SPHERIC PROCESSES, HAZARD5 AND MANAGE'IAENT

ART 3. MA55 AAOVEMENT

Scope of Topic:
1. Mechonisns of noss movemeni
q) Whot is moss movement?
b) Sheor strengfh ond sheor stress
2. Types of moss movement
o) Heove
b) Slide
c) Flow
d) Foll
3. Foctors offecting moss movement (noturol ond onthropogenic)
4. Effects of moss novemen-t
5. Mqnogement of moss movement
d) Mitigotion Meosures
b) Responses to the effecis of moss movemenfs

Objeciives:

By the end of this seclion, you should be oble toi

. Discuss the rnechonisrns of moss movemen-t
. compore the inlensity of ditfercnt types of moss movemen-t
. Discuss the foctors offecting moss movement
. Discuss the effec-fs of moss movement
. Assess fhe sirotegies used io respond ond mifigote to the effects of moss
rnovement.

Additionol Reodings/References :
l Clork ond Smoll (1990) Slopes and l,l/eathertng. combridge University Press:
6reot Britoin. Ch.3
> Guinness & Nqgle (2OO4) Advanced aeography. Hodder & Stoughtoni London
} Murck, Skinner, Portee (1997) Dcngerous Earth: An fntuoduction lo 6eologic
Hazards. John Wiley & Sons, fnc.: United Stqtes
> Nafional Lands/ide fnfornafion Cenler
hitp://-oeohozords.cr.usgs.qovlhtml f ileslnlicgun.hlml
I Overview of Engineeting Te.hniques fo Reduce 6roding
httpr,/,/www.coostol.co.qov,/londf orm/attoch3.html
> Geo Foclsheelt The Lqndslide Hozord (sep 2001)
1. MECHANI5M5 OF AAA55 MOVEMENT
q) Whqt is Mqss ,ilovemenf?

Mqss rnovemen-t is the downhill movenenf of rock ond regolith neor the Eorth's
surfoce primorily under the influence of grqvity.

Moss movement is on importont port of denudotion, os it moves moteriol from

higher elevotions to lower elevotions where fronsporting ogenfs like streoms ond
glociers conihen pick up the mqteriol ond move it io even lower elevqliohs.

Moss movemen-t ptocesses ote occurring continuously on oll slopes; some

processes oct very slowly, others occur very suddenly, often with disostrous
results. They show greot vorieiy of scole, rote, moleriol ond resuliing
londforms.

b) Sheor Strength ond Sheor Sfress

The detdchment ond novement of eorth mqteriols occurs if the shear stress
imposed is gredler lhan the shear ttrength of fhe ndieriol to hold i.t in
place. Hence, os long os sheor strength exceeds shear stress, the rock of
debris will nof move.

Shear sttength is a meosure of the resistance of eorth moieriols to be moved

downhill. Thus, the sheor strength of the moterioi is the mqximum resastonce
fo sheor stress ond it depends on fhe inlernol cohesion ond internol fricfion
of soil pqrficles.

> fnturudl cohesion: produced by the interldqking of gronulor porticles,

poriiculorly in cloyey soils ond rocks, which enobles the moteriols to res-f ct
on ongle. Dry sond is cohesionless. Cohesion is independent of the weight of
rnqteriql obove lhe surfoce. The cohesion ond interlocking of soil porticles
incredse the qbility of .the moteriol 1o stoy in ploce.

> Inlernal friction the resistonce of porticles of gronulor soil to slide

ocross eoch other. This component of sheor strength depends on the
weight of moteriol obove the surfoce.
\
 shear slress is primorily q functioh of the force exerted by the weight of
lhe moteriol under the influence ol grovity octing in the downsloPe directioh.
Grdvify is the driving lorce behind oll slope processes. The force of grovity is
continuous, but ii con move moteriol only when it exceeds the cohesive
strength of the surfoce moteriol.

The rotio of sheor strehgth lo shedr stress is the safety foctor.

Sofety foctor = !f;9s151194q1

Sheor stress

ff the sofety foctor is less thon 1, fhe slope is unstoble. If the sqfety foctor is
equols to or obove 1, the slope is stoble.

