Weaving Litrature

Weaving Fundamentals and Design
Slide 1
Weaving Fundamentals
Weaving Fundamentals will cover these topics:

You will learn how a woven fabric structure differs from a knit fabric structure. Warp and filling yarn paths will
be discussed as they relate to woven fabric formation. The basic weaving motions needed to form a woven
fabric will be explained with animations and videos to reinforce perception and understanding of the process
of weaving. Woven fabric production will be covered using typical calculations to determine productivity along
with a discussion of what factors influence the rate of productivity. Lastly, basic fabric designs will be
highlighted with statements related to how design influences fabric properties.
Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

Slide 2
Structure of Woven Fabric
Woven fabrics are formed by interlacing two sets of yarns. Yarns running along the length or machine direction
of the fabric are called warp yarns, warp ends or simply ends. Yarns running perpendicular to the warp yarns
and interlacing with them are called filling yarns, weft yarns or simply picks. Fabric count (sometimes called
thread count or fabric construction) reveals how dense the fabric may be according to the yarns inserted per
square inch of fabric. Fabric count is normally described using two numbers, the first representing warp yarns
per inch in a given fabric and the second number representing the filling yarns or picks per inch. Another term
used to refer to the ends per inch is sley. If the fabric count is 86x54, then one would know that the ends per
inch or sley of the given fabric is 86 while the picks per inch is 54. The term thread count is normally used for
squared constructions where the ends and picks per inch are the same number. For example, a 300 count
sheeting fabric would have 150 warp yarns per inch and 150 filling yarns per inch. Some fabrics are described
by using a series of numbers such as 86x54/16x12 where 16 would be the yarn count (English cotton count) for
the warp yarn and 12 would be the yarn count for the filling yarn. Occasionally fabrics are over-constructed
with too many yarns per square inch yielding a stiff fabric with poor drape or flexibility. The opposite would be
a fabric too open with not enough yarns per inch yielding a structure that would be too loosely constructed
and not very stable. Most woven fabrics will have fewer filling yarns per inch compared to the number of warp
yarns per inch. Various fabric designs will create a different number of interlacing points or intersections of
warp and filling yarns. These cross-over points present stress points in the fabric which affect the fabric
stiffness and flexibility. The fabrics with fewer interlacing points will tend be more flexible and softer, with the
opposite being true for fabrics with more interlacing points.

Slide 3
Woven Fabric Cross-Section
Looking at the simulated cross-sectional view of a woven fabric, as shown in this slide, reveals the warp and
filling crimp produced by the interlacing yarns. This crimp gives the woven structure a 3-dimensional look
showing that the fabric is not altogether flat. For this reason, more yards or meters of yarn are inserted into
the fabric than yards or meters of fabric produced. Most fabrics, in their relaxed state, have more warp crimp
than filling crimp.

Slide 4
Weaving Machine Parts
In weaving you begin with a collection of yarns on a loom beam and end up with a roll of fabric. In between
these two points, there are various elements used to either help form the fabric or control the process in some
manner. The warp yarns are unwound from the loom beam in sheet form and pass over a rather large
diameter stainless steel roll called the whip roll which helps to guide the yarns forward. The whip roll can be
adjusted up or down to control the warp yarn tension. The control of tension influences the fabric appearance
and clarity of the design face. Each warp yarn is threaded through a thin metal drop wire which acts as a stop
motion device. When a warp yarn breaks, the wire drops due to a lack of yarn tension to hold it up and the
weaving machine will stop. This prevents the fabric from containing a missing end which would create a
vertical line in the fabric, creating a second quality product. The harnesses are metal frames that contain thin
metal wires called heddles. Each heddle has an eyelet or hole for threading each warp yarn. During the
weaving process, the harnesses move up and down creating the desired design in the woven fabric. From the
harnesses the warp yarns pass through a comb-like device called the reed. The reed spreads the warp yarn
sheet out to a specified width called width-in-reed, or WIR, and beats each inserted filling yarn into the cloth
fell. The cloth fell is the line across the fabric width where the yarns transition over to a woven fabric. On
todays shuttleless machines, large filling packages are placed at one side of the machine. The filling yarn runs
off these packages and passes through a filling feeder which is a winding device for collecting filling yarn to be
inserted as the next pick. The cloth take-up system pulls the fabric forward, allowing it to be formed into a
cloth roll.

Slide 5
Weaving Machine Parts Warp Path
This animation illustrates how numerous warp yarns come off the warp beam, pass over the whip roll, go
through the drop wires, pass through the heddles and reed and end up in a roll of fabric via the cloth take-up
system. The time it takes a warp yarn to travel from the loom beam to the cloth roll is from 4 to 8 minutes. The
actual time is influenced by the speed of the weaving machine and the filling yarns inserted per inch of fabric.
During this time, the yarn is subjected to considerable abrasion. The size applied during the previous slashing
operation helps to increase abrasion resistance.

Slide 6
Primary Motions Animation
There are five primary motions needed to weave a fabric. The first motion is shedding. Shedding means
separation. In the case of weaving, it means the separation of the warp yarns with some forming the lower
shed and others forming the upper shed. This separation is made possible by the up and down movement of
the harness frames. The second motion needed is filling insertion. Through the open shed of warp yarns, the
filling yarn is inserted so that it interlaces with the warp yarns to produce a particular weave design. Beat-up is
the third motion that the weaving machine performs. It is done with the aid of a reed as it moves forward
beating the filling yarn into the fabric. As these first three weaving motions are taking place in a timed
sequence, the warp yarns are simultaneously let-off or unwound (the fourth motion) as the produced fabric
passes to a take-up system (the fifth motion) to form a cloth roll. These motions are required on all weaving
machines, whether they are hand looms or automatic looms.

Slide 7
Primary Motions Animation - Speed
This animation shows how the speed of unwinding the warp yarns must be higher than the speed of taking up
the fabric. This difference in speed is due to the crimping of the warp yarns as they are interlaced with the
filling yarns. Notice the harnesses separate the red and white warp yarns, allowing the white filling yarn to be
inserted in front of the reed. After the filling insertion, the reed moves forward for the beat-up of the filling
into the cloth fell. For simplicity, only two harnesses are being shown which means only a plain weave fabric
design could be formed.

Slide 8
Weaving Motions Video
This video shows three of the primary weaving motions. Notice the harness movements or shedding which
separate the warp yarns, the insertion of the filling yarns, and the subsequent beat-up of the filling yarn into
the fabric. Notice in this particular video, the shed closes or crosses after each filling insertion. Notice, also,
how close the heddles are situated in the harnesses. As a rule of thumb, only 24 to 28 heddles per inch can
occupy a given harness. When the number of warp yarns becomes larger, the number of harnesses must be
increased so that the heddles will not be too close together impeding the shedding process. Another point to
mention is the sweep of the reed which can create significant yarn abrasion, thus necessitating the need for
sizing the warp yarns.

Slide 9
Shedding

Slide 10
Cam Shedding
As previously mentioned, shedding is the separation of the warp yarns which provide an opening to insert the
filling yarn. One of the simplest types of shedding is cam shedding. This type of shedding utilizes rotating cams
to lift and lower the harnesses in a prescribed manner dictated by the woven fabric design. Cam shedding
machines usually have from 6 to 8 harnesses, which allows one to weave only simple designs. However, some
cam shedding machines today have as many as 14 harnesses. Cams are normally located at one end of the
weaving machine in an oil bath near the floor.

