewhat important.
Penner, L. A., & Wymer, W. E. (1983). The moderator variable approach to behavioral
predictability: Some of the variables some of the time. Journal of Research in
Personality, 17, 339-353.
Version used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (Cheek, 1982/83)
Reliabilities for scales: .82 (Personal Identity); .83 (Social Identity)
Summary of Research: While Personal and Social Identity were both positively correlated with
Private and Public Self-Consciousness, Penner and Wymer (1983) found that Personal Identity
showed a stronger relationship with Private Self-Consciousness and Social Identity was more
strongly correlated with Public Self-Consciousness. Social Identity was also positively correlated
with Self-Monitoring.
Cutler, B. L., Lennox, R. D., & Wolfe, R. N. (1984, August). Reliability and construct validity
of the Aspects of Identity Questionnaire. Paper presented at the meeting of the American
Psychological Association. Toronto, Canada.
11
Summary of Research: Cutler et al. (1984) found Personal Identity to have a significant
positive correlation with need for uniqueness and achievement orientation, while Social Identity
was instead significantly correlated with concern for social appropriateness and altruistic
orientation.
Frantz, R. P. (1985). Self-actualization and social interest: A comparison of two scales. (Unpublished
B. A. Honors thesis). Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA.
Version used: Original Personal and Social Identity scales (Cheek & Briggs, 1982)
Summary of Research: Paralleling Hogan and Cheek's (1983) findings, Frantz (1985) found that Social
Identity was negatively correlated with Independence of Judgement. Personal Identity was positively
correlated with Independence of Judgement, and the combination of the two identity scales
significantly predicted Independence of Judgement scores, demonstrating a pattern similar to that of
Hogan and Cheek (1983).
Wymer, W. E., & Penner, L. A. (1985). Moderator variables and different types of
predictability: Do you have a match? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
49(4), 1002-1015.
Reliabilities for scales: .77 (Personal Identity)
Summary of Research: Replicating Cheek's (1982) use of a composite of Personal Identity and
Private Self-Consciousness, Wymer and Penner (1985) found high scores on both "InnerDirectedness" and social skills to predict higher levels of congruence between self- and peerratings. Respondents low on social skills and high on Inner-Directedness had higher levels of
attitude-behavior congruence. Further, respondents high on Personal Identity also tended to
have higher attitude-behavior congruence than respondents low on Personal Identity.
Briggs, S. R. & Cheek, J. M. (1986). The role of factor analysis in the development and
evaluation of personality scales. Journal of Personality, 54(1), 106-148.
Summary of Research: While a series of self-esteem measures all loaded highly on a selfevaluation factor, Briggs and Cheek (1986) found that Personal Identity did not load on this
factor, suggesting that identity orientations (self-values) are indeed distinct from self-esteem
(self-evaluation).
Forman, B. D., & Crandall, J. E. (1986). Social interest, irrational beliefs, and identity.
Individual Psychology, 42(1), 26-34.
12
Version used: Personal and Social Identity scales (Cheek & Hogan, 1981; Hogan & Cheek, 1983)
Summary of Research: Forman and Crandall (1986) found that undergraduates scoring highest
on Social Interest also tended to score more highly on Social Identity than those low on Social
Interest; no significant relationships were found between Social Interest and Personal Identity.
Leary, M. R., Wheeler, D. S., & Jenkins, T. B. (1986). Aspects of identity and behavioral
preference: Studies of occupational and recreational choice. Social Psychology
Quarterly, 49(1), 11-18.
Reliabilities for scales: .64, .81 (Personal Identity); .73, .78 (Social Identity)
Summary of Research: Leary et al. (1986) found respondents high in Personal Identity to
consider personally-relevant job characteristics as significantly more important than respondents
low in Personal Identity, while respondents high in Social Identity rated socially-relevant job
characteristics significantly higher than those low in Social Identity. Respondents high in
Personal Identity also rated personal reasons for participating in sports significantly higher than
did respondents low in Personal Identity; respondents high in Social Identity instead rated social
reasons for participating in sports as significantly more important than did those low in Social
Identity.
Johnson, J. A. (1987). Influence of adolescent social crowds on the development of vocational
identity. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 31, 182-199.
Summary of Research: Comparing Brown's taxonomy of adolescent social crowds to Holland's
conceptualization of vocational personality types, Johnson (1987) found that people who were
members of highly individualistic crowds (e.g., "Brains") tended to have stronger personal
identity orientations, while those who described themselves as members of the "Socialite" crowd
tended to have stronger social identity orientations.
Barnes, B. D., Mason, E., Leary, M. R., Laurent, J., Griebel, C., & Bergman, A. (1988).
Reactions to social vs. self-evaluation: Moderating effects of personal and social
identity orientations. Journal of Research in Personality, 22, 513-524.
13
Summary of Research: Barnes et al. (1988) found that respondents high in Personal Identity were
more apprehensive about self-evaluation and less apprehensive about social evaluation
than were respondents low in Personal Identity. Further, respondents high in Social Identity
grew more apprehensive about social evaluation than did low Social Identity respondents.
Berzonsky, M. D., Trudeau, J. V., & Brennan, F. X. (1988, March). Social-cognitive
correlates of identity status. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research on
Adolescence, Alexandria, VA.
Summary of Research: Berzonsky et al. (1988) found Personal Identity to be positively correlated with
identity achievement and negatively correlated with identity diffusion. Social Identity was significantly
correlated with identity foreclosure.
Johnson, J. A., Germer, C. K., Efran, J. S., & Overton, W. F. (1988). Personality as the basis for
theoretical predilections. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55(5), 824-835.
Summary of Research: Johnson et al. (1988) found that respondents high in Personal Identity
were significantly more likely to have an organismic world view, a relationship stronger among
women than among men. Social Identity and mechanistic world view were unrelated among
females, but male respondents scoring high on Social Identity were more likely to have a
mechanistic world view (the gender differences in the first sample were reported in Johnsons [1984]
APA paper, but not in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology article). These results in the
first small sample (N = 56) were not replicated in a second small sample (N = 24).
Miller, M. L., & Thayer, J. F. (1988). On the nature of self-monitoring: Relationships with
adjustment and identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14(3), 544-553.
Summary of Research: Miller and Thayer (1988) found that respondents high on Social
Identity scored higher on the Self-Monitoring Scale than did respondents low in Social Identity.
Separating their sample into low-, middle- and high self-monitors, Miller and Thayer (1988)
further found that middle-level self-monitors who scored low on both identity scales were lower
on neuroticism than low self-monitors scoring low on both identity measures and high selfmonitors low on Personal Identity and high on Social Identity.
14
Lamphere, R. A., & Leary, M. R. (1990). Private and public self-processes: A return to James's
constituents of the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16(4), 717-725.
Version used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (1982/83)
Summary of Research: Lamphere and Leary (1990) reported that Personal Identity had
significant positive correlations with Private Self-Consciousness and a new Endogenic
Orientation scale; Social Identity has significant positive correlations with Public SelfConsciousness, the Self-Monitoring Scale, and a new Exogenic Orientation scale.
Lapsley, D. K., Rice, K. G., & FitzGerald, D. P. (1990). Adolescent attachment, identity,
and adjustment to college: Implications for the continuity of adaptation hypothesis.
Journal of Counseling & Development, 68(5), 561-565.
Version used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (Cheek, 1982/83), incorrectly cited as (Cheek &
Briggs, 1982)
Summary of Research: Lapsley et al. (1990) found that freshmen tended to have stronger
personal identity orientations than upperclassmen. Female students were found to be less
alienated from their peers and to score higher on Personal Identity and Social Identity than
their male counterparts. Attachment to parents surfaced as a predictor of higher Personal
Identity and Social Identity scores for both freshmen and upperclassmen.
Schlenker, B. R., & Weigold, M. F. (1990). Self-consciousness and self-presentation: Being
autonomous versus appearing autonomous. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
59(4), 820-828.
Summary of Research: Schlenker & Weigold (1990) found that personal identity was consistently
positively correlated with private self-consciousness, need for uniqueness, sociability and autonomy,
while not significantly correlated with public self-consciousness. Social identity was consistently
positively correlated with public self-consciousness, fear of negative evaluation, sociability and
conformity, while not significantly correlated with private self-consciousness.
Leary, M. R., & Meadows, S. (1991). Predictors, elicitors, and concomitants of social
blushing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 254-262.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (Cheek, 1982/83)
Reliabilities for Scales: .78 (Personal Identity), .80 (Social Identity)
15
Summary of Research: 220 college students completed several measuresincluding the AIQ, the Brief
Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (Leary, 1983a), the Attention to Social Comparison Information
subscale of the Revised Self-Monitoring Scale (Lennox & Wolfe, 1984), and the Public and Private
Self-Consciousness Scales (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975)to study blushing. Neither Social nor
Personal Identity correlated strongly with blushing propensity as assessed by Leary and Meadows
(1991). Social Identity did, however, show a correlation with fear of negative evaluation (r=.37, p<.01),
public self-consciousness (r=.56, p<.01), attention to social comparison (r=.37, p<.01), and need for
inclusion (r=.37, p<.01). In addition, Personal Identity correlated strongly with private selfconsciousness (r=.45, p<.01).
Berzonsky, M. D., & Sullivan, C. (1992). Social-cognitive aspects of identity style: Need for
cognition, experiential openness, and introspection. Journal of Adolescent
Research, 7, 140-155.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (Cheek 1982/83)
Summary of Research: 169 female college students were administered a battery of surveys, including
the AIQ, the Berzonsky (1989) Identity Styles Inventory (ISI), Cacioppo et al.s (1984) need-forcognition measurement, Costa and McCraes (1978) openness to experience inventory, and an
introspectiveness measure by Hansell et al. (1986). Personal Identity was strongly correlated with the
information-oriented rating on the ISI (r=.41, p<.01) and negatively correlated with the diffuse/avoidant
style (r=-.20, p<.01). Social Identity was somewhat correlated with normative (r=.19, p<.01) and