The slope of the surfoce detetmines the omount of stress thot occurs on
eorth moferiqls. As the slope 5ecomes sleepet, the sheor stress becomes
lorger (Figure l).

Figure 1. Shedr stress increoses os the slope steepens

Wqfer odds weight to increose sheor stress bul olso octs fo lubricote the
moteriol.

The movemeni, especiolly in the cose of slides ond slumps, is olong o foilure
plone. The foilure plone moy be q well-delined loyer of cloy or rock upon which
sits the destobilized surfoce moteriol.

Humons induce mqss movemenf when subjecfing c slope to o lood thol exceeds
ifs obility to resist movemenl. People building ho.uses on scenic hill slopes
often find their homes lhreatened by o londslide. Undercuttinq of hrllsides
during rood construction commonly crofes unstoble slopes, moking them prone
to foilure-
2. TYPES OF MA55 MOVEMENT

. Corson ond Kirkby (1972) identified 3 moin types of rnoss movement:

I heove
$ slide
I f low

Figore 2. Corson ond Kirkby Clossificotion of il oss Movement

However, o 4'h type of mqss movement ho s been recognizedi Fo'll

q) Heove

Refers to ihe roising of porticles ql right ongles to the slope during exponsion
of the ground qs it f"eezes. When the ground controcts (with the coming of
spring ond worming), fhe porficles drop ver.ticolly to o downslope position.

i) Soil cleep

Soil creep is one form of heove.It is o slow, sieody downslope movernent of

soil, or rock, often indicoted by cuved ttee trunks, bent fences or reloining
wolls, tilted poles or lences.

Soil creep is neorly imperceptible to the naked eye qs it is ihe slowest of oll
types of moss movement.

6enerolly occurs in the top few melres of the surfoce.

Cloy soil (which is of high porosity) is poriiculorly susceptible io soil creep os

moist clqy deforms slowly under grovitoiionol stress.

Joil,,€llr up {tla \---d- \,..,

.ain,Il tuet atay I -,--*. 11 \
r@.l.
ttoh, dope atnst*
t
\ o*)oror*
arglesh ,/ rcq ] pt doua uha,
rrrihtu,nd ,f f wAf n"n"
a*naore
| ,, *r*-, ]"*

Figure 3: Soil creep

Ihere are 2 mojor couses of creep,l:oth resulting frorn repeoted exponsron

ond controction. \

Soil creep during wei-dry periods: during roinfoll. moisfure increoses the
volume ond weight of the soil, cousing exponsion ond upon controction, the soil
move downslope under grovity (Figure 3).
 Freeze-thow: when the soil freezes, lhe presence of ice crystols increose the
volume of the soil by 9%. As the soil exponds, por.ticles ore lifted ot right-
ongles to the slope in o process colled heove (Figure 4). When the ground ldter
thows ond the soil controcts, these porticles foll bock verticolly under the
influence of grovity ond so move downslope.

Figure 4. Process of heoving

. Olher foctors olso cohtribule to soil creep: growing plonfs exerting o wedge
like pressure \etween tock porticles in the soil thus, cousing them to be
disploced downslope; bur.owing orgqnisms disploce poriicles ond with eoch
movement, the force of grovity pulls the pdrficles downslope; undercutting from
runoff ond sireoms, increosed loods of roinwoter ond snow, ond disturbance of
slope surfoces by eorfhquokes ond conslruction by humons.

. In temperote regions, movehent is greotest in the uppermost 50 cm of the

soil loyer onounfing io 1 - 2 rnm per yeor.

. Evidence of octive soil creep: on occumulotion of soil on the up-slope side of

fences, walls, hedges. curved tree trunks, etc. (Figure 5).

Eftects

. Smoothens ond rounds the slope

. creep o.ting onthe upper slope where rqinwosh is ot o minimum hqs given rise to
its convexity \
. creep leads lo o nofurol downslope increment of soil becquse the soil formed oi
ohy point is odded lo by soil qeeping f rom obove.
. Therefore. the slope will need to be steeper downslope for lhe rncreosing
omount of soils to 6e removed.
Figure 5. Effects of soil cre€p on surfoce feotures ohd bedrock. Sfeeply inclined rock
loyers hove been drogg€d ove. fhe surfoce by creep so fhey oppeor fold€d.

ii) Solifluction (soil flowage)

A speciolized, ropid form of soil c(eep fhot results from soturofion of the
surfoce moferidl by neltwoter from snow ond ground ice.