Slide 11
Cam Shedding Photo
As shown in this photo, each cam has two parts a low and high profile. As each cam rotates on the cam shaft,
the high and low profiles come in contact with a cam follower which is connected to a lever or jack which in
turn is linked to a given harness. Six jacks representing a six harness machine can be seen in this photograph.
Spacers are used on the cam shaft where cams are not needed. This particular machine can accommodate up
to ten cams, and thus control ten harnesses.

Slide 12
Cam Shedding Diagram
The linkage of each cam to an associated harness is illustrated in this diagram. To change design, one removes
the current cams and replaces them with cams of a different shape or profile. For example, a plain weave will
use an entirely different set of cams than a 3/1 twill weave. An inventory of cam shafts for different designs
can be kept, so as to reduce the time taken to make style changes.

Slide 13
Cam Shedding Animation
This animation shows how the individual cams control the movement of a specific harness. The movement
determines the woven design in a fabric.

Slide 14
Cam Shedding Video
This video insert focuses on the cam movements showing the lifting and lowering of the harnesses. Many
times two harnesses contain warp yarns for forming the fabric edges or selvages. The remaining harnesses
weave the body of the fabric. This particular machine has a tucking device which tucks the end of each cut
filling yarn into the fabric edge. Thus it is called a tucked-in selvage. In this case, all six of the harnesses would
be weaving the body of the fabric.

Slide 15
Dobby Shedding
A second type of shedding is called dobby shedding. Chains of wooden bars with pegs inserted, plastic or mylar
sheets with punched holes or computer controls are used to dictate the weave design. The number of
harnesses used can range from 8 to as many as 28 or even higher. Thus more complex designs with larger
repeats can be woven, including geometric figures and spot weaves along with complex pattern stripes. Many
machines today have electronic shed control which makes changing designs much simpler and quicker than
with earlier technology.

Slide 16
Dobby Shedding Photo
An electronic dobby is shown in this photograph. The movements of the harnesses and associated jacks are
created electronically with the aid of electromagnetism. This technology allows the use of CAD systems to
develop a given design, modify it to be exactly what is wanted and then download it to the weaving machine.
This eliminates the necessity of producing many samples and taking machines out of production for sample
work. This particular machine has an 18 harness capability.

Slide 17
Dobby Shedding Video
This video insert focuses on the electronic dobby control system raising and lowering the harnesses. The
harnesses can be seen moving up and down on the weaving machine. Notice the warp yarns being controlled
by the harnesses. Dobby machines can produce any design done on a cam machine plus more elaborate
designs.

Slide 18
Jacquard Shedding
A third method of shedding, called jacquard is used to produce larger design patterns. Tapestries and damask
fabrics fall under this method of shedding. Originally jacquard looms used punched cardboard cards to control
individual warp yarns. Later, mylar sheets with punched holes were used and still later, computer controlled
jacquard heads. The earlier types of jacquard shedding tended to be slow while machines with electronic
jacquards can operate at a much higher rate of speed. Design capability on these machines is virtually
unlimited, typically producing more expensive fabrics.

Slide 19
Jacquard Shedding Photo
In jacquard shedding individual heddles are connected to the jacquard head located above the weaving
machine. Draw cords, as shown in the photograph, are the connecting devices used and easily identify a
jacquard machine. On these machines, the drawing-in of the warp yarns must take place at the machine and
not in a separate area. Thus machine downtime is higher, leading to a lower efficiency process. Notice the large
design repeat being produced by the weaving machine. A very colorful fabric can be produced when using a
multi-colored warp and up to 16 different colors of filling yarns.

Slide 20
Jacquard Shedding Video
Notice the different colors of warp and filling yarns being woven into this jacquard fabric. When a given color is
needed on the technical face, that colored yarn will be lifted by the jacquard head and when that color is not
needed on the fabric face, it will be lowered and hidden on the technical back of the fabric. This machine
employs an electronic jacquard where the design can be developed on a computer and when approved,
downloaded to the weaving machine. The design of this fabric has been changed to show the wide variety of
patterns that can be formed. At the front of this machine is an off-loom take-up system where the fabric can
be inspected for defects before forming a fabric roll. On top of the framework is the jacquard head. Below it
the draw cords which are attached to individual heddles. The back view of the machine shows the warp yarns
going through the drop wires and heddles. The side view shows the filling being inserted and the subsequent
forward motion of the reed for beat-up. Observe how the lifted warp yarns change in color as the given design
is produced.

Slide 21
Filling Insertion
Shedding provides an opening whereby the filling yarn can be inserted in front of the reed. As it is inserted,
some warp yarns are above the filling and others below it. The woven design dictates which warp yarns rise
above each filling yarn. The filling yarns are inserted in a consistent, uniform manner, determined by the loom
speed and the picks per inch in the fabric which in turn is determined by the rate of fabric take-up on the
machine. The number of picks per inch determines the pick density of the fabric. The forward motion of the
reed places the filling yarn in the fabric. Other than selecting different types of filling yarn or different colors to
be inserted, the filling insertion has very little to do with the fabric design. The order and pattern of lifting and
lowering the warp yarns is the main factor controlling the fabric design. There are basically five methods of
filling insertion.

Slide 22
Shuttle Loom
In the late 1940s and early 50s, the shuttle loom was the Cadillac of weaving machines. It had many iron,
wood, and leather parts. The upper right portion of the picture shows that this machine has dobby shedding
motions with the use of a chain containing wooden bars with steel pegs inserted. This loom would run in the
range of 150 to 200 picks per minute.

Slide 23
Draper Shuttle Loom
The diagram of the Draper shuttle loom provides a good view of the shuttle coming in contact with the picker
stick. The shuttle must be boxed properly so that it will fly through the open shed of the warp yarns and not up
through the top warp shed. Notice the carousel-looking device in the top right portion of the picture. This
device holds a supply of quills which will be inserted into the shuttle when needed in order to constantly
provide a supply of filling yarn to be woven.

Slide 24
Features of Shuttleless Weaving
Larger Filling packages
Unidirectional pick insertion
Higher pick insertion rates
Weft feeders
Special selvage attachments
Quieter and safer operation
Less machine vibration
Demands higher quality yarn therefore better slashing, warping and yarn
packaging
Fewer fabric seconds
Downtime is more costly
Less power per unit of fabric made
Todays shuttleless weaving machines have features very different from the shuttle looms. The filling supply is
on much larger packages of yarn rather than small quills. Filling is inserted in one direction only with each
filling yarn being cut at both sides of the fabric. The rate of filling insertion is much higher on these machines,
ranging from 300 to over 1000 picks per minute. Weft yarn feeders are employed in order to maintain a
constant tension on each pick. With the technology used in these machines, fabric defects were reduced as
better quality yarn had to be supplied to meet the demands of higher speeds. Downtime of these machines is
more costly as more production will be lost per unit of time the machine is not running. Less power is needed
per unit of fabric made.

Slide 25
Weft Yarn Feeders
The weft yarn will typically leave the filling yarn package and be tensioned before going onto the feeder device.
The feeder allows a certain amount of yarn to be stored and then fed into the weaving machine. Thus yarn is
always available for the next pick insertion. The rate of filling insertion can be very high, normally ranging from
1200 to 2200 meters per minute, depending on the method of insertion and the machine width. The filling
yarn can be unwound from the feeder in a clockwise or counter-clockwise manner, determined by the twist
direction in the yarn. There will be a different feeder for each color or type of filling yarn being used. This
feeder is running a black filling yarn.