diffuse/avoidant (r=.18, p<.01) styles.
Luhtanen, R. & Crocker, J. (1992). A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one's
social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18(3), 302-318.
Version used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (III) (Cheek, Underwood, & Cutler, 1985)
Summary of Research: Luhtanen & Crocker (1992) found that Social Identity and Collective
Identity were both positively correlated with the total score and Identity subscale of their new
Collective Self-Esteem Scale.
McKillop, K. J., Berzonsky, M. D., & Schlenker, B. R. (1992). The impact of selfpresentations on self-beliefs: Effects of social identity and self-presentational context.
Journal of Personality, 60(4), 789-808.
16
Summary of Research: McKillop et al. (1992) showed that respondents high in Social Identity
(SI) tended to be more affected by self-presentational roles in a face-to-face condition than
respondents low in Social Identity. Respondents high in Social Identity also showed an increase
in self-esteem when presenting themselves positively in the face-to-face condition. In the
anonymous condition, low SI respondents with positive self-presentations had higher self-ratings
of sociability than either low SI respondents with negative self-presentations or high SI
respondents with positive self-presentations.
Sieber, K. O., & Meyers, L. S. (1992). Validation of the MMPI-2 social introversion
subscales. Psychological Assessments, 4, 185-189.
Version Used: Personal and Social Identity scales (Hogan & Cheek, 1983)
Reliability for Scales: .71 (Personal Identity), .63 (Social Identity)
Summary of Research: 384 college students took the AIQ, the MMPI-2, and several other
measures.There was a slight gender difference in scores: men (M=20.19) scored higher on Social
Identity than did women (M=19.81). Social Identity was negatively correlated with the social avoidance
subscale of the MMPI-2 (r=-.22, p<.01).
Tropp, Linda R. (1992). The construct of collective identity and its implications for the
Wellesley College context. (Unpublished B. A. Honors thesis). Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA.
Version used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (III) (Cheek, Underwood, & Cutler, 1985)
Reliabilities for scales: .77 (Personal Identity), .86 (Social Identity), .66 (Collective Identity)
Summary of Research: Tropp (1992) found that respondents high in Collective Identity were
significantly more likely to spontaneously describe themselves as members of an ethnic group,
to rank ethnicity as a highly central aspect of self, and to regard uniqueness as less central to
their self-concepts. In contrast, respondents high in Personal Identity tended to rank uniqueness
as a highly central aspect of self, while rating ethnicity as significantly less central to their
self-concepts.
Britt, T. W. (1993). Metatraits: Evidence relevant to the validity of the construct and its
implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(3), 554-562.
Summary of Research: Britt (1993) replicated the finding that personal identity is positively
correlated with private self-consciousness, and found that people traited on both of these
variables showed greater correlations between the two than did untraited respondents or those
traited only on one. Social identity correlated positively with public self-consciousness; the
relationship between these two variables was substantially stronger among traited respondents
than among untraited respondents or those traited on only one of the variables.
17
Leary, M. R., & Jones, J. L. (1993). The social psychology of tanning and sunscreen use: Selfpresentational motives as a predictor of health risk. Journal of Applied Social
Psychology, 23(17), 1390-1406.
Version used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (Cheek, 1989; Cheek et al., 1985), incorrectly cited as
(Cheek, 1990)
Reliabilities for scales: exceeded .70 for both Personal and Social Identity scales
Summary of Research: Leary and Jones (1993) found that respondents who engaged in more skin
cancer risk behaviors scored higher on Social Identity and Public Self-Consciousness.
Personal Identity showed no significant relationship to risk behaviors, yet it was positively
correlated with increased sunscreen use.
Leary, M. R., & Kowalski, R. M. (1993). The Interaction Anxiousness Scale: Construct and
criterion-related validity. Journal of Personality Assessment, 61, 136-146.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (Cheek, 1989)
Reliabilities for Scales: (not reported)
Summary of Research: 1,864 college students took the Interaction Anxiousness Scale (IAS), the AIQ,
and several other measures. As evidence for the discriminant validity of both the AIQ and the IAS, the
correlation between the IAS and both Personal Identity (r=.06, p<.01) and Social Identity (r=.11, p<.01)
were very low.
Little, B. R. (1993). Personal projects and the distributed self: Aspects of a conative psychology.
In J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological Perspectives on the Self (Vol. 4, pp. 157-181). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Version used: Refers to Cheek & Hogan (1981, 1983; which should be Hogan & Cheek, 1983)
Reliabilities for scales: (N/A)
Summary of Research: Little (1993) used Cheek & Hogan's (1981) two-factor solution of Personal
Identity and Social Identity as a model for his own factor analysis of self-identity ratings of Personal
Projects. In his results (Table 6.2, p. 169), he found two factors which he considered to be similar
to Cheek & Hogan's Social Identity and Personal Identity. In the same edited volume, Mark R. Leary
(1993, The interplay of private self-processes and interpersonal factors in self-presentation,
Ch. 5, pp. 127-155) discusses several of his studies using the Personal and Social Identity scales.
Berzonsky, M. D. (1994). Self-Identity: The relationships between process and content. Journal
of Research in Personality, 28, 453-460.
Version used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ-III) (Cheek et al., 1985), incorrectly cited as
(Cheek, 1988)
18
Summary of Research: Berzonsky (1994) found that identity orientations were associated with his
measure of identity processing styles: informational respondents highlighted the personal identity
orientation; normative respondents emphasized the collective identity orientation; and diffuse/
avoidant respondents focused on the social identity orientation.
Cheek, J. M., Tropp, L. R., Chen, L. C., & Underwood, M. K. (1994, August). Identity
orientations: Personal, social, and collective aspects of identity. Paper presented at the
meeting of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles.
Version used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ-IIIx) (Cheek et al., 1994)
Summary of Research: Cheek et al. (1994) administered the Aspects of Identity Questionnaire
to Asian-American and European-American college students. While there were no significant
differences between Asian-Americans and European-Americans with respect to Personal
Identity and Social Identity, Asian-Americans were significantly higher in Collective Identity
than European-Americans.
Kowalski, R. M., & Wolfe, R. (1994). Collective identity orientation, patriotism, and
reactions to national outcomes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 533-540.
Version used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire III (Cheek et al., 1985)
Reliabilities for scales: .81, .78 (Personal Identity); .66, .74 (Collective Identity)
Summary of Research: Kowalski and Wolfe (1994) conducted two experiments which examined "the
extent to which individual differences in collective identity orientation moderate perceptions of the
United States following national success and failure...Among subjects low in Personal Identity
orientation, those high in Collective Identity orientation rated the United States more favorably
following national failure than subjects low in Collective Identity."
Reddy, R., & Gibbons, J. L. (1995). Socio-economic contexts and adolescent identity development in
India. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Cross-Cultural Research,
Savannah, Georgia.
Summary of Research: In a sample of 15-16 year old students in Madras, India, Reddy and
Gibbons (1995) found that students from higher socio-economic backgrounds tended to score higher
on Personal Identity orientation, while students from lower socio-economic backgrounds tended to
score higher on Collective Identity orientation.
19
Dollinger, S. J. (1996). Autophotographic identities of young adults: With special reference to alcohol,
athletics, achievement, religion and work. Journal of Personality Assessment, 67, 384-398.
Version used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ-III) (Cheek et al., 1985)
(cited as Cheek, 1989)
Reliabilities for scales: .70 (new Academic Identity)
Summary of Research: In a set of analyses of additional data from the sample described above,
Dollinger created a new AIQ scale named "Academic Identity" by summing 3 SP items pertaining to
the importance of career plans, academic performance, and the student role [AIQ-IIIx SP's # 30, 32,
& 34; M = 11.9, SD = 2.0] to relate to Achievement coding of the autophotography essays (obtained
r = .27). In addition, the AIQ religion item [CI # 10] correlated .16 with the Religion photo code,
and the AIQ physical abilities item [SP # 27] correlated .23 with the Athletics code for the
autobiographical photo essays.
Dollinger, S. J., Preston, L. A., O'Brien, S. P., & DiLalla, D. L. (1996). Individuality and relatedness of
the self: An autophotographic study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1268-1278.
Version used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ-III) (Cheek et al., 1985)
(cited as Cheek, 1991, NEPA talk at which AIQ-III was distributed)
.66 (new Superficial Identity)
Summary of Research: Created a new AIQ scale named "Superficial Identity" by summing 5 items
[AIQ-IIIx SP's # 1, 16, & 18 plus SI's # 9 & 15] as "a measure of an emphasis on surface qualities
of self immediately visible to others" (M = 17.46, SD = 3.39). Superficial identity orientation
correlated .19 with PI, .75 corrected to .61 with the partly overlapping SI, and .36 with CI.
Autophotography "essays" were coded for Individuality and Relatedness: Personal Identity had small
positive correlations with Individuality and small to moderate negative correlations with Relatedness;
Social, Collective, and Superficial Identity orientations had moderately negative correlations with
Individuality and small to moderate positive correlations with Relatedness. Regression analyses
showed that those who selectively endorsed PI items while not endorsing SI and CI items were the
most individualistic; those who selectively endorsed SI and CI but not PI items scored highest on
relatedness. (Not reported in the final version of the paper were correlations between the AIQ-III
and the NEO-FFI, with rs > +/-.30 between Personal Identity and Openness (.41) and between Social
Identity and Extraversion (.36, n = 226).)
Gregory, L. A. (1997). Temperament and wellness within a college population (Unpublished
honors thesis). University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Knoxville, TN.
Version Used: Personal and Social Identity scales (Hogan & Cheek, 1983)
Summary of Research: 106 undergraduates completed a number of surveys, including the Aspects of
20
Identity Questionnaire. Gregory (1997) found that members of Greek organizations were more likely to
have high Social Identity scores than were members of service-oriented groups or non-affiliated
individuals.
Wink, P. (1997). Beyond ethnic differences: Contextualizing the influence of ethnicity on
and collectivism. Journal of Social Issues, 53, 329-350.
individualism