Dorninont in polot / petiglo.iol oreos, such 05 Alasko ond Siberio, where

groundwoter in fhe pore spoces of soil ond rock is permonently frozen. This
loyer of permonently lrozen ground is the perndfrost-

Occurs when the fhow seoson leods to high soil rnoisture content becouse
percolotion is inrpeded by the impermeoble permofrosl loyer. As meliwoler
connot percoldie downword info the permofrost loyer, the upper zone of soil
becornes complelely soturdfed, ond lorge oreqs ,of rcgolith will flow slowly
dow^ even the gentlest slope.

Effects

. Creoles on uneven ond hummocky tertoin where Ihe layers of rockond soil are
very dislurbed ond distorted; vegetqtion is often disrupted os well
. Forms solifluction lobes, which ore round€d domes of soil or rocks _thot hove
been moved downslope by ihe process. \
. Often the lobes hove flot tops known os solifluction terroces
b) slide

. Londslides comprise o vorie\ of ptocesses offecling weok rocks (sond ond

cloy)

. Londslides offect mosses of moteriol which generolly retoin their coherence

while moving ocross o cleorly defined slide plone.

. Velocity is rqiher uniform throughout the sliding moss in mos-t coses.

. The movement is often ropid ds the occumulotion of stress obove the slide
plone is releosed.

. They ote chqacterized by most of the movement toking ploce ocross q well-
defined slide plone.
. Very shollow slides moy occur altet heovy roin, usuolly on cloy slopes ond
involve moinly the weothered surfoce moteriql resting on solid rock.

. Deep londslides usuolly occur ocross crcudte slide plones.

. Londslides ore very sensitive fo woter confent, which reduces the sirength of
the mo-feriol by increosing wotet ptessute in pores ond joints. This hos lhe
effect ol pushing the particles oport. The woter cohteht olso odds weight to
the moieriol so thot downslope force is increosed while resistohce (friction) is
decreased.

. Thete ore two mdin types of londslides: fronslotionol ond rototionol slides

i) Trdnsldtional Landslides

. In translational landslides, there is uniforn movenenf in one direction wiih no

rofotion.

. Mosses move down ond oui by sliding on surfoces of weok weokness such os
foults. joints, o cloy-rich loyer qnd soff rocks slipping off hord rocks.

. A tronslotionol slide moy move qs long ds it sits on the downword-inclined

surfoce ond its sheqr stress still exisfs. \

. Include:
I Rock slide
I Debris slide
> Pock slide

fs the sudden downslope movemeni of detoched, individuol mosses of

resistont bedrock (Figure 6) or large-scole movenenls influencing ldrge ports
of o slope

Bedding pldnes ond joint plones ore inportont in ollowing the rock to frogment
ond providing ready-mode slide plones over which deloched mosses coh slide.

Slopes affected by rock slide show the strong conlrol exeied by geologicol
slruciure (such os bedding plones)

Exomple: The 1903 Fronk rockslide which occurred in Alberto, Conodo. This
slide occurred ocross bedding plones in o steep onficline formed in the well-
jointed limes-ione of Turtle Mountoin, which wqs olso subjected fo mining
octivify. The rockslade destroyed porf of the smoll town of Fronk, killing dbout
70 people.

Figure 6. Rock ond debris slides

'P Debris slides

. The sliding moss moy deform ond disintegrote to form o debris slide.

Similor to rock slides except fot the moteriol involved which con consist of o
mixture of rocks, soil, regolith ohd orgonic motter.