Slide 26
Types of Rapier Systems
There are various types of rapier machines. The original machines used one single rigid rapier and proved not
to be any more productive than the shuttle looms. The idea was developed to use double rapiers that could
meet in the middle of the weave shed and hence cut in half the time needed to insert each pick. A giver rapier
picks up the filling yarn and delivers it midway across the fabric width. At this point the taker rapier grips the
yarn as it is exchanged between the two rapiers. As the taker rapier finishes the insertion distance, the giver
is free to return and grip the next filling yarn to be inserted. If the rapiers remain rigid upon leaving the weave
shed, then they are classified as rigid rapiers, and if they flex similar to a tape measure take up when leaving
the weave shed, then they are classified as flexible rapiers. Today, there are a few machines using telescopic
rapiers. They extend out like the lens on a telescope in order to insert the filling.

Slide 27
Rapier Filling Selection
Each weft yarn is threaded through a filling finger. A given filling finger is lowered when the yarn it is
controlling is selected to be inserted. The selection action can be either mechanical or electronic.

Slide 28
Filling Selection Animation
This animation highlights how different colors of yarn can be selected before inserting them into the weave
shed. Filling fingers have eyelets through which the yarn is threaded and the machine is programmed for each
finger to be activated when that particular color or type of yarn is needed. The yarn is picked up by the lefthand rapier and delivered to the right-hand rapier. The left-hand rapier then moves back to pick up a different
filling yarn to be inserted for the next pick in the fabric.

Slide 29
Filling Selection Video
This video of a rapier machine shows the action of the filling fingers and a number of feeders for supplying
various colors and types of filling yarn. Each feeder is fed yarn from a yarn package, and from the feeder, the
yarn enters the selection devices. This machine has eight filling feeders; therefore, eight different types or
colors of yarn can be used. Some machines have as many as 16 filling feeders. From the view at the back of the
machine a black yarn and a white yarn are seen being inserted alternatively. Rapiers of this type have the
capability of inserting multiple filling yarns at one time. Rip-stop fabrics are a good example of inserting 2, 3, or
even 4 yarns at one time to provide the heavy lines that you see in these fabrics. The multiple yarns in the
same pick position should keep a rip or tear in the fabric from getting larger.

Slide 30
Single Rigid Animation
Notice how a single rigid rapier makes an insertion and then moves back across the weaving machine emptyhanded. This wasted motion created the need to have double rapiers which, in a sense, doubles the fabric
production.

Slide 31
Double Rigid Animation
The double rigid rapier action tends to double the loom speed. Notice how, on this type of rapier
demonstration, the left-hand rapier does not let go of the filling yarn until the right-hand rapier has a positive
grip on it. Cam-driven levers are used, as shown here, to open the gripper heads in order to receive and/or
give up the yarn. Machine timing must be very precise so the filling exchange will take place smoothly with no
dropped picks.

Slide 32
Double Rigid Rapier Video
This double rigid rapier machine is running with a jacquard head enabling it to weave a very intricate woven
design. The giver rapier is located on the left side of the machine where all the filling yarn packages are located.
The slow motion action shows a view of the opening levers and the associated exchange of the filling yarn. At
this point, the reed moves forward and pushes the given pick into the fabric fell. The rapier machines are the
most flexible of all the filling insertion methods. Rapiers can handle any type of yarn from very fine to very
heavy, very smooth to slubby and even to the point of being able to weave steel wire for screens and other
applications.

Slide 33
Double Flexible Animation
The double flexible rapier machines take up less weave-room space since the rapiers flex as they retract from
the weave shed. The rapier tape coils around a large tooth-like wheel or sprocket.

Slide 34
Flexible Rapier Video
The filling yarn supply for this flexible rapier machine is delivered to the filling feeder which in turn tensions
the yarn and stores it for immediate use. Multiple coils of yarn are wound onto the feeder. Brush rings are used
to help tension the yarn as it is pulled from the feeder. From the feeder the yarn goes into the weave shed
after being picked up by the left-hand rapier. Feeling fingers select the given yarn to be inserted. The machine
is running in slow motion and then goes into normal speed.

Slide 35
Projectile and Guide
Projectile filling insertion utilizes a bullet like device which grips the yarn and shoots it across the weave shed.
To prevent the projectile from escaping from the machine, metal guides are used which are closely spaced
across the width of the weaving machine. On modern projectile machines, the projectile is made from graphite
or some composite material, whereas on older machines the projectile is metal. Projectiles can be various
weights in order to accommodate different yarn counts. The range of yarn counts and the yarn types will not
be as wide as it is on rapier machines.

Slide 36
Projectile Photo
The projectile seen is entering the guides with the yarn trailing behind. As the reed moves forward the guides
move downward, allowing the filling to move out of the guides for placement in the cloth fell. On many
machines a small drop of oil is put on the projectile before insertion in order to reduce the friction between
the projectile and the guides. This increases the wear life of the projectile and guides. The speeds of these
machines are somewhat lower than rapier machines, all things being equal.

Slide 37
Projectile Animation
This animation highlights the projectile gripper opening up to receive the filling yarn. A torsion bar is twisted to
store up energy. When this energy is released, a connected lever strikes the projectile and propels it across the
weave shed. Once the projectile finishes its flight through the guides, it is placed on a conveyer chain which
transfers it back to the other side of the weaving machine. There will be a projectile approximately every ten
inches on the conveyor chain ensuring one is always available for insertion.

Slide 38
Air Jet Diagram
The air jet diagram at the top illustrates an earlier type of guide system found on air jet machines. The guide
system was separate and not part of the reed. The structure of the air guides was designed so that the air
would not disperse quickly and lose its pressure. The earlier machines were narrow with the use of only a
single main nozzle. To weave wider fabrics, intermediate or sub nozzles (sometimes called relay nozzles) were
placed on the machine. These were programmed to inject air at timed sequences that keeps the pick moving
across the weave shed. Latest air jet machines use a profile or tunnel reed where the air guide system is built
into the reed as seen in the bottom diagram.

Slide 39
Air Jet Reed Video
This close-up of a profile reed illustrates how the filling yarn enters the tunnel provided in the reed, and how,
at this point, the warp yarns are separated into an upper and lower shed arrangement. Also notice the first
relay nozzle. Air jet weaving demands good warp yarn preparation. Because air can be easily misdirected, the
weave shed must be free of any sticking or tangled warp yarns. Good warping and slashing operations ensure
that no wild yarn or excessively hairy yarn will impede the flight of the filling yarn across the width of the
machine. Many air jet filling stops are warp-related, meaning that the cause of the stop was related to the
quality of the warp yarn and not related to the quality of the filling yarn. The force of air needed to pull the
yarn off of the filling feeder varies according to yarn type. Ring spun yarn is typically hairier than open end yarn
and therefore higher air nozzle pressure is generally needed to successfully remove the ring yarn from the
filling feeder. Filament yarns tend to be smoother and slick, therefore, less air nozzle pressure is needed.
Textured filament yarns are more air-friendly than flat filament yarns, since there is more yarn surface friction
to interact with the air. Very slick flat filament yarns are a challenge to weave as filling yarn on air jet machines
due to a tendency to slough off the package.

