Nutrition is the all-important process which is why all Berry Readers are still alive and

checking out our website. It is a process of obtaining the materials (food) to sustain life and
growth. While students will most likely only think of human-edible food, the subtopics covering
SPM Biology Form 4 is more than that. So this Part 1 of the new series on Nutrition for SPM
Form 4 Biology by Berry Berry Easy is focussed on the types of nutrition and some basic
definitions. Here, youll learn about self-sustaining autotrophs and the more reliant heterotrophs.
[Tips: Sometimes students make the mistake of not considering photoautotroph and
chemoautotroph as a subset of autotrophs. Similarly, some students also fail to acknowledge that
saprophyte, holozoic, carnivourous plants, parasites are subset of heterotrophs as they do not
contain the word 'hetero' or 'trophs'. This is wrong and it'll be useful to draw a family tree
inclusive of examples to properly categorise the categories.]
SPM Biology Form 4 Notes Nutrition (Part I)

Photoautotrophs
Type of Nutrition

Nutrition process by which organisms obtain energy and nutrients from food, for
growth, maintenance and repair of damaged tissues.
Nutrients the important substances which are required for nourishment of an organisms.
Living organisms are divided into two groups (based on the nutritional habits): autotrophs
and heterotrophs.

(i) Autotroph

Autotrophs organisms that are able to synthesise complex organic compounds from
raw, simple inorganic substances (water and air) by using light or chemical energy. These
organisms manufacture their own food by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
Photoautotrophs chlorophyll containing organisms that utilise solar energy for building
organic substance.

Photoautotropic nutrition = holophytic nutrition.

Chemoautotrophs organisms synthesise organic substances by utilising chemical

energy.

Autotrophs
Photoautotroph
Chemoautotroph

Example
Trees
Bacteria

(ii) Heterotroph

Heterotrophs organisms that are not able to synthesise their own nutrients but they
obtain the nutrients from other organisms.
Holozoic nutrition organisms feed by ingesting solid organic matter that digested and
absorbed into the bodies.

Saprophytism organisms feed on dead and decaying organic matter.

Parasitism organisms obtains nutrients (absorbs readily digested food) by living on / in

the body of another living organisms (the host)

Heterotrophs
Saprophyte
Holozoic nutrition
Carnivorous plants
(Holozoic nutrition)
Parasites

Example
Fungi
Carnivores
Venus traps and pitcher plants
Lice and fleas

This ends Part 1 of the series of study notes by Berry Berry Easy on Nutrition for SPM
Biology Form 4 students. In the next part, Berry Readers will learn about balanced diet and
the seven important classes of food for SPM-level biology. So do stay tuned.
A balanced diet is the most important step to maintain ones good health. It is the key to reach a
balance between having enough energy for daily activities and also to maintain a healthy weight.
There is also a misconception that a good diet consist of no fat, no sugar, no salt and other
extreme measures. This is wrong as a balanced diet is more important than the devoid of any
important classes of food. This post, Part II of study notes from Berry Berry Easy on
Nutrition for SPM Biology Form 4 students will be focused on balanced diet and the important
classes of food. So do read on. It is a simple topic that is moderately popular in exams.

[Tips: In view of the topic, the following tips will not be study tips but nutritional tips instead.
Instead of avoiding sugar and salt completely, it is advisable to just limit the intake of simple
sugar and limit salt consumption (while ensuring that the salt is already iodised). Also, if you
intend to go vegetarian, make sure that you take in all the essential amino acids too. Avocado
and pumpkin seeds are useful to provide all the essential amino acids, which are typically only
available in animal-based diet.]
SPM Biology Form 4 Notes Nutrition (Part II)

Human Teeth
Balanced Diet

Diet the food and drink that we consume.

Balanced diet diet contains the correct proportions of all the different classes of foods
for the requirement of body.

Metabolisms the sum of all biochemical reactions that occur in the cells of living
organisms.

Metabolic rate a measure of the energy demands of the living body over a specified
period of time. Unit kilojoule (kJ)

Energy value / calorific value of food the quantity of heat produced when one gram of
food is completely oxidised. Unit Joules per gram (J g-1) or calories.

