Project Report on

Telecommunication Network

Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation (AM) is a technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for
transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. AM works by varying the strength of the
transmitted signal in relation to the information being sent. For example, changes in signal strength
may be used to specify the sounds to be reproduced by a loudspeaker, or the light intensity of
television pixels.
The AM modulation index is the measure of the amplitude variation surrounding an
unmodulated carrier. As with other modulation indices, in AM this quantity (also called "modulation
depth") indicates how much the modulation varies around its "original" level
Modulation Methods
Modulation circuit designs may be classified as low- or high-level (depending on whether they
modulate in a low-power domainfollowed by amplification for transmissionor in the high-power
domain of the transmitted signal).
Demodulation Methods[
The simplest form of AM demodulator consists of a diode which is configured to act as envelope
detector. Another type of demodulator, the product detector, can provide better-quality demodulation
with additional circuit complexity.
Disadvantages
In terms of positive frequencies, the transmission bandwidth of AM is twice the signal's original
(baseband) bandwidth; both the positive and negative sidebands are shifted up to the carrier
frequency. Thus, double-sideband AM (DSB-AM) is spectrally inefficient because the same spectral
information is transmitted twice, and fewer radio stations can be accommodated in a given broadcast
band than if only one replica of the original signal's spectrum were transmitted

Frequency Modulation
Frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its instantaneous
frequency. This contrasts with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied
while its frequency remains constant.
In analog applications, the difference between the instantaneous and the base frequency of the carrier
is directly proportional to the instantaneous value of the input-signal amplitude.
Digital data can be sent by shifting the carrier's frequency among a range of settings, a technique
known as frequency-shift keying (FSK). FSK is widely used in data and fax modems, and can be used
to send Morse code.

Modulation Methods

FM signals can be generated using either direct or indirect frequency modulation:

Direct FM modulation can be achieved by directly feeding the message into the input
of a VCO.

For indirect FM modulation, the message signal is integrated to generate a phase

modulated signal.This is used to modulate a crystal controlled oscillator, and the
result is passed through a frequency multiplier to give an FM signal.

Demodulation Methods
A common method for recovering the information signal is through a Foster-Seeley
discriminator. A phase-locked loop can be used as an FM demodulator. Slope detection
demodulates an FM signal by using a tuned circuit which has its resonant frequency slightly
offset from the carrier. As the frequency rises and falls the tuned circuit provides a changing
amplitude of response, converting FM to AM. AM receivers may detect some FM
transmissions by this means, although it does not provide an efficient means of detection for
FM broadcasts.
Advantages
A major advantage of FM in a communications circuit is the possibility of improved Signal-to-noise
ratio(SNR). Compared with an optimum AM scheme, FM typically has poorer SNR below a certain
signal level called the noise threshold, but above a higher level the full improvement or full quieting
threshold the SNR is much improved over AM. The improvement depends on modulation level and
deviation. For typical voice communications channels, improvements are typically 5-15 dB.

Cellular Network
A cellular network or mobile network is a radio network distributed over land areas called
cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver, known as a cell site or base
station. In a cellular network, each cell uses a different set of frequencies from neighboring
cells, to avoid interference and provide guaranteed bandwidth within each cell.
When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This
enables a large number of portable transceivers to communicate with each other and with
fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via base stations, even if some of
the transceivers are moving through more than one cell during transmission.

Advantages offered by cellular network over conventional network

flexible enough to use the features and functions of almost all public and private
network

increased capacity

reduced power use

larger coverage area

reduced interference from other signals

Basic Concept
In a cellular system, a land area to be supplied with radio service is divided into regular
shaped cells, which can be hexagonal, square, circular or some other regular shapes, although
hexagonal cells are conventional. Each of these cells is assigned multiple frequencies (f1 f6)
which have corresponding radio base stations. The group of frequencies can be reused in
other cells, provided that the same frequencies are not reused in adjacent neighboring cells as
that would cause co-channel interference.
The increased capacity in a cellular network, compared with a network with a single
transmitter, comes from the fact that the same radio frequency can be reused in a different
area for a completely different transmission. If there is a single plain transmitter, only one
transmission can be used on any given frequency. Unfortunately, there is inevitably some
level of interference from the signal from the other cells which use the same frequency. This
means that, in a standard FDMA system, there must be at least a one cell gap between cells
which reuse the same frequency.
Frequency Reuse -The key characteristic of a cellular network is the ability to re-use
frequencies to increase both coverage and capacity. Adjacent cells must use different
frequencies, however there is no problem with two cells sufficiently far apart operating on the
same frequency. The elements that determine frequency reuse are the reuse distance and the
reuse factor.