Slide 40
Air Jet Animation
The progressive action of the relay nozzles as the filling yarn moves through the weave shed is shown in this
animation. The relay nozzles are normally micro-processor controlled to ensure precise timing of the air
injection.

Slide 41
Air Jet Nozzles
This air jet machine photograph shows the placement of the relay nozzles and the fine openings on the tip of
the nozzles. The openings always point in the direction that the filling yarn is traveling. During beat-up of the
filling yarn, the relay nozzles move out of the way and do not interfere with pick placement in the fabric.

Slide 42
Air Jet Weaving Machine Video
Air jet machines provide the fastest method of filling insertion. This particular machine is running at 680 picks
per minute. Other machines run upwards of 1200 picks per minute and higher depending on the machine
width. To gain a perspective on the speed of the weaving motions taking place, consider a machine running a
modest speed of 600 insertions per minute. How many is that per second? That means by the time you count
one thousand one, the machine has inserted 10 picks. And it has also performed shedding and beat-up 10
times in that one second. Even though this seems fast, remember that only one filling yarn is being inserted at
a time which is only a small fraction of the total length of fabric being produced. Remember that weaving is a
single-phase process. Compared to knitting, which is a multiple-phase process, weaving is slower. At the end of
this video, you can see where the yarn leaves the air nozzle, enters the weave shed and passes through the
tunnel reed. Lastly, you can see where the inserted pick would end up on the other side of the machine.

Slide 43
Water Jet Animation
Water jet weaving uses a pulsating stream of water to insert each filling yarn. Therefore, there are limitations
as to the type of yarn that can be run on these machines. Only yarns containing hydrophobic fibers can be
used because of the need to dry the fabric prior to forming a fabric roll. Fabrics containing fibers like cotton,
wools and rayon would not be recommended for these machines. The most common use of water jet
machines is in the production of mattress ticking or fabric making up the outer surface of a mattress. These
fabrics are typically made from polyester and nylon filament yarns. The machine parts have to be noncorrosive. The water temperature needs to be cool for best interactions with the yarn.

Slide 44
Water Jet Machine Video
This water jet machine is running at 1100 picks per minute. It is producing a polyester filament fabric. A
rubber-coated granular surfaced roller helps to pull the fabric through the weaving elements without the fabric
slipping. The narrow slit seen under the warp yarn is a vacuum slot used to suck water out of the fabric prior to
roll-up. The water nozzle is on the left side of the machine, so the filling travels from left to right. A close-up of
the water nozzle and a filling yarn tensioning device can be seen. Water pulsates from the nozzle and this burst
of water transports the filling yarn across the machine. In the video everything looks blurred indicating that the
machine is running at a very high speed. When a strobe light is used, the movement of the reed back and forth,
as the filling is placed or beat-up into the fabric, is seen. Notice, too, how quickly the shed is being formed
before each insertion. The speed of water jet weaving is faster than shuttle, projectile or rapier weaving but
typically not as fast as air jet weaving.

Slide 45
Beat-Up Motion

Slide 46
Reed Functions
The reed is the primary element used in the beating of the filling yarn into the fell of the cloth. However, the
reed has other functions as well. It aids in positioning the warp yarns across the width of the weave shed. Each
slot or opening in the reed is called a dent. Through each dent a given number of warp yarns will be drawn.
Some fabric designs may call for 2 yarns per dent, some 3, some 4 and some a variable number in each dent in
a specific sequence. This is called an irregular reed plan. Whatever this number, it will be referred to as the
reed plan. Different reed plans work best for a given weave design. Occasionally, if a fabric has faint streaks in
the warp direction, the reed plan can be changed to remove the streakiness.

Slide 47
Air Jet Reed
As mentioned earlier, the reed used in air jet weaving has a tunnel-like profile which provides a path for the air
and yarn to follow. These are more expensive than flat reeds which are used in all other methods of filling
insertion. The reed shown here is only a small section of a full-width reed.

Slide 48
Reed Number
Reed number is the number of dents per inch in the reed and is usually stamped on the reed. The picture
shows a very coarse reed on the left with seven dents per inch and a very fine reed shown on the right. The
coarse reed would handle heavy or thick yarns for weaving heavier fabrics or more open fabric if desired. The
fine reed would handle finer yarns for weaving lighter weight fabrics. The fine reed fabric would tend to be
tighter in construction, more warp yarns per inch. The reed number can be calculated by dividing the ends per
inch in the fabric by the ends per dent in the reed. Different fabric designs require different reed numbers. A
typical weave plant could have a fairly large inventory of reeds.

Slide 49
Beat-up (Rigid Rapier)
Once the filling yarn is inserted, the reed beats it into the fabric fell. The beat-up can be an indication of over
constructing a fabric, meaning too many yarns are inserted per given space in the fabric. If this happens, the
beat up motion will be loud with a shaking or vibrating machine. Weaving machines typically vary in
robustness. Very robust machines are used for manufacturing heavier fabrics, performing a very forceful beatup. Less robust machines are used for manufacturing lighter weight fabrics, performing a more subtle beat-up.
Beat-up can occur before the top and bottom shed cross (shed crossing) or after they cross, depending on the
type of fabric being woven. Some machines have a special sequence where beat-up will not occur until 3 to 5
picks have been inserted. An example of this is in the production of terry woven fabrics. A video of this type of
beat up will be shown later.

Slide 50
Warp Control Overview

Let Off:
Controls rate of yarn removal from the warp beam.
Controls tension of warp ends.
Take-Up:
Determines the picks per inch in the fabric
Determines woven fabric production rate
The fourth and fifth primary weaving motions are let-off of the yarn from the loom beam and take-up of the
fabric after it has been woven. A consistent let-off ensures a constant warp yarn tension, and a consistent
take-up ensures a constant number of picks per inch in the fabric. Some newer weaving machines have a
variable take-up system which allows the insertion of variable picks per inch in the fabric as the machine is
running. Therefore, the pick density varies in different parts of the weave design. Fabrics with lower picks per
inch have a higher productivity because the rate of take-up of the fabric is higher. Of course, the opposite is
true of fabrics with a higher pick density.

Slide 51
Review What Motions
What primary weaving motions do you see in this video? What is the required sequence of the primary
weaving motions? If you answered shedding, filling insertion, and beat-up in that order you would be correct.

Slide 52
Production Calculations
Calculating linear yards of fabric produced on a weaving machine per hour of operation can
be done using the following formula:
Linear Yards/Hour = (picks per min. / picks per in.) x (60 min. per hr. / 36 in. per yd) x loom
efficiency (%)
Linear Meters/Hour = (picks per min / picks per centimeter) x (60 min. per hr. / 100 cm per
meter) x loom efficiency (%)
Square Yards/Hour = Linear Yards Per Hour x Fabric Width (Yds.)
Square Meters/Hour = Linear Meters Per Hour x Fabric Width (Meters)
Rate of Filling Insertion (Yards/Min) = Loom Speed (Picks/Min) x Loom Width (Yds.) x Loom
Efficiency (%)
Rate of Filling Insertion (Meters/Min) = Loom Speed (Picks/Min) x Loom Width (Meters) x
Loom Efficiency (%)
Common formulas used in weaving production calculations are shown in the accompanying slide. Examples are
given for both English and Metric systems. The following slides illustrate the use of these formulas.