Reliabilities for scales: .80 (Personal Identity), .70 (Collective Identity)
Summary of research: In a sample of 453 American college students of Chinese, Korean, and
European descent, Personal Identity correlated .36 with Singelis' Independent Self-Construal and .43
with Schwartz's Personal Openness, and Collective Identity correlated .39 with Singelis' Interdependent
Self-Construal and .58 with Schwartz's Social Order. (Correlations for Social Identity
were not
reported.)
Brown, J.D. (1998). The Self. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Summary of research: This text book presents a subset of AIQ-IIIx items for the Personal, Social
and Collective Identity Orientations (Table 2.5) as part of a discussion of individual differences in
identity (pp. 31-32).
Carducci, B.J. (1998). The Psychology of Personality. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Version used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (Cheek, 1989)
Summary of research: This text book presents a subset of modified AIQ items for the Personal and
Social Identity Orientations and reviews theory and research pertaining to the AIQ (pp. 364-367).
Lutwak, N., Ferrari, J.R., & Cheek, J.M. (1998). Shame, guilt, and identity in men and women:
The role of identity orientation and processing style in moral affects. Personality and
Individual Differences, 2, 1027-1036.
Summary of research: In a sample of 306 college students, guilt (TOSCA) was related to Personal
Identity and the Informational Identity Style whereas shame was related to Social Identity and the
Normative Identity Style. This research is a partial replication and extension of earlier bibliography
entries Cheek & Hogan (1983) and Berzonsky (1994). The Collective Identity Orientation scale did
21
not correlate significantly with either guilt or shame, but it did have moderate positive correlations
with both the Informational and the Normative Identity Styles.
Seta, C.E., Seta, J.J., & Goodman, R.C. (1998). Social identity orientation and the generation of
compensatory expectations: Schema maintenance through compensation. Basic and Applied Social
Psychology, 20, 285-291.
Reliabilities for scales: .87 (Social Identity)
Summary of research: Explored the role that motives to confirm or maintain group stereotypes play in
forming expectations about the future behavior of ingroups. Participants high in Social Identity
orientation generated compensatory expectations about future behavior of a different group member who
was unrelated to a deviant group member.
Triandis, H.C., & Gelfand, M.J. (1998). Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical
individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 118-128.
Summary of research: In a sample of 90 American college students (Study 4), Collective Identity
correlated .32 with a new measure of Vertical Collectivism and other correlations were described as
"small" and were not reported in the article.
Reddy, R., & Gibbons, J. L. (1999). School socioeconomic contexts and adolescent self-descriptions in
India. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28(5), 619-631.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ IIIx) (Cheek et al., 1994)
Reliability for scales: .84 (Personal Identity), .86 (Social Identity), .68 (Collective Identity)
Summary of research: The AIQ IIIx was used with Indian 15-16 year-olds (N=168). Students from a
high socioeconomic status (SES) school showed significantly higher Personal Identity orientations
(M=40.857) than did students from a lower SES school (M=36.35). Collective Identity orientations were
higher among students from a lower SES school (M = 33.45) than those from a high SES school (M =
27.11).
Christopher, A. N., & Schlenker, B. R. (2000). The impact of perceived material wealth and perceiver
personality on first impressions. Journal of Economic Psychology, 21(1), 1-19.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ IIIx) (Cheek, et al., 1994)
Reliability for Scales: (not reported)
22
Summary of Research: 150 college students took the AIQ IIIx and other measures, including a measure
of materialism (Richins & Dawson, 1992). Either before or after this, they were asked to read vignettes
describing the after-work habits of a character and to assess this characters perceived wealth (based on
material possessions and the affluence of the setting). Higher Personal Identity scores were associated
with lower estimations of income. Materialism and Social Identity were significantly correlated (r=.42,
p<.001). Social and Personal Identity were largely independent (r=.13).
Kashima, E. S., & Hardie, E. A. (2000). The development and validation of the Relational, Individual,
and Collective self-aspects (RIC) Scale. The Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 3, 19-48.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ IIIx) (Cheek at al., 1994)
Reliability for Scales: .83 (Personal Identity), .80 (Social Identity), .76 (Collective Identity)
Summary of Research: 216 Australian college students took the AIQ IIIx, the Relational, Individual, and
Collective self-aspects (RIC) scale, and several other scales assessing individual differences. Personal
Identity correlated with the Individual (r=.47, p<.002) and Relational (r=.48, p<.002) self-aspect
subscales of the RIC. Collective Identity correlated with the Collective self-aspect subscale of the RIC
(r=.39, p<.002). Social Identity did not correlate significantly with any of the RIC subscales.
Ryder, A. G., Alden, L. E., & Paulhus, D. E. (2000). Is acculturation unidimensional or bidimensional? A
head-to-head comparison in the prediction of personality, self-identity, and adjustment. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 79(1), 49-65.
Reliability for Scales: .79 (Personal Identity), .64 (Collective Identity)
Summary of Research: Research featured primarily Chinese and East Asian subjects. In Chinese
subjects, assimilation was negatively associated with the Collective Identity subscale and positively
correlated with the Personal Identity subscale. In East Asian (not including Chinese) subjects, this effect
was not present, perhaps due to a small sample size.
Shafer, A. B. (2000). Relation of the Big Five to Biodata and aspects of the self. Personality and
Summary of Research: 199 participants completed the Bipolar Big Five Markers (Shafer, 1997), the
AIQ, and several other measurements. A goal of the research was to see if and how well the Big Five
traits predicted various aspects or orientations of individuals identities. The researchers found that
Openness was a large positive predictor of Personal Identity (=.36), as wereto a somewhat lesser
extentConscientiousness (=.22) and Neuroticism (=.20). Neuroticism was also a strong positive
predictor of Social Identity (=.45).
Wade, J. C., & Brittan-Powell, C. (2000). Male reference group identity dependence: Support for
23
construct validity. Sex Roles, 43(5/6), 323-340.