Exomple: Debris slide in Vdiont Dom, Itqly in 9 Octobe\ 1963. The dom wos built
in 1960 ond the reservoir impounded 150 millioh m3 of woter. Heovy roins couse
the collopse of the south woll of the dom ond triggered o debris slide (1.8km
long ond 1.6km wide) thot killed neorly 7000 people in 7 minuies.
ii) Pototiondl ldndslides

. Rototionql slides move downword ond oulword on top of curved slip surfoces

. Result is o poifern of scors ond depositionol feotures; the rnosf common is ihe
spoon-shoped scor ossocioied with sheor foilures olong orcuote plones

. fn contrcst with lrohslotiohol slides, rototionol slides move shorler distoncesj

their orcuole movements tend fo res-tore equilibrium soon becouse the sheor
slress decreoses ond the sheor strengfh increoses

> Rotdliondl slip

. Often ossocioted wilh permeoble cap rock (e.9. sondstone) overlying on

impermeoble loyer (e.9. cloy). Ii offects ovet-steepened slopes such os morine
cliffs or octively reireoting escorpnents.

. Coherent blocks of moferiol slip down ocross one or more converging slide plones
(Figure 7).

. As lhe block rnoves downword ond outword, it cornnonly rotdtes so ihof bedding
or other surfoces ore filted bockword ioword the source.

. Tilted bock-slopes moy trop sediment or woter.

Sondstone

Figure 7- Rofotiohdl slip tdking ploce olong orcuote slide plones

> Slunping

Similo|to rototionol slips in some ospects but the coherence of the moss is
lost. Although there is o slide plone, movenent tokes ploce os o flow
especiolly neor the lower port of ihe slipped mcss or foe.

The rotqtiohol movemeni moves rndferiol from the highet Forts of the slope
to the lower, ond fhdt the sediment thot wos ot the lower end of the slope is
pushed oufwcrds, offen forming o lobe protruding ihto o vdlley.

Slumping producesr
> on orcuote scor, or disfincf curved incision, ot the heod where tnoteriol hqs
been moved:
> o lineor tongue of mobile moterial ond,
r o bulging loe, i^ the lowen port of the slump, subjected to flow (Figure 8).

Exomple: 5lump in Ensenodo, Colifornio in 1976. Arcuate crocks o few hundred

tnetres long begcn forming on o hillslope dt 90 to 120m obove seo level. As the
crocks widened, most residenis evdcuofed their homes. Howevet, two people
were osphyxioted during their sleep one night when the slow-moving slump
severed the noturol gos lines inside their house. The body of the slump olso
corried o 275m long porfion of Mexicon Highwoy 1 towords fhe Pdcific Oceon.
c) Flow

Flows ore moss movements thot behove like fluids.

Moy occur simply ot the soturqted toe of o londslide, or moy form o

dislinctive tronspo[t type in its own right.

Commonly occurs in thick weothered monlles confoining nuch soil woter. A

flow hos rnoxirnum velocity neor the surfoce, ohd reduced velocity ot depth
(Figure 9) ond is o slow continuous movernenf.

SLIDE a

Figure 9. Conporison between the velocity ol flow ond slide ot eoch depth

A flow is nore continuous thon o slide ond less jerky.

The rnateriols conprising q flow ore usuolly of snoll size (no lorger thon sond)
ond would include soil, regolith or pulverized rock-

Figure 10. Diogrom of Flow

I i4udflows

. Ropidly flowing moss of wet hoieridl thdt conioins ot least 50 percent sdnd-,
silf-, ond cloy-sized porticles, typicolly following streom vclleys.

. Occurs when fine-textured sediment such os cloy ond silt become soiuroted ond
flow downhill os the excess woter hos teduced lheir internol strength

. Moy conlqin up to 60% wofer by weight. They ore more likely to occur qfter
periods of intensive roinfoll, when both volume ond weight ore odded to ihe soil,
giving it o higher woter content thon debris flow.

. Trovel dt gredt velocities due to fhe high woter content

. Mudflows thot occur on the slopes of volconoes due to snowmelt during volconic
eruptions ore called lahors.

Exornples

. Nevodo del Ruiz (1985) - The eruption of Nevqdo del Ruiz in 1985 ttiggered a
lohor which killed 25,000 people in fhe villoge of Amero.