Slide 53
Example 1
What are the linear yards of fabric produced on a machine
running 650 picks per minute, inserting 58 picks per inch, and
operating at a 92% efficiency?
Linear Yards/Hour = (picks per min. / picks per in.) x (60 min.
per hr. / 36 in. per yd) x loom efficiency (%)
Linear Yards/Hour = (650 picks per min. / 58 picks per in.) x
(60 min. per hr. / 36 in. per yd) x .92 loom efficiency
Answer: 17.2
You can test your understanding of the concepts presented by answering the following questions.
For example:
What are the linear yards of fabric produced on a machine running 650 picks per minute, inserting 58 picks per
inch, and operating at 92% efficiency?
The calculations are shown in red.

Slide 54
Example 2
What is the rate of filling insertion in a loom running 720
picks per minute with a width of 2.5 meters at 93%
efficiency?
Rate of Filling Insertion (Meters/Min) = Loom Speed
(Picks/Min) x Loom Width (Meters) x Loom Efficiency (%)
Rate of Filling Insertion (Meters/Min) = 720 (Picks/Min) x
2.5 (Meters) x .93 Loom Efficiency
Answer: 1674 meters of filling inserted per minute
In this example:
What is the rate of filling insertion in a loom running 720 picks per minute with a width of 2.5 meters at 93%
efficiency?

Slide 55
Question 1
Using the square meters/hour formula, determine which of
the following machines would be more productive.
A.
A two meter wide rapier machine running 475 picks per

minute at 90% efficiency and inserting 20 picks per
centimeter
B.
A 1.5 meter wide air jet machine running 675 picks per
minute at 90% efficiency and inserting 20 picks per
centimeter
Note: 100 centimeters in 1 meter
Try these examples on your own.

Using the square meters/hour formula, determine which of the following machines would be more productive.

Slide 56
Question 1 Solution
This is the solution for Question 1. There is no narration for this slide.

Slide 57
Question 2
Reviewing the factors in the formulas for calculating the
linear yards or linear meters that can be produced per
hour on a weaving machine, what changes in these
factors could be made that would increase weaving
production?
Linear Yards/Hour = (picks per min. / picks per in.) x (60
min. per hr. / 36 in. per yd) x loom efficiency (%)
Linear Meters/Hour = (picks per min / picks per
centimeter) x (60 min. per hr. / 100 cm per meter) x loom
efficiency (%)
Reviewing the factors in the formulas for calculating the linear yards or linear meters that can be produced per
hour on a weaving machine, what changes in these factors could be made that would increase weaving
production?

Slide 58
Question 2 Answer
Reviewing the factors in the formulas for calculating the linear yards or linear
meters that can be produced per hour on a weaving machine, what changes
in these factors could be made that would increase weaving production?
Linear Yards/Hour = (picks per min. / picks per in.) x (60 min. per hr. / 36 in.
per yd) x loom efficiency (%)
Linear Meters/Hour = (picks per min / picks per centimeter) x (60 min. per hr.
/ 100 cm per meter) x loom efficiency (%)
Answer
1. an increase in picks per minute
2. a decrease in the picks per inch or picks per centimeter
3. an increase in loom efficiency
The answer to the problem is by increasing the picks per minute, decreasing the picks per inch and increasing
the loom efficiency. Each one of these would result in an increase in loom productivity.

Slide 59
Basic Woven Designs

Slide 60
Plain Weave
The plain weave is the oldest, simplest, and most widely used weave design. This, like all other designs, can be
illustrated on a grid as shown on the right of this slide. Occasionally this grid is called point paper or point
graph which can be shown on a computer screen as part of a CAD system or as a hard copy. Each vertical
column of blocks in the grid represents an individual warp end (red yarn in this case) while each horizontal row
of blocks represents a filling, pick or weft yarn (white yarn in this case). While following the first warp end in
the grid, notice that the first block is filled in and moving vertically the next block is left blank. This pattern
continues indicating that the first warp end weaves over the first pick and then under the second pick, over the
third pick, under the fourth pick, etc. So any time a block is filled in, the warp yarn is over the filling at that
point. Any time a block is left blank or white, the warp yarn is under the filling yarn at that point. Notice that
the second warp yarn in the grid diagram weaves opposite from the first warp yarn. This is characteristic of the
plain weave design indicating that this weave has more cross-over or interlacing points than any other weave
design. The diagram to the left of the grid represents the actual weaving of the warp and filling yarns which
matches with the representation in the grid diagram. Notice one repeat of the plain weave involves two warp
yarns and two filling yarns as shown at the top of the slide. Notice, also, the crimp of the warp yarns and the
crimp of the filling yarns in the cross-sectional drawings.

Slide 61
Plain Weave
This is a normal and magnified view of a plain woven fabric. Each warp yarn (the vertical yarn) is going over
and then under each filling yarn (the horizontal yarn). As previously mentioned, this weave design yields the
most interlacing points that can occur in a woven fabric. Thus, compared to other weave designs, this design
creates the stiffest fabric with the least amount of drape, all other things being equal. However, the fabric is
very stable with good resistance to skewing, picking and snagging. When a tear strength test is conducted, only
one yarn at a time is broken in order to propagate a tear. Thus, plain weave fabrics have relatively lower tear
resistance compared to other weave designs, again all other factors being the same. The tensile strength of
this fabric, or force needed to pull the fabric at two ends and rupture it, depends upon the number of yarns
per inch in the fabric construction plus the linear density of the yarns. More dense fabrics tend to have a
higher tensile strength because there are more yarns to share the load placed upon the fabric.

Slide 62
Balanced PlainWoven Fabrics
batiste
buckram
calico
cambric
canvas
challis
chambray
cheesecloth
crash
crepe de chine
cretonne
crinoline duck
flannel
gauze
georgette
gingham
lawn
muslin
organdy
percale
seersucker
sheeting
voile
Balanced plain-woven fabrics essentially have the same threads per inch for the warp yarns and filling yarns. In
addition, the yarn sizes for warp and filling are approximately the same. A few names of specific balanced
plain-woven fabrics are batiste, canvas, cheesecloth, flannel, gauze and seersucker. It is important to
remember that fabrics are given specific names depending on weight, yarn structure, color-and-weave effect
and finishes.

Slide 63
Unbalanced PlainWoven Fabrics
broadcloth
poplin
taffeta
faille
repp
grosgrain
bengaline
ottoman
Unbalanced plain-woven fabrics are fabrics in which the number of warp yarns and filling yarns per inch are
very different, and the yarn sizes can be very different as well. This unbalanced nature of the fabric creates
crosswise rib effects. A few names of specific unbalanced plain-woven fabrics, given according to increasing
prominence of the crosswise rib, are broadcloth, poplin, taffeta and repp.