Optical Fiber
An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made of high quality extruded glass (silica) or
plastic. It can function as a waveguide, or light pipe to transmit light between the two ends
of the fiber. The field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and
application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. Optical fibers are widely used in fiberoptic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher

bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communication. Fibers are used instead of metal
wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are also immune to
electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in
bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces.
Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and
fiber lasers.

Principal of Operation
An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (non- conducting waveguide) that transmits light
along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a core surrounded by a
cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To confine the optical signal in the
core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding
When light traveling in an optically dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than the
critical angle for the boundary), the light is completely reflected. This is called total internal
reflection. This effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. Light travels through the
fiber core, bouncing back and forth off the boundary between the core and cladding. Because the light
must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle, only light that enters the fiber
within a certain range of angles can travel down the fiber without leaking out. This range of angles is
called the acceptance cone of the fiber.

Optical fiber Communication

Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and computer networking
because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for longdistance communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation
compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters.
Additionally, the per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at
rates as high as 111 gigabits per second by NTT, although 10 or 40 Gbit/s is typical in
deployed systems Each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different
wavelength of light (wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate (data rate
without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the FEC overhead,
multiplied by the number of channels (usually up to eighty in commercial dense WDM
systems as of 2008). As of 2011 the record for bandwidth on a single core was 101 Tbit/sec
(370 channels at 273 Gbit/sec each).[ The record for a multi-core fibre as of January 2013 was
1.05 petabits per second. In 2009, Bell Labs broke the 100 (Petabit per second)kilometre
barrier (15.5 Tbit/s over a single 7000 km fiber).
For short distance application, such as a network in an office building, fiber-optic cablng can
save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber can carry much more data than
electrical cables such as standard category 5 Ethernet cabling, which typically runs at 100

Mbit/s or 1 Gbit/s speeds. Fiber is also immune to electrical interference; there is no crosstalk between signals in different cables, and no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored
fiber cables do not conduct electricity, which makes fiber a good solution for protecting
communications equipment in high voltage environments, such as power generation facilities,
or metal communication structures prone to lightning strikes. They can also be used in
environments where explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition. Wiretapping (in
this case, fiber tapping) is more difficult compared to electrical connections, and there are
concentric dual core fibers that are said to be tap-proof.

Tetra network
Terrestrial Trunked Radio[1] (TETRA) (formerly known as Trans-European Trunked
Radio) is a professional mobile radio and two-way transceiver (colloquially known as a
walkie talkie) specification. TETRA was specifically designed for use by government
agencies, emergency services, (police forces, fire departments, ambulance) for public safety
networks, rail transportation staff for train radios, transport services and the military.
TETRA is a European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) standard, first version
published 1995; it is mentioned by the European Radio communications Committee.

About TETRA
TETRA (Terrestrial Trunked Radio) is the accepted digital radio standard for critical
communication. TETRA is an open standard where the focus is on meeting the critical
communication needs of public safety and security agencies and an increasingly wide
range of other market sectors. The technology has been standardised by ETSI (The European
Telecommunications Standards Institute).
As with GSM and other mobile networks, the radio infrastructure of TETRA is based on a
cellular radio propagation technology. The frequency range used by TETRA in Europe is 380400 MHz for emergency communication.
The first TETRA voice network in the world was implemented at Gardermoen Airport in
Norway in 1997. Since then the standard has undergone continuous development. In its
current version, TETRA supports voice communication and packet and circuit switched data
transfer, short data messages, and an increasing number of data applications being developed
specifically for the critical communications user.
250+ TETRA networks are being used by Governments for public safety, military and
defence, and other public services.
The largest TETRA network to date is Airwave in Great Britain, which has 3600 base
stations and approximately 350,000 users.