Summary of Research: A group of all-male undergraduates completed the AIQ IIIx and the Reference
Group Identity Dependence Scale (RGIDS; Wade & Gelso, 1998), which was developed to measure
theoretical aspects of male reference group identity dependence (Wade and Brittan-Powell, 2000, p.
334). Personal identity was viewed as the most important identity orientation, though all three aspects
were viewed as important by the male subjects. Collective Identity was significantly negatively
correlated with the No Reference Group (r=-.20, p<.05) and positively correlated with the Similarity
factor (r=.20, p<.005), while Social Identity had a significantly positive correlation with Reference
Group Dependent status (r=.24, p<.005) and Personal Identity was significantly related to the Diversity
factor (r=-.31, p<.001).
Parker, R. J. (2001). The effects of evaluative context on performance: The roles of self-and socialevaluations. Social Behavior and Personality, 29(8), 807-822.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ) (Cheek, 1982)
Reliability for Scales: .81 (Personal Identity), .78 (Social Identity)
Summary of Research: 120 students completed the AIQ and then completed a performance task
involving decoded cards. Some were told their performance score would be anonymous and some told it
would be known by peers. In addition, some were given a specific goal, while others were not (thus,
there were four total conditions). Overall, subjects performed better when told their results would be
reviewed by peers, but this effect was further magnified for subjects with high Personal Identity scores,
regardless of whether or not they were assigned a specific goal. On the other hand, high Social Identity
scores were associated with higher task performance in the peer-evaluation condition, but only when
there was a specific goal assigned.
Seta, J. J., Seta, C. E., & Hundt, G. M. (2001). Exaggerating the differences between relatively successful
and unsuccessful groups: Identity orientation as a perceptual lens. Group Dynamics: Theory,
Research, and Practice, 5(1), 19-32.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ IIIx) (Cheek et al., 1994), incorrectly cited as
(Cheek, 1989)
Summary of Research: In the first study, 54 female college students completed the AIQ and then rated
the ability of Group X (described as the winning group) and Group Z (described as the losing
group). Participants then rated how much they would want to see each group give a speech. There was
a greater difference between the ability ratings of Groups X and Z by subjects with higher Collective
Identity scores. Additionally, high Collective Identity scores also predicted a greater difference between
the desire to see Group Xs and Group Zs speech. Thus, subjects with high Collective Identity scores
perceived Group X as more successful and Group Z as more unsuccessful than did other subjects. This
24
effect was also found in subjects with high Social Identity scores. In the second study, 195 female
college students followed the same procedure, with two added conditions: in one, both groups had
overall poor records, in the other, they both had very strong records. When both Group X and Group Z
were overall very successful, subjects with high Collective Identity scores saw less of a difference
between the two groups than did other subjects. The same pattern was found when both groups were
overall unsuccessful. Subjects high in Social Identity, however, continued to see a large difference
between the two groups, both when they were both very successful and very unsuccessful.
Tropp, L. R., & Wright, S. C. (2001). Ingroup identification as the inclusion of ingroup in the self.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(5), 585-600.
Reliability for Scales: Latino(a) sample: .79 (Personal Identitiy), .78 (Social Identiy),
.68 (Collective Identity) African American sample: .78 (Personal Identity), .72 (Social Identity),
.54 (Collective Identity)
Summary of Research: Latino(a) and African American subjects took the AIQ and the new measure
Inclusion of Ingroup in the Self (IILS). The IILS was positively correlated with the Collective Identity
subscale (r=.44), but was not significantly correlated with the Personal Identity (r=.03) and Social
Identity (r=-.13) subscales.
Berzonsky, M. D., Macek, P., & Nurmi, J.-E. (2003). Interrelationships among identity
process, content, and structure: A cross-cultural investigation. Journal of Adolescent Research,
18(2), 112-130.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ III) (Cheek, Underwood, & Cutler, 1985)
Reliabilities for Scales: Americans sample: .77 (Personal Identity), .84 (Social Identity), .60 (Collective
Identity) Czech sample: .74 (Personal Identity), .80 (Social Identity), .71 (Collective Identity) Finnish
sample: .83 (Personal Identity), .79 (Social Identity), .66 (Collective Identity)
Summary of Research: 477 students (120 American students, 248 Czech students, and 109 Finnish
students) took the AIQ III, the third version of the Identity Styles Inventory (ISI3; Berzonsky, 1992b),
and the Identity Commitment Scale (Berzonsky, 1989). The three aspects of identity were correlated
with each other: Personal and Social Identity (r=.27, p<.01), Personal and Collective Identity (r=.32,
p<.01), and Collective and Social Identity (r=.41, p<.01) for the overall sample, but Personal and Social
Identity scores were not correlated in the American sample. Female participants scored higher on
Personal Identity (M=3.99) than did male participants (M=3.81). In addition, Personal Identity was rated
highest by the American sample (M=4.17); the Finnish sample (M=3.89) was somewhat higher in
Personal Identity than the Czech sample (M=3.79). There were not sex or culture differences in Social
Identity scores, but there were culture differences in Collective Identity scores. The American sample
(M=3.61) rated Collective Identity more highly than did either the Czech (M=2.55) or Finnish (M=2.62)
sample. Personal and Collective Identity were correlated with increased commitment scores (on the
Identity Commitment Scale) (r=.22 and .13, respectively, p<.01), while there was no such relationship
between Social Identity and commitment scores.
Thompson, T., Dinnel, D. L., & Dill, N. J. (2003). Development and validation of a Body Image Guilt and
25
Shame Scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(1), 59-75.

Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ-IIIx) (Cheek et al., 1994), incorrectly cited as
(Cheek & Hogan, 1983)
Summary of Research: 87 female and 66 male college students took the AIQ IIIx and the Body Image
Guilt and Shame Scale (BIGSS). The guilt score on the BIGSS was correlated with Social Identity
(r=.32), as was the shame score (r=.44). Women scored higher than men on both the Personal and Social
Identity subscales (PI: M= 39.84 and 38.14, respectively; SI: M=23.84 and 21.92, respectively).
Christopher, A. N., & Schlenker, B. R. (2004). Materialism and affect: The role of self-presentational
concerns. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(2), 260-272.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (ASQ IIIx) (Cheek, et al., 1994)
Reliability for Scales: .82 (Social Identity), .78 (Personal Identity)
Summary of Research: Research explored the relationship between materialism, positive and negative
affect, and identity orientations. Materialism was positively correlated high scores on Social Identity
(r=.30, p<.01). Materialism was not related to Personal Identity. The correlations of materialism with
Social Identity and Personal Identity differed significantly from one another (p<.01). Social Identity was
related to negative affect (measured with the Brief Measures of Positive and Negative Affect Scales
[PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988]). Social aspects of identity accounted for the relationship
between materialism and negative affect. Personal Identity was not related to materialism, but it was
significantly correlated with positive affect (r=.46, p<.001). Personal Identity also correlated with the
fear of negative evaluation (r=.22).
Dion, K. K., & Dion, K. L. (2004). Gender, immigration generation, and ethnocultural identity. Sex Roles,
50(5/6), 347-355.
Summary of Research: 188 Canadian university students took the AIQ IIIx and other measures. Women
from immigrant families showed a higher Personal Identity orientation (M=.405) than did men
(M=3.79). In addition, Canadian-born young adults from immigrant families rated Personal Identity as
more important (M=4.01) than did those born outside of Canada (M=3.83).
lu-Aygn, Z. K. (2004). Self, identity, and emotional well-being among Turkish university students.
The Journal of Psychology, 138(5), 457-478.
26
Summary of Research: 205 Turkish university students were sampled to study the relationship between
identity orientations, self-description, and positive and negative emotions. Women rated Personal
Identity (M=6.12) more highly than men did (M=5.79) (p<.001). Personal Identity was most
significantly related to Openness and Creativity (r=.27, p<.01) and Achievement (r=22, p<.01). Social
Identity, on the other hand, was most significantly related to Influencability (r=.31, p<.001) and
Traditionalism (r=.27, p<.001). Openness and Creativity, Achievement, Influencability, and
traditionalism were measured by self-description and labeled by factor analysis. There were significant
positive correlations between all three identity orientations and positive emotions.
Nario-Redmond, M. R., Biernat, M., Eidelman, S., & Palenske, D. J. (2004). The Social and Personal
Identities scale: A measure of the differential importance ascribed to social and personal selfcategorizations. Self and Identity, 3, 143-175.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ III) (Cheek et al., 1985)
Summary of Research: Researchers administered the Social and Personal Identities scale (SPI; NarioRedmond et al., 2004) and the AIQ to 246 college students. The Personal Identity score on the AIQ and
the Personal Identity score on the SPI were significantly correlated (r=.45, p<.001), as were the Social
Identity scores on both (r=.42, p<.001). The Collective Identity score on the AIQ correlated significantly
with the Social Identity score on the SPI (r=.70, p<.001) even more strongly than the Social Identity
AIQ subscale.
Carpenter, S., & Karakitapoglu-Aygun, Z. (2005). Importance and descriptiveness of self-aspects: A
cross-cultural comparison. Cross-Cultural Research, 39(3), 293-321.
Reliabilities for Scales: Turkish sample: .64 (Personal Identity), .81 (Social Identity), .67 (Collective
Identity); White American sample: .91 (Personal Identity), .89 (Social Identity), .79 (Collective
Identity); Mexican American sample: .89 (Personal Identity), .79 (Social Identity), .78 (Collective
Identity)
Summary of Research: 125 Turkish university students, 71 Mexican American students and 135 White
American students took the AIQ IIIx. Across all samples, Personal Identity was rated as most important,
followed by Social Identity, with Collective Identity rated as the least important of the three. The ratings
of Turkish participants were more extreme than those of Mexican American participants, which, in turn,
were more extreme than those of White Americans. Both Turkish and Mexican American students rated
Social and Collective Identities high than Whites. The mean ratings for Social Identity were 3.71 for
Turkish students, 3.32 for Mexican American students, and 2.78 for White students. For Collective
Identity they were 3.37 for the Turkish sample, 3.32 for the Mexican American sample, and 2.52 for the
White sample. The Turkish (M=4.23) and Mexican American (M= 4.15) samples also rated Personal
Identity more highly than White participants (M=3.61). Women (M=4.04) rated Personal Identity as
more important than did men (3.84).
Dollinger, S. J., Clancy Dollinger, S. M., & Centeno, L. (2005). Identity and creativity. Identity: An
International Journal of Theory and Research, 5(4), 315-339.
27
Reliability for scales: .84 (Personal Identity), .80(Social Identity), .73 (Collective Identity), .65
(Superficial Identity)
Summary of Research: Research showed that Cheeks identity orientations and Berzonskys identity
styles predicted the richness and uniqueness of self-portrayal in essays that used photos and words to
define the self. The findings showed that those who emphasize their Personal Identity have the greatest
potential creativity and evidence the greatest number of creative accomplishments in their young lives,
whereas those emphasizing Collective Identities evidenced fewer accomplishments. The two scales
expected to have a positive relation with creativityPersonal Identity and information seeking
correlated r = .39, p < .001. Two of the scales expected to have a negative correlation with creativity
normative style and Collective Identitywere also substantially related (r= .39, p < .001). The
Superficial Identity subscale was constructed the following way: ten items on the AIQ IIIx are special
purpose items. Dollinger et al. (1996) used three of these to form the basis of a superficial identity scale:
my sex, being male or female; my age, belonging to my age group or being part of my generation; and
the things I own; to these were added two social identity items: my physical appearance: my height, my
weight and the shape of my body; and my attractiveness to other people.
Sharma, A., & Krishman, V.R. (2005, December). Transformational leadership, aspects of self-concept,
and needs of followers. Paper presented at the meeting of the Australian and New Zealand
Academy of Management, Canberra, Australia.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ) (Cheek 1982/83)
Summary of Research: 70 pairs of superiors and subordinates working at a metal-sheet manufacturing
company in eastern India took several measures, including: the AIQ, the Multifactor Leadership
Questionnaire (MLQ; Bass & Avolio, 1991), the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS; Hackman & Oldham,
1980), and items measuring the need for achievement and affiliation from Steers & Braunsteins (1976)
questionnaire. Researchers found a correlation between transformational leadership scores on the MLQ
and Positive Identity scores (r=.22, p<.05). There was also a correlation between Social Identity and the
need for achievement (r=.26, p<.05) and, to a lesser extent, the need for affiliation (r=.18, p<.05).
Lemay, E. P., Jr., & Ashmore, R. D. (2006). The relationship of social approval contingency to trait selfesteem: Cause, consequence, or moderator? Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 121-139.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (III) (Cheek, Underwood, & Cutler, 1985)
Reliability for Scales: =.81 (Social Identity); two month test-retest reliability=.62 (Social Identity)
Summary of Research: 172 undergraduate students took several surveysincluding the AIQ Social
Identity subscale, Rosenbergs (1965) Self-esteem scale, and the contingency of self-worth on social
approval subscale of the Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale (Crocker, Luhtanen, et al., 2003)two
times in a longitudinal study ranging from September to November. The mean response for the Social
Identity subscale during the first administration was 3.49; during the second administration it was 3.48.
28
The researchers found that self-esteem was negatively correlated with Social Identity in both the first (r=
-.21, p<.01) and second (r= -.24, p<.01) administration. Approval contingency and social identity
orientation were also strongly correlated at both the first (r=.53, p<.001) and second (r=-.47, p<.001)
assessment points.
Seta, C. E., Schmidt, S., & Bookhout, C. M. (2006). Social identity orientation and social role
attributions: Explaining behavior through the lens of the self. Self and Identity, 5(4), 355-364.
Reliability for scales: .82 (Personal Identity), .85 (Social Identity)
Summary of research: Research investigated the way an individuals self-definition (i.e., social or
personal identity orientation; Cheek, 1989) influenced the type of attribution used to explain a target
group members opinion. 165 participants were given the AIQ, watched a group discussion between
three members of a Greek organization and three independent individuals, and then rated the cause
behind a target Greek members opinion. The attributions made, either to social category membership or
to personal characteristics, were influenced by the extent to which the individuals valued social aspects
of their self-concept. Individuals who placed relatively high value on the social aspects of their identity
attributed the target's behavior to his group membership more than to his personality. The results suggest
that the importance of social factors to individuals' self-definitions increases the accessibility of social
influences in their views of causation.
del Prado, A. M., Church, A. T., Katigbak, M. S., Miramontes, L. G., Whitty, M., Curtis, G. J., Reyes,
J. A. S. (2007). Culture, method, and the content of self-concepts: Testing trait, individualselfprimacy, and cultural psychology perspectives. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(6), 1119
1160.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ IV) (Cheek, Smith, & Tropp, 2002)
Reliability for Scales: .80-.83 (Personal Identity), .80-.82 (Social Identity), .67-.77 (Collective Identity),
.82-.91 (Relational Identity)
Summary of Research: Subjects from Mexico, the Philippines, the U.S., and Australia took the AIQ IV
for a cross-cultural comparison. Across all four groups Personal Identity was rated as significantly more
important than Social and Collective Identity. To participants in all four cultural groups Relational
Identity was more important than Social or Collective Identity. After a multivariate analysis of variance
with culture and gender a independent variables and the four aspects of identity as dependent variables,
women averaged higher than men in both Personal Identity (2 = .03) and Relational Identity (2 = .03;
p < .01). The Mexican sample averaged higher than the other three cultural groups on the Personal
Identity scale, which was unexpected because Mexico was presumed to have a collectivist culture.
Hagger, M. S., Anderson, M., Kyriakaki, M., & Darkings, S. (2007). Aspects of identity and their
influence on intentional behavior: Comparing effects for three health behaviors. Personality and
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ III) (Cheek, 1989)
29