Slide 64
Twill Characteristics
Diagonal lines running at angles varying between 15 and 75 degrees

Denoted by using numbers above and below a line
Example : 2/1 and 1/2
Repeat represented by the addition of these numbers
Example: 2/1 and 1/2 repeat on 3 ends and 3 picks
2/1 and 3/1 are examples of warp face twills
1/2 and 1/3 are examples of filling face twills
2/2 , 3/3 and 4/4 are examples of balanced twills
Twills can also be characterized as:
Left Hand twills, Right Hand twills
Steep Twills
Reclining Twills
Broken Twills
Pointed-double pointed twills
Fabrics with a twill design are characterized by diagonal lines either rising to the left (called left-hand twill) or
rising to the right (called right-hand twill) on the face of the fabric. These diagonal lines can vary in angle from
15 to 75 degrees. Most regular twills have line angles of approximately 45 degrees. Twill fabrics with twill line
angles greater than 45 degrees are referred to as steep twills with a common example being Cavalry twills
which contains a pronounced double twill line of 63 degrees. Reclining twills have twill lines at an angle less
than 45 degrees. Twill weaves are denoted by a number system. The top number represents how many filling
yarns a given warp yarn goes over and the bottom number represents how many filling yarns a given warp
yarn goes under. So in a 2 over 1 or 2/1 twill weave, each warp yarn goes over two filling yarns and then under
one filling yarn, over two, under one, so forth. In a 1 over 2 twill weave, each warp yarn goes over just one
filling yarn and then under two filling yarns. How would you describe a 3 over 1 twill? Each warp yarn weaves
over three filling yarns and then under one filling yarn and so forth. Each time the top or first number is larger
than the bottom or second number, the fabric is a warp face twill. Each time the top or first number is smaller
than the bottom or second number, the fabric is a filling face twill. When both numbers are the same, such as
in 2 over 2 twill, the fabric is called a balanced twill.

Slide 65
Twill Fabric Types

Warp-Faced Twill Fabrics
cavalry twill
covert cloth
denim
drill
dungaree
gabardine
jean
whipcord
Balanced Twill Fabrics
foulard
herringbone
houndstooth
serge
A few specific warp-faced twill fabrics are denim, gabardine and whipcord. Two of the most common balanced
twill fabrics are herringbone and houndstooth.

Slide 66
Effect of Yarn Twist
As illustrated in the accompanying chart, any time the warp yarn has a twist direction opposite from the twill
direction, the twill line will be higher or more prominent. In this case, the fabric seems to be softer. Given that
all open end yarns can only be manufactured with z twist, which fabric twill direction would produce fabric
with a more raised twill line and a softer hand? The answer, a left-hand twill.

Slide 67
Whip Roll or Back Rest Effects
Another factor influencing the height of the twill line in a twill weave fabric is the height of the back rest or
whip roll. A lower setting produces a low warp twill effect and a higher setting produces a higher warp twill
effect. The higher the whip roll, the lower the warp yarn tension in the top shed. Since the top shed yarns are
on the technical face of the fabric, the reduced yarn tension produces a high warp twill effect.

Slide 68
2/1 Twill
In a 2 over 1 fabric design, each warp yarn weaves over two filling yarns and then under one filling yarn.
Adding these numbers together indicates how many warp yarns or ends are in the weave repeat and how
many filling yarns are in the weave repeat. In this case, three warp yarns and three filling yarns are one repeat
of the weave design. The diagram at the top of the slide shows two repeats of the weave design whereas the
grid drawing shows one repeat. This weave design yields different fabric properties from what was discussed
with the plain weave. For example, when tearing the fabric along the warp direction, two filling yarns are being
broken at a time to propagate the tear, not one as in the plain weave. In effect, two yarns bunch together to
offer a higher resistance to tearing. Due to less crimping of the yarns, the tensile strength of a twill weave
fabric tends to be higher, all things being equal. With fewer interlacings in this type of fabric, the fabric drape is
better, again all things being equal.

Slide 69
2/1 Right Hand Twill
The magnified view of a 2 over 1 right hand twill shows that each warp yarn goes over two filling yarns and
then under one filling yarn. The twill line rises to the right. Notice how each successive warp yarn, going from
left to right, begins its pattern of over two and under one one pick above the previous warp yarn. This
produces a stair-stepping effect which creates the twill line angle. When warp yarns are increased in number
per inch in the fabric construction, the twill line will be steeper.

Slide 70
1/2 Twill
The 1 over 2 right hand twill weave also repeats on three ends and three picks. However it is a filling face twill,
since there is more white yarn showing on the fabric face than red yarn. This weave might be chosen in order
to highlight a novelty or fancy filling yarn being used. Is this fabric the same as taking a 2x1 twill and turning it
over? The answer is no. What is the difference? The twill line will be right hand on the face side and left hand
on the back side.

Slide 71
1/2 Left Hand Twill
In this 1 over 2 left hand twill select any dark blue warp yarn and follow it in the fabric, it goes over one light
blue filling yarn and then under two. The twill line in this case rises to the left and the fabric is called a lefthand twill weave. Notice that more filling yarn shows on the fabric face compared to the amount of warp yarn
showing. Also notice that the filling yarn is coarser, greater linear density, than the warp yarn and contains
lower yarn twist. The filling yarn also appears to be more hairy.

Slide 72
Balanced Twills
The 2x2 twill weave design is the most common balanced twill design used. This weave repeats on four ends
and four picks in the fabric. There is an equal number of blocks filled in and left blank in order to illustrate this
weave pattern. Thus, there is an equal amount of warp yarn and filling yarn showing on the face of the fabric.
As mentioned previously, if the same yarn twist direction is used in both the left hand and right hand twill
fabric, the appearance and hand of the fabric will not be the same.

Slide 73
2/2 Left Hand Twill
In this magnified view of a 2 over 2 left hand twill fabric, the yarn twist direction is Z which produces a raised
twill line that is very visible on the fabric face as seen in the unmagnified fabric swatch. Following each warp
yarn, the end weaves over two filling yarns and then under two filling yarns. Moving from right to left, this 2
over 2 sequence is repeated as you advance up one pick on each successive warp yarn. As mentioned earlier,
this stair-stepping effect produces the left-hand twill line.

Slide 74
The 2 over 2 right-hand twill fabric also utilizes Z twisted yarn. Because of the Z twist the twill line is flatter
and therefore not as visible on the fabric face as seen on the unmagnified view of the fabric.

Slide 75
3/1 Twill
3x1 twill fabrics have longer floats; the warp yarns weave over a higher number of filling yarns than previously
discussed. Each end weaves over 3 picks before going under 1 pick. The top right hand sketch represents one
repeat of this weave occurring on 4 ends and 4 picks. The top left hand sketch shows two repeats of the 3x1
weave design using 8 warp yarns and 8 filling yarns. There is a significantly greater amount of red warp yarn
showing on the fabric face and very little white filling yarn.

Slide 76
The 3 up 1 down right-hand twill design is commonly used in bottom weight denim fabrics. This denim fabric
sample contains indigo blue warp yarns and naturally undyed filling yarns. Therefore, the fabric face is
predominantly blue. If the fabric was turned over, it would be predominantly white. The twill line is wider than
it is in 2x1 and 2x2 weave designs viewed earlier. This is because of the longer floats.

Slide 77
3/1 Left Hand Twill
As in the other twill fabrics, 3x1 twill fabrics contain yarns twisted in the Z direction. Therefore, the left-hand
twill has a more raised twill line. In the 3x1 twill with fewer interlacings, more filling yarns can be inserted to
make a denser and heavier fabric. These heavier bottom weight fabrics are mostly 3x1 twills while top weight
or shirting twills are 2x1 and 2x2 designs.