. /t4i Pinolubo, Philippihes (1991) - In the fist few yeors following lhe
cotdclysmic l99l e1ption, they ho"te deposited more thon 0.7 cubic miles of
debris on the lowlonds surounding the volcono, burying hundreds of squore
rniles of lcnd. Duning heovy roins, lohors ot Pinotubo cqn lTonsport qnd deposit
iens of millions of cubic yords of mud in o single doy. Since the I99l eruption,
lohors from Pinotubo hove destroyed the homes of more thon 100,000 people

I Earlhflow

. Involves soil ond other loose sediments moving downhill in o viscous moss qt q
much slower poce thon o nudflow

. Most of moleriol is silt or clqy sized. ond eorthflows occur on slopes of between
2" qnd 35".
-fhey
arc thick€r in consistency ond deeper.

. They ore dssocioted with high roinfoll ond soturoted ggound.

. Usuolly confined to o chonnel ond they lose their velocity guickly when they
reoch o flot surfoce
. Eqrthflows vary in speed from lm/day to several hundred m/hr.

. Form distinctive lobes when they orrive on o volley floor

. Less dongerous thqn mudflows but they con still domqge infrqstrlcture such qs
roods ond roilwoys

I Debris flow

. Ropid mqss movenent in which loose ond unconsolido-ted soils, rocks, ond orgonic
motte|ihot flows downslope ds viscous fluids, typically spredding ouf fron a
river chonnel to form on olluviol fon.

. Occur when loose moteriqls become unconsolidqted, resulting in q loss of

cohesion ond internol friction belween the grqnulqr particles, so thqf on
unstoble slurry mixfure is produced

. Mqjor feoture in fhe tropics where th ey ore triggered by prolonged roinfoll

. Debris flows with higher woter content move foster ond further from fhe
originol source os compored to londslides

. Due io their high densities dnd veloctties, debris flows

hove greot destructive
force ond con temove latge boulders qnd hoqses from their poihs. They con olso
couse high cosuolty rofes.

. Exornple: Debris flow oi Cordillero de lo Cosio, Venezuela killed olmosi 19,000

people in December 1999 (Figure 11)
 Figure 11 December 1999 debris-flow dotnoge to ihe city of Corobolledo,
north coost of Venezuelo.

> Deb s ovolanches

. Moss novenents involving lqrge volumes of rocks ond debris thot breok up on
impoct, but continue to lrovel downslope. They hove the gredtest impoct in
populqted mounlqinous dreqs.

Exomples

. yungay, Peru (1970) - A debris ovolonche wos triggered on the norfhern

flonk of ihe Rio Sonio Volley in the Andes of Peru on 31 Moy 1970. An
eorthguoke dislodged on 800m moss of ice ond rock from the mountqin sumni-t
of Huoscoron. This fell 1000m ond traggercd o debris ovolonche thot trovelled
ot o velocity of 480km/hr. The town of Yungoy wos devosiqted ond 10,000
inhdbitonis were killed

Mont Blonc, Itoly (1717) - fn September 1717, o lorge debris ovalonche (of
rock ond ice) fell from Triolei Glocier neor Mounf 8lqnc, Ifoly. Debris moved
ropidly downslope reoching velocities up lo 3zOkm,/h ond fell over 1850m. As
the debris hit the volley floor, it iroveled 6Om ond there it overwhelrned lwo
entire villoges .
d) Foll

Abrupt movements of moferiols thol become detoched f.om steep slopes or

cliffs, moving by free-foll, bouncing, qhd rolling.

I Pock falls

The free loll of deloched bodies of bedrock through the qir from o cliff
steep bore rock slopes (ongles gtealet thon 40 degrees).

Occurs when o piece of rock on o steep slope becomes dislodged ond folls
down the slope.

A rock foll moy be o single rock or o mcss of rock, ond the folling rocks con
dislodge olher rock os lhey collide wifh the cliff. Eecouse this process
involves Ihe ftee toll of rno-teriol, folls conrnonly occur whete lhete ote steep
.liffs.