Summary of Research: 525 students from two universities in the United Kingdom completed surveys
measuring binge drinking and dieting behavior and the AIQ III. 202 participants also completed surveys
on exercise. Two weeks later, participants self-reported their binge drinking, dieting, and exercise
behavior. Hagger et al. (2007) found that Personal Identity had a significant influence on attitudes and
perceived behavioral control in all three contexts: exercise, binge drinking, and dieting. It also
influenced subjective norms in the context of binge drinking and exercise. Social Identity significantly
affected subjective norms, attitudes, and perceived behavioral control in the binge drinking context.
Personal Identity had significant total effects on intentions for all three behaviors (exercise: b = .236, p <
.01; dieting: b = .120, p < .01; binge drinking: b=.131, p < .01), while Social Identity had a significant
effect on intention in the binge drinking context (b=2.08, p<.01).
Steele, J. R., Raymond, R. L., Ness, K. K., Alvi, S., & Kearney, I. (2007). A comparative study of
sociocultural factors and young adults smoking in two midwestern communities. Nicotine &
Tobacco Research, 9(1), S73-S82.
Summary of Research: 995 students and non-students were surveyed and classified into categories
depending on their smoking habits. Subjects classified as current smokers and living in the city scored
the lowest on Social Identity (M=20.72), while subjects classified as never having been smokers and
living in the suburbs scored the highest (M=21.92). Overall, researchers found that rating Social Identity
highly was a moderately protective factor from smoking.
Koeman, J. (2008, May). Branded clothing and identity management among youth in a multicultural
context. Paper presented at Dag van de Sociologie, Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven,
Belgium.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ-III) (Cheek, Underwood, & Cutler, 1985)
Reliabilities for Scales: .65 (Personal Identity), .61 (Social Identity), .69 (Collective Identity)
Summary of Research: 1,155 high school students in Brussels and Flanders in Belgium took the AIQ
and surveys on the importance of band names and labels on clothing items. The participants were
categorized as Westerners (the Flemish sample) and non-Western minorities (the Turkish and Moroccan
samples). Across all cultures, participants scoring highest in Social Identity were the most concerned
with brand names and clothing labels. The Flemish sample (M=22.59) scored notably lower on the
Collective Identity scale than did the Turkish (M=26.17) or Moroccan (M=26.65) samples.
Morgan, A. J. (2008). An analysis of the influence of human individual differences on web
searching behavior among Blacks and Whites: A case of health information searching (Unpublished
doctoral dissertation). The Pennsylvania Sate University, University Park, PA.
30