Slide 78
Herringbone
Herringbone is an excellent example of a broken twill design where the twill line is discontinuous, alternating
between right hand and left hand. With the herringbone fabric, the points where the right hand and left hand
twill lines meet form a staggered or broken point. As illustrated on the point paper or grid sketch, the weave
pattern repeats on 8 ends and 4 picks. The DID notation for different weave designs stands for drawingin
draft. In the DID, each horizontal row of blocks represents a single harness. Each vertical column of blocks
represents a warp yarn or end. Therefore, warp yarn 1 in the weave design is drawn through harness 1, warp
yarn 2 through harness two, warp yarn 3 through harness 3, and warp yarn 4 through harness 4. Since warp
yarn 5 weaves the same as warp yarn 2 in the weave design sketch, it will be drawn through harness 2. As can
be seen, warp yarn 6 weaves as warp yarn 1, 7 as 4, and 8 as 3. Therefore only 4 harnesses are needed to
weave this design. However, if there is any crowding of the warp yarns due to higher sley fabrics, the number
of harnesses must be some multiple of 4, such as 8 or 12. The CP notation stands for chain plan. In the CP, each
horizontal row of blocks represents a filling yarn or pick while each vertical column of blocks represents a
harness. For example, on pick number 1, harness 1 is up (illustrated by the shaded block), harness 2 and 3 are
down (illustrated by the un-shaded blocks or white blocks, and harness 4 is up (illustrated by the shaded block).
One can follow each successive pick and know which harnesses are up and which are down as each pick is
inserted into the weaving machine. Using these two instructions, drawing-in-draft and chain plan, any specific
weave design can be set up on a weaving machine. The only remaining piece of information needed is the reed
plan which indicates how many warp yarns are drawn through each dent or slot in the reed.

Slide 79
Chevron
The chevron twill has a different design and drawing-in-draft, but the same chain plan resulting in a design
where the right and left twill lines come to a direct point and not a staggered point as in the herringbone twill.
Therefore, chevron twills are not true broken twills. In a true broken twill, at the point where the twill direction
changes, if the warp is on the surface, the next thread on the surface is the filling, forming a clear break. This is
not true with pointed twills such as chevrons. There are many other twill variations that can be developed by
blending the use of right and left hand twill lines. Frequently the twill line is broken or displaced to the right or
left but continues in the same direction. This is another way to form a broken twill design.

Slide 80
Satin Weave Definition

The terms satin and sateen are sometimes
confused. Satin is the weave. Sateen is a satin
weave fabric constructed from yarns other than silk.
A satin fabric is a satin weave constructed from silk.
Satin weaves are designated by the number of
harnesses that are required to weave them. Each
end of the repeat weaves differently; therefore, the
number of ends per repeat will be the same
number of harnesses required to weave the fabric.
Satin may be made by using as few as 5 harnesses
or as many as 16 harnesses.
There are different definitions for satin and sateen fabrics around the world. The definition most often used
states that a satin fabric is a satin weave fabric woven with silk yarns and a sateen fabric is woven with yarns
other than silk. However in some parts of the world satin weave is when filament yarn is used and sateen
weave is when spun yarn is used. Other parts of the world use the term satin to denote when the warp yarn
floats in the fabric and use the term sateen to denote when the filling yarn floats in the fabric. Satin weaves
are described by the number of harnesses being used which will be the same as the number of ends per
repeat of the design. Five, seven and eight harness satins are the ones most commonly woven.

Slide 81
5 Harness Sateen (filling face)
This diagram represents a 5 harness sateen weave by some definitions because the filling yarn is floating and is
also referred to as a filling face sateen. As can be seen, there is very little warp yarn on the face. Notice that
the weave repeats on 5 ends and 5 picks. This weave design will create fabric with a very smooth and lustrous
surface but will have low resistance to picking, snagging, and skewing. Seam slippage would be higher. Tear
strength would be very good since multiple yarns would be free to bunch together and resist the propagation
of a tear. The counter is a number that is used to insure that no interlacing points are touching. Using 2 as a
counter and starting from any interlacing point go over to the next warp end and count up 2 picks. This is
where the next interlacing point will be placed. From here you go through the same routine to establish each
interlacing point in the weave repeat. Of course, when using 3 as a counter, you move directly over to the next
adjacent end and count upward 3 picks for the next interlacing point. The use of 2 and 3 in this case indicates
that they are pick count.

Slide 82
5 Harness Sateen (warp face)
To some people, this would be defined as a satin weave because the warp floats. If non-silk yarns are being
used, others would refer to this design as a warp face sateen weave. Being a warp face design, more warp yarn
is showing on the fabric face than filling yarn. Warp face satins tend not to be as soft as the filling face satins
because of a higher yarn twist level typically found in the warp yarns.

Slide 83
Satin Fabric Uses
Apparel
Bridal wear
Fabric linings
Upholstery fabrics
Satin fabrics are luxurious, more formal fabrics. They are frequently used for evening apparel, bridal wear,
fabric linings and as upholstery fabrics for elegant settings. Satin fabrics can be designed with wind-proof
properties as in wind-breaker jackets and coats. Types of satin designs are often used in the background or
base fabrics for tapestries and other fabrics with decorative designs.

Slide 84
5 Harness Sateen (warp face)
Notice how the warp yarn floats in this warp face sateen fabric. Cotton spun yarn is woven in both warp and
filling directions. Spun yarn satin and sateen fabrics will not be as lustrous as filament yarn satin and sateen
fabrics due to the hairiness of the spun yarn scattering reflected light.

Slide 85
Basket Weaves
Many other weave designs are based on one or more of the previously discussed basic weave designs. Basket
weaves are derivative of the plain weave. Instead of weaving individual warp and filling yarns, multiple yarns
are woven in some sequence or repeat. If two warp and two filling yarns weave alike, then the weave is named
2x2 basket weave. If three warp and three filling yarns are weaving alike, then the basket weave is named a
3x3. This tends to be a looser weave than the basic plain weave with a higher resistance to tearing but less
resistance to sheer, seam slippage, snagging and picking.
In apparel, many basket weave fabrics are used for suits, such as hopsacking, and sportswear, such as sailcloth.
Other uses include slipcovers for furniture, house awnings and boat covers. Monks cloth is also used in home
furnishings.

Slide 86
2x2 Basket Weave
The texture of this weave is generally coarser with a more squared pattern look. Notice how the interlacing of
the yarn creates open space or porosity. The term cover factor is the percentage of space covered by the yarns.
Every woven fabric will have a certain cover factor based upon the weave design, yarn sizes used and the fabric
count. This example would have a lower cover factor due to the openness of the fabric.

Slide 87
Irregular Basket Weaves
When numbers denoting the weave design are not identical, it is described as an irregular basket weave design
as illustrated in this slide. This results in a more variable textured appearance. The weave repeat for these
designs will be the summation of the numbers used to describe the weave design. For example, the 3x2x1x1
would repeat on 7 warp yarns and 7 filling yarns.

Slide 88
Oxford
Another derivative of the plain weave is the oxford weave. The oxford weave can be described as a modified
basket weave. Supposedly, it was originally made at a Scotch mill and named after Oxford University. In this
weave design, two warp yarns weave together, both going over and under individual picks. A regular oxford
weave has approximately twice the number of ends per inch as picks per inch. The filling yarn is much coarser,
with much lower twist than the warp yarn. Many oxford shirting fabrics utilize dyed warp yarns and natural
filling yarns. This weave design is also used in sportswear.

Slide 89
Oxford
The finer warp yarn and coarser filling yarn reveals that this is a regular oxford designed fabric. Notice that the
cover factor is higher using this fabric design compared to the basket weave sample previously viewed. The
fabric is not as porous. When the warp and filling yarns are finer and of the same yarn count, then the fabric is
referred to as a pinpoint oxford. This fabric would be smoother and more lustrous than the regular oxford.