Detoched rock frogments foll ond bounce (but hot slide)

E.9. The foll of o 162,000 fonne noss of gronitic rock ot Glocier Point ih
yosenite Nofionol Pork, USA, on 1O July 1996. fhe follen rock moss hit the
ground ond creoted o mognifude 3+ eorthguoke. However, only one person wos
killed by o lree blown down by the oirblost in froht of fhe fqllen rock moss.

Ihe presence of joints, bedding plones, foults and fissures offer lines of
weokness olong which detochment of blocks occur. The greotest rock foll
hozord exists when joints ond bedding plohes o.e inclined ot steep ongles, os
in the highly folded rock in mountqin chains.

Processes possibly responsible for initioting o rock foll:

> Thermol frocture

I Freeze-thow cycles
> Woter pressure in pores or joints
> Pressure-releose jointing
> Chemicol octivity

Some of these processes ore clirnote-reloted, for p.g. o seosonol pottern of

rock folls with o mqximum in sprihg ohd dufunn. Some rnojor folls moy be
triggercd by an externol evenf such os on eorthguoke or severe coostql storm.
 At the bose of rnosf cliffs is on qccumuldlion of follen moteriol te.med talus
(Figure 12). As the products of wedfhering occumulote on o hill slope, the dry,
loose rock frogments will tend to occumulote ot o neorly uniform slope ongle
inclined af whot geologists coll the angle of repose. This ongle is the
steepest slope ol which loose moteriol, such os tolus, will rernoin oi rest
without rolling further downslope. This is the inclincfion of o slope ot
equilibrium. Ihe angle ol repose is commonly obout 30" for dry sond, but it
vories depending on the size, shope, ond sortihg of the frdgnents ond the
onount of moisture belween the groins.

Rocl( and

Figure 12. Folling rocks ond debris occumulote ot the boses of cliffs os fdlus.

fhe presence of tolus is dn indicotion ihoi folls ore on octive process on d

given cliff, ond should oct os o wdrning fo people to be coreful. A vegetoled
tolus suggests thof folls were once active in thot locotion, but ore no longer,
since the presence of vegetalaon shows thoi the tolus hos beeh undisfurbed
for long enough to ollow vegefotion to begin fo gro1t.

Effects:

. Produces recession (relteaI) of steep rock wolls (cliffs)

. Provides debris which feeds the screes ond tolus slopes often found ot ihe foot
of o free foce.

, Debris folls ore similor to rock folls, except they.involve o mrxture of sojl,
regolih . \ eget oI ion. ond rocks.
3. FACTORS AFFECTING MASS MOVEMENT

. Moss movernents vory in scole, roies of movements, moteriols ond in their

resulfdnt londforms. Among fhe focfors thof affect slope siobility, the noture
ohd speed of moss movemen-ts dre nofurol ond onthropogenic (humon-induced)
foctors.

i) Naturol Foctors

o) Slope 6rodient

. Ihe steepet the ongle, the gteotq the

likelihood ond speed of moss moveneht
as the sheor stress exerted by grovitotionol forces will be higher.

. Eg. in mountoinous environmenls such os the Hitnoldyos ond the Andes, obout one
cotostrophic rock foll, which involves huge nosses of moterial (up io 100 x
106m3), occurs per decode

b) Type of ,iloleriol

. Thin soils iehd to be more unstdble os they con only supporl limited vegefotion.

. A porous ond permeoble soil, e.9. Sond, is less likely-to become soluroted thon
impermeoble soil such os cloy. Unconsolidcfed sond hove lower internol cohesion
ond lower sheqr strehgth ds conpored to cloy.

. Areas .oveted with thick sheets of wind-blown loess or tephro ore olso
susceptible to flows ond slides

. Where the weothered loyer is very deep, or where rocks ore weok, the slope will
olso be nore unstoble.

c) aeologicol sfructure d strength

. Geologic s-tructures tefet to the rock structure ond sirengfh of the rock or
soil \

. Especiolly fovouroble to noss movenent ore mossive rocks overlying wedk rocks
(cloy or shole); o clossic situoiion for slope foilure
. Porous moteriql qbsorbs watet.6e.oming heovier qnd prone to novemehf. The
woter lubricoies the sheer plone to focilitote movemenf