Summary of Research: The AIQ IV was administered to 15 black and 15 white subjects. Relational
Identity was most commonly rated the highest among both black and white subjects. Personal Identity
was rated as more important to younger participants (ages 19-23); its importance decreased with age in
the sample. Personal Identity was associated with distrust of Internet information
Schlenker, B. R. (2008). Integrity and character: Implications of principled and expedient ethical
ideologies. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27(10), 1078-1125.
Version Used: Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (Cheek, 1982/83)
Summary of Research: 71 students took several scales, including the AIQ and the Integrity Scale
(Schlenker, Weigold,& Schlenker, 2008). Integrity correlated somewhat with Personal Identity (r=.22,
p=.07). Social Identity did not show a strong or significant correlation with integrity. Women scored
lower than men on the Personal Identity subscale.
Church, A. T. (2009). Prospects for an integrated trait and cultural psychology. European Journal of
Personality, 23, 153-182.
Summary of Research: Scores on the AIQ IV of American, Australian, Mexican, and Filipino subjects
were compared. The American and Australian subjects were assumed to be representative of
individualistic cultures, the Mexican and Filipino subjects as representative of more collectivist cultures.
Participants from all four groups rated aspects of personal identity higher than aspects of social or
collective identity, but the Filipino subjects did average higher than the American and Australian
subjects in the importance of social and collective identities (the Mexican subjects, however, did not).
Razmjoo, S. A. (2010). Language and identity in the Iranian context: The impact of identity aspects on
EFL learner's achievement. The Journal of Teaching Language Skills, 2(2), 99-121.
Summary of Research: 180 Iranian pre-university and university students were sampled and given the
AIQ IV and language achievement tests. The Personal Identity and Relational Identity scores of the
Iranian students were higher than their Social Identity and Collective Identity scores. None of the
aspects of identity predicted language achievement. There were significant gender differences in
Personal and Relational Identity scores, with women scoring higher in both than men (PI: M=39.12 and
36.85, respectively; RI: M=38.60 and 36.95, respectively). The Social Identity and Collective Identity
scores were higher in pre-university students than in university students (SI: M=26.02 and 23.62,
respectively; CI: M=28.20 and 26.12, respectively).
31
Tiliopoulos, N., & McVittie, C. (2010). Aspects of identity in a British Christian sample. Mental Health,
Religion, & Culture, 13(7-8), 707-719.
Summary of Research: 161 subjects took the AIQ IIIx, the Intrinsic/Extrinsic-Revised Scale (I/E-R)
(Gorsuch & McPherson, 1989), and the Religious Life Inventory (RLI) (Batson & Schoenrade, 1991a,
1991b). Catholics had higher Personal Identity scores (M=41.25) than both mainstream and other
Protestants (M=36.73 and 36.53, respectively). Catholics also had higher Collective Identity scores
(M=24.50) than mainstream and other Protestants (M=23.35 and 20.97, respectively). Higher Personal
Identity scores and lower Collective Identity scores were found in students (PI: M= 40.40; CI: M=21.64)
than in non-students (PI: M=36.31; CI: M=23.56). Personal Identity did not correlate significantly with
church attendance or intrinsic and internal scores on the I/E-R and RLI. Social Identity correlated
significantly and positively with intrinsic, extrinsic-personal, and church attendance scores, while
Collective Identity had a somewhat significant correlation with extrinsic personal and quest scores.
Collective Identity was correlated with the number of years spent practicing Christianity (r=.23).
Lee, S. (2011). Psychological effects of culture on aesthetic motivation for cosmetic customization of
mobile phones (Unpublished master's thesis). The Pennsylvania State University, University Park,
PA.
Summary of Research: 400 American students and 205 Korean students took a series of surveys,
including the Aspects of Identity Questionnaire, the Value of Expression Questionnaire (EVQ; Kim &
Sherman, 2007), and Mugge et al. (2004)s measure of product attachment. Lee (2011) found that Social
Identity scores were correlated with Product Attachment (r=.27, p<.01) and the extent to which an
individual values self-expression, as measured by the EVQ (r=.31, p<.05).
32