Energy value = (Mass of water x Increase in temperature x 4.2 ) / Mass of food

Energy value = (g)(C)(J g-1C-1) / (g) = J g-1

Seven Important Classes of Food

1. Carbohydrates (provide energy)
2. Proteins (Build new tissues / important in growth and repairing damaged tissues)
3. Fats (provide energy / storage of extra foods)
4. Water (act as medium for biochemical reaction / transportation of substances)
5. Vitamins (prevent diseases / efficient metabolism / important for normal growth)
6. Minerals (important for normal growth and development of teeth, bones and muscles)
7. Roughage / Dietary fiber (prevent constipation / stimulate peristalsis)
This marks the end of Part 2 of notes from Berry Berry Easy on Nutrition for SPM Biology
Form 4 students. In the next part, Part III, Berry Readers will learn about the many factors
affecting daily energy requirement and the basics of food energy content.
Daily energy requirement simply means the energy required per day for activities. Typically, it
can be calculated using your basal metabolism rate (BMR), which is the least amount of energy
required to ensure that your body organs are functioning well and also to maintain your body
temperature around 36.9 degree Celcius. The daily energy requirement is dependent on many
factors which is stated in this Part 3 of Berry Berry Easy SPM Biology Form 4 notes on
Nutrition. In this post, Berry Readers will also be exposed to the concept of food energy
content.
[Tips: Students often make the mistake of confusing calories and joules. Most of the time it is
due not converting the units when solving calculation-based questions. Sometimes it is the use of
multiplication instead of division, and vice versa during the conversion. Just remember that a
calorie is 4.2 joules, so to convert calorie to joule, you'll multiply 4.2. To convert joule to
calorie, you divide by a factor of 4.2. So make sure that you do all the necessary conversions of
calories to joules in a correct manner.]
SPM Biology Form 4 Notes Nutrition (Part III)

Nutrition Tag
Factors Affecting Daily Energy Requirement
Balance diet is essential for healthy growth and development of the body.
1. Age children and teenagers need more energy due to their high metabolic rate.
2. Sex male adult needs more energy due to in males have high metabolic rate.
3. Pregnancy and lactation pregnant women need more energy due to support the growing
foetuses and produce milk for their babies.
4. Occupation an active person requires high energy due to the person does a lot of heavy
work.
5. Size or body weight a person smaller in size has a larger surface area per unit volume.
Thus, the rate of heat loss is high.
6. Climate people living in cold countries need more energy to maintain body
temperature.
7. Genetics genetics disposition in certain person may decide different metabolic rate.
8. Health In sufficient secretion of thyroxine hormone may cause lower in metabolic rate.
9. Lifestyle An active person requires higher energy than a passive person
Energy Content of Food

Bomb calorimeter used to calculate the energy value of various types of food samples.
One calorie (cal) = 4.2 joules (J)

Energy value of food (kJ g-1) = (4.2 x mass of water x increase in temperature) / (mass of
food sample x 1000), specific heat capacity of water, C = 4.2 J g-1 C-1; mass of water in
g; temperature in C and mass of food sample in g.

This represents the end of the Part 3 of the short notes on the topic of Nutrition for SPM Form
4 Biology students by Berry Berry Easy. In the next post in this series of summarised notes,
youll learn about the classes of food nutrient. So do check back.
Vitamin (organic compound) is commonly recognised as one of the food category to maintain
health. Unlike the big three of carbohydrate, protein and fat, vitamin is only required in small
amount as nutrient. Vitamin is vital as it cannot be adequately produced by our body, hence it
must be ingested through our daily diet. At the moment, there are 13 vitamins considered to be
crucial to human health. They are Vitamin A, Vitamin B complex (variant in B1, B2, B3, B5, B6,
B7, B9 and B12), Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and Vitamin K.
This Part 5 of SPM Form 4 Biology notes on Nutrition by Berry Berry Easy is all about
vitamins, with heavy emphasis on fat-soluble vitamins. In this post, youll learn the basics of the
organic compound called vitamin and the types of fat-soluble vitamins in detail. Make sure you
read it not only for your SPM examinations, but also for daily health. So it is both an SPM
examination tips and also a daily health tip.
[Tips: Only vitamin B and C are soluble in water. The rest are soluble in fat. For those who are
proficient in Malay, you can easily remember the word ADEK, which sounds like ADIK (younger
brother). Vitamin A, D, E and K are the vitamins soluble in fat.]
SPM Biology Form 4 Notes Nutrition (Part V)

Vitamin Cod oil

Vitamins

It is a group of complex organic compounds that are needed in small quantities by living
organisms because vitamins can be reused in body metabolisms.
Vitamins do not provide energy to body metabolism and vitamins are non-protein organic
compounds.