. Slope foilure increoses when lines of weqknesses 0oints,/bedding plqnes/foults)

incTeqse os these lines of weoknesses ollow woter to enfer

d) Climote

. Includes temperdture ond roinfoll which con influence weqthering processes ond
slope slobili+y

. Weathering processes promole the physicol ond chemicol breokdown of slope

moteriols, which influences slope stobility

> Tenperdlure

. Influences evoporofion rotes ond weothering processes such os fteeze-thqw

ocfion ond thermol frdcture which in furn influences slope stqbility ond moss
movement

I Roinfall

. heovy roin or olternqte freeztng and fhowing leods to olternote exponsion ond
controction of the soil which encouroges moss movemenl

. fn oreos thdt regulorly expetien e monsoon rainfqll or tropicol cyclones, rock

weothering con penettote deep 6elow the ground surfoce (up to 60m). These
deep ond porous weathering montles ore olso prone to mqss movements such os
lqndslides

. Moss movernents ore oflen ossocidted with heovy or persistent roinfoll thoi
odds weight ond volurne to the soil

i) The iniensity ond durotion of roinfoll greotly increases the likelihood of

slope foilure by increosing the weight of moteriol ond reducing cohesion of
porticles
ii) Woter olso octs os o lubraconf to ollow porticles to eosily move over one
onoiher by reducing friciion o.t the bose of \d hqss of rock ihrough
increosed woter pressure
iii) Sdlurqtion of sojl or rock leods to increose of pore woter pressures ond
porticles gel pushed apori qnd lose contoct with one qnother. Hence, the
more soturoted the moteriol, the more likely ii is to move
. This soturotes the soil, increosing pore wotet pressure ond reducing the sheor
strength of the soil, moking it unstobl€.

. Heavy roin increoses the erosive power of cny river of the bose of o slope ond
by removing moteriol, mokes lhe slope less sloble

. Heovy snowfoll odds volume dnd weight to the soil ond encouroges ropid moss
novenents such c5 ovolonches

e) Vegetdtion

. The mechonisms whete\y vegelotion influences slope stqbilify moy be broodly

clossified os either hydrological ot mechdnicdl in natute.

. tl,lechanicol foctors orise from the phvsicol interoctions of either the folioqe 9!
root syslem of fhe pldnt with the slope.
. Hydtologicol rnechonisms ore those intricocies of the hydrologicol cycle fhof
exist when vegelotion is present.

Hydrolog ic a I mec hanisn s :

l4echanisms beneficial to slope stabilify:

1. Roinfoll on o vegetoted slope is portly intercepled by the foliage/vegetation

conopy, leoding to loss of moislure through obsorption ond evoPordtion thof
ultimotely reduce rhe qmount of roinfoll ovoiloble for infiltrotion. At the some
lime, the foliage protects the soil ogoinst roin splosh impocf qnd trqnspirotion
processes oid in drying out ihe slope.
2. Roots extroct noisture from ihe soil which is lost to the otmosphere vio
tronspirofion, leoding to lowe. pore-woter pressures.

hlechanisms adverse to slope stabi/ity:

3. On the ofher hond, presence of roots ond stems lends to increose the
roughness of the slope surfoce, which moy leod to a gteatet copocity for
infilirofion.
4. Root chdnnels noy olso contribute to the erosion of internol pipes in some soils.
5. Prolonged extrdction of moisture by roots con leod fo desiccotion of the soil ond
formotion of
crocks in soil. Once formed, such crocks moy increose the
permeabilify ohd infiltrdtion cdpdcity of soil.
|Uechahical mechdnisms :

l4echaisms benefrcial lo slope stability:

6. Plont roots bind the soil porticles fogether, ihus reducing the rote of soil
erosion which moy olherwise leqd to undercutting ond slope instobility.
7. Lorge toots, especiolly of trees, moy penelrcte deeply ond become onchored in
firm strotq fhereby forming o supporf to the soil montle upslope of the ttee.
Hehce, roots teinfotce the soil, increosing soil sheor strength.

