Chapter 6: Difficulties on Theory Summary and Analysis

Four objections may be raised to the theory of natural selection. The first is that, if
the species have descended from others by small, gradual changes, there should exist a large
number of intermediate, transitional organisms that link the various species together. However,

these do not exist. Second, there are many organs and traits of organisms that

seem far too complex for natural selection to produce, such as the eye, which is an
incredibly complex and fine-tuned organ. Third, how can natural selection account for the
complex instincts of animals that are often capable of producing behavior that even humans

cannot understand? Finally, according to the theory of natural selection, species

are only separated from varieties by degree of difference. However, when varieties are interbred,
the offspring is.....
Difficulties of the theory of descent with modification — Absence or rarity of transitional
varieties — Transitions in habits of life — Diversified habits in the same species — Species with
habits widely different from those of their allies — Organs of extreme perfection — Modes of
transition — Cases of difficulty — Natura non facit saltum — Organs of small importance —
Organs not in all cases absolutely perfect — The law of Unity of Type and of the Conditions of
Existence embraced by the theory of Natural Selection.
Chapter VI
Summary
Darwin addresses some of the flaws in his theory of natural selection. He tackles two major
questions: First, if species have gradually descended from other species, why do clearly defined,
separate species exist, instead of numerous intermediate forms of species? Second, can natural
selection really produce highly complex organs, such as the eye, from species lacking anything
remotely similar to such complex organs?
To answer the first question, Darwin argues that natural selection requires that intermediate
varieties become extinct. Since natural selection urges species to become perfectly adapted to
their environments, certain environments favor some characteristics and other environments
favor others, allowing species to diverge based on their separate environments. The favored
characteristics in these respective environments would become more advantageous than any
intermediate characteristics, causing the intermediate species to become extinct. Darwin
addresses the question of whether an intermediate species would exist in an intermediate
geological area between the two different environments. He argues that intermediate
environments are so geographically small that intermediate species in those areas would not be
able to reproduce sufficiently to perpetuate themselves and survive and would eventually become
extinct. Therefore, we only see small numbers of intermediate species in these intermediate
geographical zones.
Darwin is not as confident about the answer to his second question as he is about the answer to
his first. He admits that it is difficult to explain how new structures, such as the wings of a bat,
are created when a species descends from one that lacks such structures. He does give examples
from other species, in which modifications develop from existing structures instead of sprouting
anew, such as the species of flying squirrels with broad tails that allow them to parachute
through the air, a tail modified from existing tails in other squirrel species. He also explains that
scientists are unable to see a clear line of organ modification because of gaps in the development
of these structures (for example, squirrel tails that are not yet fully adapted for flying). These
gaps come about when the intermediate species have become extinct. Examples of explainable
models, such as the flying squirrel’s tail, can help an observer imagine the development of more
complex organs, such as the wings of the bat or the eye. Over time, gradual developments of
structures and nerves become more complex with modifications, until finally the most perfect
eye organ develops. Darwin compares the eye to a telescope: Over time and through its
development, the telescope has become more and more advanced, replacing older versions.
While the mechanism of change for the telescope is technological advancement, for the eye it is
natural selection.
Darwin also discusses the existence of undeveloped and useless organs. In contrast to highly
complex organs that are clearly products of natural selection, undeveloped and useless organs
indicate that some traits might have been advantageous at one point and eventually waned in
importance over time. Primarily, Darwin argues that science cannot always assume the
importance or unimportance of a particular variation. Some organs, transmitted to a species but
useless to it, may have been useful to a distant ancestor. Moreover, some modifications that seem
important to us may not be important at all. For example, if only green woodpeckers existed,
scientists would assume that the color green was important to the woodpecker’s survival.
However, many different colors of woodpeckers exist, so color must be a result of sexual
selection, which is relatively unimportant for species’ survival. The perpetuation of useless or
random variations illustrates one of the principles of natural selection: that selection of
advantageous characteristics makes a species better than those before it but does not create
immediate perfection in a species. Leftover characteristics may remain, as long as they cause no
harm to the species. Ultimately, these leftover characteristics serve as reminders of the very
slightness of change that occurred by natural selection over time. The goal of natural selection is
to make each species better, not to produce perfection right away. Only over time do species
become perfectly adapted to their environments.
Analysis
In attempting to address some of the gaps in his theory of natural selection, Darwin once again
shows the power of inductive reasoning. He acknowledges the unknowns inherent in his own
theory and accepts that he simply cannot answer certain questions, such as how a bat develops its
wings or how the eye develops its immensely complex structure. However, by using examples
that demonstrate how modification might occur in some species, Darwin creates principles of
modification that can be applied to the development of other species, even if he can’t explicitly
prove that the principles hold true for these particular species. This is precisely how scientific
theories develop—through the creation of models that can be applied to similar situations. In
Chapter VI, Darwin highlights the uncertainty inherent in scientific theorizing and the inductive
reasoning and modeling that allow theories to survive despite these uncertainties.
By defending his theory with inductive reasoning, Darwin once again implicitly attacks natural
theologians who believe that the complex structure of each species proves that God created them
independently. Darwin’s comparison of the eye to a telescope singles out natural theologian
William Paley, who used the telescope analogy to suggest that God reveals his plan in the
complexity and purpose of the organs he designs. Darwin turns the telescope example on its
head. He asks, If millions of years of modification have shaped the eye to its perfected state,
could the eye be even more perfect than the telescope? And doesn’t the perfection of the eye
show the power of natural selection, regardless of whether God or nature controls the process?
Darwin challenges natural theology on its own terms. He argues that natural selection provides
the requisite explanations for the development of species. He also acknowledges the brilliance of
creation, leaving room for God in the theory of natural selection.
Darwin’s discussion of the imperfections of natural selection provides insight into the
relationship between natural selection and progress. Although natural selection does not
automatically create perfectly adapted species, it never chooses characteristics that injure the
species and leave it with less of a chance for survival. Therefore, natural selection ensures that
each species improves, rather than worsens, in comparison to its ancestors. Progress always
creates a better natural society for all species, even though they develop individually. Social
theorists later utilized Darwin’s theory of natural selection to account for social progress. They
asked whether society always progresses in an upward trend, getting better and more advanced,
or if it was it possible for society to degenerate. Although Darwin argues that progress is always
positive as a result of natural selection, some social theorists argued that society could
degenerate with the rise of poverty and crime.