Living organisms cannot synthesise vitamins.

Vitamins can be only obtained from diet.

It is essential to maintenance of good health, normal growth and efficient metabolism.

There are two categories in vitamins: fat-soluble vitamins and water-soluble vitamins.

Fat-soluble Vitamins
Types of
Vitamins
A (retinol)

Sources

Functions

Milk,
carrots,
tomatoes,
eggs, fish
oil, green
vegetables,
butter

- Builds visual pigments - Night blindness

on retina for night vision
- Xerophthalmia (cornea
- Immunity
becomes dry)
- Growth of epithelial
cells

Effect of deficiency

- Scaly skin

- Antioxidant

D (calciferol)

E (tocopherol)

- Build body resistance to

diseases
Formed
- Enhances absorption of - Rickets (weak bones)
(skin) during calcium and phosphorus - Osteomalacia
the presence - Build strong bones and (softening of bones)
of sunlight, healthy teeth
fish liver oil,
egg yolk,
cheese
Palm oil,
- Preserves healthy
- Premature aging
cereals, nuts, muscular system, blood
green
circulatory (red blood
- Low fertility
vegetables, cells) and nervous system
olive oil,
- Slow wound healing
milk- Antioxidant
- Maintain healthy

K (phylloquinone) Green
vegetable,
totatoes

function of the
reproduction system
- Helps in blood clotting - Detective blood
clotting
- Anaemia

The next post, Part 6 on the short series of notes on Nutrition for SPM Biology Form 4 student
by Berry Berry Easy will continue on the sub-topic of vitamin with emphasis being given on
water-soluble vitamins. So do read on.
Classes of food nutrient is the basic classes used in the formulation of a healthy diet. The
classical six basic classes of food includes: Carbohydrates, Protein, Fat, Vitamins, Minerals
and Water. This Part 4 in the series of summarised study notes by Berry Berry Easy on
Nutrition for SPM Biology Form 4 students is focussed on the classes of food nutrients.
However, this part wont explain in detail the classes on food but rather be explaining on the
general tests conducted in school labs to test the content of foods. Berry Readers will be
exposed to the name of tests, reagents used, observation expected and conclusions regarding the
identification of classes of food nutrient. So do read on.
[Tips: Most food contain more than one of the classes of basic nutrient. To understand this, you
may look at the contents section of your slice bread's packaging. You'll see that it contains
protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamins, minerals and even water (although water might not be
stated). So please remember that, chicken meat isn't all protein and rice isn't all carbohydrate.
Eat healthy, stay healthy and study hard.]
SPM Biology Form 4 Notes Nutrition (Part IV)

Classes of Food Nutrients

Classes of Food Nutrients

Test
Reagent
Benedicts Food sample +
test
Benedicts solution
(Place in boiling
water bath)
Benedicts Food sample +
test
Benedicts solution
+ Dilute
hydrochloric acid
(Place in boiling
water bath) +
neutralise by
sodium hydrogen
carbonate powder
Iodine /
Food sample +
Starch test Iodine solution

Observation
Conclusion
The solution turns from blue Food sample
to green / yellow / brick-red contains
precipitate formed (depend reducing sugar
on sugar concentration).
The solution turns from blue Food sample
to green / yellow / brick-red contains nonprecipitate formed (depend reducing sugar
on sugar concentration).

The solution turns from

Food sample
brownish-yellow to blue- contains
black.
starch
Emulsion Food sample +
The fat droplets formed on Food sample
test
ethanol
the surface and the solution contains oil
become cloudy.
(lipid)
Sudan III Food sample +
A red-stained oil layer
Food sample
test
Sudan III stain
separates out and float on the contains oil
water surface
(lipid)
Fat test
Food sample + filter A translucent mark formed Food sample
paper
contains oil
(lipid)
Millons test Food sample +
The solution turns brick-red Food sample
Millons reagent + precipitate.
contains
1% sodium nitrite
protein
(Place in boiling
water bath)
Biuret test Food sample + 20% The solution turns from blue Food sample
sodium hydroxide to purple colour.
contains
solution and 1%
protein
copper(II) sulphate
solution
This marks the end of Part 4 of the series of notes on Nutrition for Form 4 Biology students
taking SPM in Malaysia. In the next part, Berry Readers will learn all about vitamins. Read all
about it to stay healthy.