 Germanys network, nearing completion, will become the largest in the world, with more
than 500,000 users.
The North American market has just been opened up to TETRA technology, and networks
are already in place in the USA and Canada.
Nationwide public safety TETRA networks are being built, or are already in use, in
Andorra, Austria, Bahrain, Bulgaria, Croatia, Denmark, Egypt, Germany, Greece, Israel,
Ireland, Jordan,Luxembourg, Monaco, The Maldives, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal,
Romania, Swaziland,Sweden, Turkmenistan, the Vatican and the United Kingdom, among
others.
ETSI has already standardised TEDS (TETRA Enhanced Data Service), which will provide
TETRA users with much higher data speeds. The standard allows up to 691 kb/s, but
limitations in spectrum availability typically give users a net throughput of around 100 kb/s.

Typical Tetra Network

Overview of TETRA Network

Various Components of TETRA Network

TETRA Switch

TETRA network switch is the central heart of the TETRA network. Depending on the needed
network availability most manufacturers can offer a redundant TETRA network switch to is
able to take over the network services of a failure in the active switch. When a redundant
TETRA network switch is available this is usually at a geographical separated location.
Depending on the manufacturer of the TETRA network and required capacity additional
TETRA switches are needed to provide the required capacity.
The TETRA network switch basically holds the database with information of the allowed
mobile radios and the services assigned to them. Mobile radios are also called subscribers of
Mobile Stations (MS). It has knowledge of the configured talkgroups and switches the speech
coming to and from the mobile radios. It holds track of the affiliation of the mobile radios to
the basestations and assigns the traffic channels of the basestations.

TETRA Basestation
The TETRA basestation sends out the TETRA radio signal delivering coverage and receives
the TETRA signals send out by the mobile radios. The TETRA basestation is connected to the
TETRA network switch. The depending of the manufacturer design the connection is single
or redundant, via landline or via microwave link. Depending on the manufacturer design the
basestation are connected with the TETRA switch in a star configuration or in a ring
configuration. When the TETRA mobile radio moves it roams from one basestation to the
other providing that there is sufficient overlapping coverage.
As the name implies (Terrestrial Trunked Radio) the air interface is trunked. A TETRA carrier
is divided into four time slots as specified by the ETSI. The maximum number of carriers for
one basestation is eight. This gives a total of (4*8=32) timeslots. First time slot is always
used for the control channel. The control channel is used for signalling (for example
neighbour cell information). Information is broadcasted using the control channel. Mobile
stations listen to the control channel and get informed to go to a traffic channel (which is one
the time slots of the basestation) were the mobile station can receive the audio. Vice versa,
when the mobile station wants to transmit, the mobile station does a request using the control
channel that ask the TETRA infrastructure (SwMi Switched Mobile Infrastructure).

Control room or dispatchers

To communicate with the users in the field that are equipped with a TETRA portable radio
(mobile station, mobile radio or subscriber) from one or more fixed positions dispatchers can
be added to the TETRA network. A locations with dispatcher(s) is also known as a control
room. Generally the control room is the central point in the voice communications. Control
rooms are connected to the TETRA network switch using a (redundant) landline. The control

rooms generally have priority in voice communication but is depending on the manufacturer
implementation or operator configuration.
Standardised interfaces
The TETRA air interface is standardised but not the network management interface, the
basestation interface or the control room interface. These interfaces are manufacturer
proprietary interfaces and depending on the manufacturer these interface are most times
available for third party developers.

Individual Call
The TETRA individual call is a one-to-one call. It acts as 'telephone' call between two
TETRA mobile radio's. The calling party selects the ISSI or alias in the mobile radio
telephone book or by typing in the number using the keypad. On the receiving party the call
can be answered and the user is usually notified by ring indication.
Once the call is established a full duplex or half duplex call between the two radio's can be
made. When in TMO mode the network needs to support individual call and the user usually
needs to have permission to make individual calls. The two users can be anywere in the
network. In DMO mode only half duplex indivual call can be made.