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The Aspects of Identity Questionnaire:

History and Bibliography

Comments, corrections, and additions appreciated:

phone: (781) 283-3130

Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003;

I. History of the Development of the

A. Personal and Social Identity scales. (Original version)

6 personal identity characteristics

B. Personal and Social Identity scales. (Second version)

6 personal identity items

C. Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ).

9 personal identity items

D. Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ-III).

10 personal identity items

E. Aspects of Identity Questionnaire (AIQ-IIIx)2.

10 personal identity items

SP 20. My social class, the economic group I belong

PI 2. My personal values and moral standards

PI 21. Knowing that I continue to be essentially the

PI 5. My dreams and imagination

PI 24. My self-knowledge, my ideas about what

CI 7. My race or ethnic background

SI 25. My social behavior, such as the way I act

SI 12. My reputation, what others think of me

SP 18. My sex, being a male or a female

CI 31. My commitments on political issues or my

PI 19. My feeling of being a unique person, being

____ 20. My social class, the economic group I belong

____ 2. My personal values and moral standards

____ 21. Knowing that I continue to be essentially the

____ 5. My dreams and imagination

____ 24. My self-knowledge, my ideas about what

____ 7. My race or ethnic background

____ 25. My social behavior, such as the way I act

____ 12. My reputation, what others think of me

____ 18. My sex, being a male or a female

____ 31. My commitments on political issues or my

____ 19. My feeling of being a unique person, being

Gender: Male Female (Circle one)

Race or ethnic background:

_____21. My feeling of being a unique person, being

_____2. My personal values and moral standards

_____3. My popularity with other people

_____23. My social class, the economic group I

_____5. My dreams and imagination

_____25. Knowing that I continue to be essentially

_____7. My race or ethnic background

_____26. Being a good friend to those I really care

_____9. My physical appearance: my height, my

_____27. My self-knowledge, my ideas about what

_____28. My commitment to being a concerned

_____11. My emotions and feelings

_____12. My reputation, what others think of me

_____30. My physical abilities, being coordinated

_____14. My thoughts and ideas

_____31. Sharing significant experiences with my

_____16. My age, belonging to my age group or

_____32. My personal self-evaluation, the private

_____17. My gestures and mannerisms, the

_____33. Being a sports fan, identifying with a sports

_____18. The ways I deal with my fears and

_____34. Having mutually satisfying personal

_____19. My sex, being a male or a female

_____20. My social behavior, such as the way I act