Water-soluble vitamins are vitamins that are soluble in water. While it sounds obvious but its
implication is large. Because it is water-soluble, it has to be replaced daily as the body does not
store them or absorbed in the fat globules. Since it is replaced daily, you will need to ingest them
on a daily basis. Typical source of B-complex vitamins are found in cereal, egg, fish legume,
meat, milk, poultry and others. While Vitamin C can naturally be found in fruits (citrus based are
the best as most Berry Readers would already know from young).
So, lets think again, what the implication of water-soluble vitamin means? It also means that
these vitamins can potentially be washed away during the preparation of food or even during
storage due to its solubility in water. So it is very different from the fat-soluble vitamins learnt in
the earlier post. As you would have guessed it, this post, Part 6 of notes on Nutrition for SPM
Form 4 Biology student from Berry Berry Easy is all about water-soluble vitamins.
[Tips: For those who wonder how fat-soluble is stored in the body. Vitamin "ADEK" as
mentioned in the previous post is fat-soluble, in which they are absorbed in chylomicrons which
moves through the lymphatic system of small intestines, followed by circulation in the blood
stream and finally stored in body tissues. (This also implies the importance of fat in our body. So
do not remove too much fat from your body until you are unhealthy.
As a health tip, make sure you don't ingest too much fat-soluble vitamins, as they can be stored
in your body. A condition called hypervitaminosis can occur if you have too much vitamin stored
in your body, and that condition is potentially harmful to your body. So remember that,
moderation is the best way to go in life.]
SPM Biology Form 4 Notes Nutrition (Part VI)

Cod fish oil

Water-soluble Vitamins

Types of
Vitamins
B1 (thiamine)

B2 (riboflavin)

B3 (niacin)

B5 (pantothenic
acid)

Sources

Functions

- Precursor of a coenzyme
Milk,
- Coenzyme for carbohydrates metabolisme
legumens,
wheatgerm,
yeast extract,
nuts, whole
grains
Milk,
- Component of
wheatgerm, coenzyme
- Healthy nervous system
liver, eggs

Effect of deficiency
- Beri-beri (muscle
weakness, nerve disorder)
- Fatigue

- Sore eyes
- Skin lesions at the
corner of mouth, nose and
ears

- Inflammation of tongue
and lips
- Component of coenzyme
Liver, rice,
- Pellagra (skin and
legumes, fish, - Healthy nervous system, skin and intestines gastrointestinal lesions)
yeast extract
- Component of coenzyme for carbohydrates,
Fish, egg
- Muscle cramps
yolk, liver, protein and fatty acids metabolism
meat
- Fatigue
- Grey hair

B6 (pyridoxine)

B9 (folic acid)

Fish, liver,
milk,
potatoes

- Coenzyme in amino acid metabolism

Green
vegetables

- For DNA and RNA

- Low immunity
- Kidney stone

- For red blood cell formation

- Muscular twitching
- Diarrhea
- Miscarriage birth

- For red blood cells formation

- Cleft lips

- Regulating the function of iron

- Limb defects of babies

- Pernicious anaemia
- Neurological disorders
- Nausea

- Coenzyme in nucleic acid metabolism

B12 (cobalamin) Cheese, milk,

- For red blood cells formation
egg, meat
- Coenzyme in the synthesis of fat, glycogen
H (biotin)
Legumes,
vegetables and amino acid

- Fatigue

C (ascorbic acid) Orange,

- Fats and protein metabolism

- Muscular pains
- Scurvy (bleeding gums

tomatoes,
broccoli,
cauliflower

- Energy production

and bruised skin)

This is the end of Part 6 of notes for SPM Biology on Nutrition. Do read on the other berry
essential notes from Berry Berry Easy. Stay healthy too, take your vitamin but dont go
overboard by having an overdose of vitamins.