Group Communication
TETRA Group communication is most often called talkgroup communication. Users that
have the same talkgroup selected in the mobile radios are able to communicate with each
other on a half duplex basis. Half duplex commununication means that one user is speaking
(transmitting) while the others in the same group listen to the person that is transmitting. The
listeners can only start to talk (transmit) when the other it finished (with different
capabilities/permissions one can interrupt which is called pre-empting, this is manufacturer
depending). When a control room is available the control room dispatcher is also listening to
the talkgroup. Most of the time the dispatcher is able to interrupt the other talkgroup users
(pre-empt).
In analogue networks users selected a frequency on the mobile radios. The users that selected
the same frequency are able to communicate with each other. The number of available
frequencies determined to number of groups to be formed. In TETRA a talkgroup has a
number (GSSI) that is configured in the network and the mobile radios. Users select the alias

on their radios that is associated to it (the talkgroup alias or talkgroup name). The network
deals with assigning a temporary frequency for the time of the communication. When the
transmission stops the frequency can be reused for another talkgroup. This means that the
number of available frequencies doesn't affect the number of talkgroups. The number of
possible talkgroups that can be used can be several thousands. Care need to be taken that the
number of simultaneous active talkgroups doesn't exceed the number of available
frequencies/channels.

Trunked Mode Operation (TMO) and Direct Mode Operation (DMO)

Trunked Mode Operation means using TETRA mobile radio in combination with network
infrastructure while Direct Mode Operation is TETRA radio communication between mobile
radio without using a TETRA network infrastructure.

Trunked Mode Operation (TMO)

When a TETRA mobile radio starts a groupcall by pressing the "Push To Talk" (PTT) audio
will be transmitted to the selected TETRA basestation. The other radios that have the same
talkgroup selected and are located in a different geographical area and are being served by a
different TETRA basestation receive the audio via their basestation. In TMO mode the
network intelligence is used to assign a channel and transport the audio from sender to
receiver. The audio is transported by the TETRA network or infrastructure.

Direct Mode Operation (DMO)

In DMO mode the TETRA mobile stations communicate directly with each other without
using the TETRA infrastructure. The radio need to stay withing coverage of each other. DMO
is often used in situation were coverage of TETRA network infrastructure is not available.

TETRA Short Data Services

The TETRA Short Data Service (SDS) is a data service that is comparable with the Short
Data Message (SMS) of GSM. A TETRA SDS message can carry up to 140 byte data per
message. SDS message carrying different types of information are separated via a protocol
identifier. A range of protocol identifiers are defined in the ETSI TETRA specification.
A variety of applications can use the SDS service to carry information. The most common
usage is the sending an message that is entered via the keypad of the subscriber. But for
example the LIP (Location Information Protocol) location information messages that carry
the GPS location from the subscriber to the mapping application are usually also transported
via SDS messages.
SDS message can be send between subscribers, between subscriber and dispatcher and
subscriber and fixed host in the network. SDS messages can be send to individual subscribers
or broadcasted on a number of basestations to all subscriber using that basestation. Short data
messages between subscriber and fixed host makes it possible for an application to receive
SDS message and based on their content do something with the received information. For
example when the SDS message contained to GPS location of the subscriber the location can
be displayed on a map. Or for example when the SDS message contains the water level the
water level can be displayed and monitored. SDS messages are often used as transport
mechanism for telemetry applications.
TETRA Short Data Message are transported via the Control Channel of a basestation. The
control channel is also used for signalling of the voice traffic. To prevent overload of the
control channel SDS message need to be used carefull. Contact TETRA-Consultancy to learn
about the limitations.

TETRA SDS user cases

TETRA Short Data Service (SDS) used between two mobile radio's
The user enters his message using the keypad on the mobile radio and sends it the the
destination address (ISSI) of the recipient. Two messaging within the TETRA network is
possible.

TETRA Short Data Service (SDS) used between a mobile radio and a dispacther in the
control room
The user enters his message using the keypad on the mobile radio and sends it the the
destination address (ISSI) of the control room dispatcher. Two messaging within the TETRA
network is possible.

TETRA Short Data Service (SDS) used for Automatic vehicle location
The mobile radio contains a GPS receiver and send the GPS location using a SDS message to
the Geographical Information System (GIS) were the location of the mobile radio is
displayed on a map.

TETRA Short Data Service (SDS) used for database query

The enters for example a vehicle licence plate number using a SDS to a central database
where the licence plate number is queried and the name of the car owner is send back to the
mobile radio.
Or the fire brigade types in the number on a truck that indicates the type of transported
material, this is send to the database were the type of material is checked and it is send back if
the material is hazardous.