Slide 90
Bedford Cord
The Bedford cord design yields a fabric with cords running in the warp direction. In between the raised cords
are warp yarns weaving plain weave which creates a narrow, depressed area between the cords. There is some
question about the origin of the term, with New Bedford, Massachusetts claimed as the place in which it was
first made and from which it derived its name. The better quality Bedford cord fabrics have two-ply yarns in
the warp, to form the face, with heavy single or ply yarns for the backing which serve as stuffer threads along
the back of the cloth. Single yarns are used in the inexpensive quality Bedford cords without stuffing ends, in
which the cord or wale effect is formed only by the weave.

Slide 91
Bedford Cord
Notice the raised warp yarns floating on the fabric surface of this Bedford cord fabric sample followed by other
warp yarns weaving plain weave between adjacent cords. Bedford cord fabrics are strong and wear well and
are suitable for upholstery, suits, slacks, sportswear, shirts, riding habits and work clothes.

Slide 92
Pique
Woven pique fabrics have a width-wise rib pattern or filling cords. True pique is a double cloth with two warps,
one fine and one heavy, and two filling yarns, one fine and one heavy (the latter is a stuffer yarn). Pique
weaves are commonly used in clothing and decorative fabrics.

Slide 93
Corduroy
Corduroy is a filling pile fabric in which extra filling yarns are inserted into the fabric. These extra filling yarns
float over multiple warp yarns and will eventually be cut and stand up on the fabric face to produce ribs or
wales in the corduroy fabric. The name is derived from the French phrase cord du roi, meaning Kings cord.
The design sketch at the bottom right of this slide reveals the long floats in the filling yarns that will be cut
during finishing.

Slide 94
Corduroy Wales
There are two ways that the filling yarn forming the wales can be interlaced with the fabric ground. In V-wale
corduroy the cut pile yarn is held only by interlacing with a single warp yarn thus forming low holding power. In
the W-wale corduroy design, the cut pile yarns interlace around three different warp yarns, and thus, there is
more holding power to keep the pile yarns from pulling out. The W-wale produces a corduroy fabric in which
the yarns are more seperated, leaving a less dense wale than the V-wale.

Slide 95
Combination V and W Wales
To produce a wider and more rounded wale in a corduroy fabric, many times a W-V-W combination is
utilized. The W-wales produce good fabric stability, and the taller V wales aid in forming a more rounded wale.

Slide 96
Corduroy Cutting
In finishing, needles with open slots are slid under the floating pile picks as pictured on the left. Rotating knives
travel along these slots, cutting the pile picks without cutting the ground picks and warp yarns. The spacing of
the needles determines the wale width and resulting wales per inch in the fabric. Fine pin wale corduroy (1420 wales per inch) is made by passing the fabric through multiple cutting stages.

Slide 97
Corduroy
The vertical ribs or wales are readily seen in this corduroy fabric. Subsequent brushing and shearing help to
produce more uniform wales on the fabric surface. Corduroy is used in mens and womens sportswear, dresses
and childrens clothing.

Slide 98
Velvet Weaving Diagram
Velvet is classified as a warp pile fabric. As illustrated, two or more loom beams are needed. Two fabrics or a
double cloth are formed, one over the other. Two filling yarns are inserted, one over the other. The pile warp
provides warp yarns that weave in and out of both fabrics while the ground warp shares its yarns, some
weaving in the top fabric and the remainder weaving in the bottom fabric. The pile warp yarns that connect
the two fabrics together are cut by a reciprocating knife blade as the double cloth is separated at the front of
the weaving machine. Thus two identical velvet fabrics come off the machine with each one having a plush
warp pile surface.

Slide 99
Velvet Fabric
The fabric looks like this as it comes off the weaving machine before cutting. You can see the connecting yarns
between the two fabrics and how, after cutting, two fabrics are formed, each with a plush pile surface. This
particular fabric is used in the interior of automobiles.

Slide 100
Velvet Fabric Sample
The pile seen on the face of this fabric is warp yarn that has been cut. These cut yarns, like cut pile yarns in
corduroy, can be held in place as a V interlacing pattern or a W interlacing pattern. The W type would be more
stable and more expensive. Not to be confused with velvet, velveteen is a filling pile fabric where extra filling
yarns are cut to produce a plush and soft fabric surface. Little velveteen is produced today. Density of the pile
in velveteen depends upon the number of picks per inch which ranges from 175 to 600.

Slide 101
Terry Weaving Machine
Woven terry is another warp pile fabric. The bottom beam provides the ground warp while the top beam
provides the pile warp. The pile yarns form loops on the fabric surface.

Slide 102
Terry Fabrics Diagram
The key to forming terry loops is in the action of the reed. To produce terry cloth, the reed will not move into
beat-up position until a certain number of picks have been inserted into the fabric. Thus there remains a given
length of warp yarn, without the presence of filling yarns, between the reed and the fabric fell. Then the reed
moves forward to the beat-up position, beating up multiple picks and at the same time pushing up the warp
yarns to form the terry loops.

Slide 103
3 Pick Terry Diagram
The most common terry weave is 3 pick terry. Three picks, the pink yarns, are inserted before beat-up occurs
on the machine. Notice that two picks are under each set of loops and the third pick is used to beat up the
loops. The light blue and green yarns represent the warp pile yarns that form the loops on both sides of the
fabric.

Slide 104
Terry Weaving Video
Notice, as this machine is weaving, that beat-up occurs only after three picks have been inserted into the fabric.
A loose or swinging reed is employed on the first two picks, and is made fast or rigid on the third pick while the
pile beam is slackened so that the pile loops can be formed. As beat-up takes place, the pile warp yarns form
loops on the fabric. Pile yarns can be made to form loops on the technical face and back or just on one side.

Slide 105
Multiple Height Terry Diagram
As shown in this diagram, the terry machine can be programmed to produce multiple loop heights for a
sculptured design look.

Slide 106
3 Pick Terry Fabric (greige)
In this photograph of a greige terry fabric, the loops are laying down, producing a very random loop formation
and poor uniformity of loop heights.

Slide 107
3 Pick Terry Fabric (finished)
In the finished fabric, after brushing and other dyeing and finishing operations, the loops are standing up,
producing a more uniform and dense fabric surface.

Slide 108
Woven Crepe
Woven crepe is typically a light weight fabric, characterized by a crinkled or pebble-like surface obtained by the
use of hard-twist filling yarns, chemical treatment, a crepe weave design, embossing, or by some combination
of these.

Slide 109
Jacquard Fabric
This is a flat jacquard fabric where the warp yarns have been controlled in such a way to produce a large design
repeat. Many woven jacquards contain dyed yarns for weaving a fancy pattern. Tapestry, brocade, damask and
brocatelle all fall under the category of jacquard fabrics.

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Weaving Fundamentals will cover these topics:

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Structure of Woven Fabric

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Woven Fabric Cross-Section

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Weaving Machine Parts

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Weaving Machine Parts Warp Path

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Primary Motions Animation

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Primary Motions Animation - Speed

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Weaving Motions Video

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Cam Shedding Photo

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Cam Shedding Diagram

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Cam Shedding Animation

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Cam Shedding Video

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Dobby Shedding Photo

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Dobby Shedding Video

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Jacquard Shedding Photo

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Jacquard Shedding Video

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

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Weaving Fundamentals and Design

Draper Shuttle Loom

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