TETRA Short Data Service (SDS) used for telemetry

It is possible to connect a computer to the PEI (Peripheral Equipment Interface) of a
subscriber and send for example the water level of a watertank via SDS to a central database.

TETRA Applications
TETRA is scalable in terms of additional software applications. Usually a separate data
network is connected to the TETRA network to provide access to the relevant information
systems. The data is accessed using the TETRA mobile radio. This can be a standalone
TETRA radio with a wap browser or a SDS application. Or a mobile computer connected to
the TETRA terminal. Were the mobile computer contains the application that communicates
with the server in the data network.
Basically applications can be devided in the following functional categories:

Control room / dispatch applications

o wired and wireless dispatchers

Location information applications

o Using TETRA Short data or TETRA packet data

Data query applications

o Using WAP (Wireless Access Protocol),
o or via an application on Mobile radio or mobile computer
o or using short data

Voice applications
o Voice recognition application for quick data querying

Network management applications

o for tracking and logging of network relevant information
o for for network provisioning
o for network capacity monitoring

Coverage and network optimalisation applications

o for TETRA network radio planning and RF optimisation

Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL)

Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) sometimes also referred to as Automatic Person Location
(APL) is used to track and trace persons or vehicles using TETRA radios. Most TETRA
radios are equipped with a integrated GPS receiver. The TETRA radio is able to determine its
location and can send this information to the TETRA infrastructure were it can be forwarded
to an end point which is in most cases a control room.
End user perspective
From the vehicle that is equipped with the TETRA radio or the person this is wearing the
TETRA radio not much is noted on the radio itself. No interaction is needed. In most cases
the GPS receiver is enabled when the radio is powered on. The benifit is for the dispatching
centre that is now aware of the location of the vehicle or person. This information can be used
to efficient dispatch the person or vehicle.
Technical
The TETRA radio needs to be equipped with a GPS receiver to be able to obtions its location.
The locations is sent via a SDS or packet data to an AVL server. The AVL system may be a
fixed host in the TETRA network or a server connected to the PEI of a TETRA radio. The

radio needs be have the destination address (ISSI) of the AVL system pre-programmed. It is
common that the TETRA radio sends the location message as a LIP (Location Information
Protocol) to the AVLS server. The LIP protocol is an ETSI standardised protocol for location
information. The control room(s) connect to the AVL server to obtain the location information
of the TETRA mobile radios and display their locations on a map. The connection between
the control room(s) and AVL server is usually a proprietary protocol.

Advantages over GSM

The much lower frequency used gives longer range, which in turn permits very high levels of
geographic coverage with a smaller number of transmitters, thus cutting infrastructure costs.

During a voice call, the communications are not interrupted when moving to another network
site. This is a unique feature which dPMR anetworks typically provide a number of fall-back
modes such as the ability for a base station to process local calls. So called 'mission critical'
networks can be built with TETRA where all aspects are fail-safe/multiple-redundant.

In the absence of a network mobiles/portables can use 'direct mode' whereby they share
channels directly (walkie-talkie mode).

Gateway mode - where a single mobile with connection to the network can act as a relay for
other nearby mobiles that are out of range of the infrastructure.

TETRA also provides a point-to-point function that traditional analogue emergency services
radio systems did not provide. This enables users to have a one-to-one trunked 'radio' link
between sets without the need for the direct involvement of a control room
operator/dispatcher.

Unlike cellular technologies, which connect one subscriber to one other subscriber (one-toone), TETRA is built to do one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-many. These operational
modes are directly relevant to the public safety and professional users.

TETRA supports both air-interface encryption and end-to-end encryption

Rapid deployment (transportable) network solutions are available for disaster relief and
temporary capacity provision.

Equipment is available from many suppliers around the world, thus providing the benefits of
interoperable competition.

Network solutions are available in both the older circuit-switched (telephone like)
architectures and flat, IP architectures with soft (software) switches.

Disadvantages

Requires a linear amplifier to meet the stringent RF specifications that allow it to exist
alongside other radio services.

Data transfer is efficient and long range (many km), but slow by modern standards at 7.2
kbit/s per timeslot (3.5 kbit/slot net packet data throughput, noting that this rate is ostensibly
faster than what DMR