Mechanisns adverse to slope stability:

8. yet on rock slopes, tree roots moy enien discontinuities ond wedge block opqrt,
possibly cqusing the detochment ond foll of boulders.
9. Vegetotion exposed to wind tronsmits forces into the slope, cnd if uprooting or
overturning occurs, both increosed erosion ond infilirqfion noy result.

Figure 13. Sone €ffects of vegetotion on slope stobility.

f) Triggering Events

I Earthquakes

. Eorihquokes moy releose so much energy thol slopes foilures of vorying types
ond scole ore triggered sitnultoneously os sheor sfress is increosed

. Intense shoking con couse o buildup of woter pressure in the pore spqces of
sedimenl, Ieoding to liguefoction. fn other words, liquefocfion is nol qlwdys
relqfed fo on increose in woter conlentj sometimes shoking couses the pore
watet already presenf in ihe sediment to coolesce so thot the sediment groins
lose contoct with one onother.

Exomoles

. l97O Peru Eorthquoke triggeted a debris ovolonche thot moved more fhon 3.5
krn down the sieep, rock slopes of Mount Huoscoron, reoching speeds of 480
krn/h. The villoge of yuhgoy wds destroyed ond os mony os 1O,O0O people killed.

. 1929 mdjor eorthguoke in northwestern Souih fslond, New Zeolond, friggered

of leost 1850 slides.

> Volconic Eruplions

. Volconic eruptions olso frigger moss movement-

. Lorge strotovolconoes consist of unstqble occumulotiohs of lovo flows, tePhro
ond pyroclostic loyers ihdt forrn steep slopes.
. on ice-clod volconoes, slopes rnoy be ovetsteepened by glociol erosion.
. During on erupfion of hof lovo ond pyroclostic flows, lorge volumes of woter moy
be releosed when fhe sumnit glociers ond snowfields melt, forming ldho.s
(mudflows) thot rnove ropidly down volleys.
. Exomple; The Nevqdo del Ruiz eruption(1985) in Armero, Columbio generoted o
lohor ihot killed 25,OOO people

9) Undercutting
. Slurnps ond other lypes of coostol londslides con 6e triggered. by the
undercutting ociion of o streom olong its bonk or by wgve oction olong o codst

. Heovy rain incredses the erosi\e power of ony river ot the bose of o slope ond
by rernoving mcieriol, increoses sheor stress, which mokes the slope less stoble
 Un s upp orted
clil{ collapses

Hiqh Tide

Figure 14. Uhdercutting of cliff

ii) Anthropogenic foctors (Humon Activities)

o) Removol of vegefotion

. Through human octivilaes such os logging, overgtozing, ogriculture or

consfruclion.

. Surfoce moieriols become looser due to the loss of soil binding by roofs ond the
slope is olso more exposed to the erosive oction of surfoce runoff.

b) Building of Roods on Slopes by undercutting

. Londslides often occur when noturol slopes hove been tnodified by humon
ocfivities E.g. Where roods hove been cul in-io regolith, creofing on ortificiol
slope thot exceeds ihe ongle of repose

. The underculfing of o previously stoble slope is quite o common prcciice in the

construction of roodwoys, especiolly in mountoinous lerroin. Londslides ore
cornnon even.fs in the Himoloyos, especiolly during the high intensity roinfoll of
lhe monsoon seoson. 5lopes become soturcted, there are mony foults thot could
oct os sheor plones, ond thete ote oh incredsirg number of roods ond
settlemenfs builf olong the foof of slopes overlooking river volleys.

. Londslides ore olso cornnon olong the coostol cliffs of Colifornio whete toods
h,Jve 6een carved inlo deforned sedimeniory rocks-
c) Adding Weight io Slope

Overlooding or odding weight to slope (building construction, woste dumping or o

moss of excovoted moteriol ot the top of o slope) con contribute io slope
toilure.

Urbonizotion ond residentiol development not only odds weighi through the
buildings, increosing ihe grovitotionol lorce 6eing opplied to the slope bul olso
through excess woter supplied from londscope irrigotion or seepoge from
swimming pools ond sewoge systems.

In 1966, excessi\e roin in Rio de Jqneiro cdused on over steepened slope, in o

rodd cut, to foil. The rnoss of mqferidl overlooded the top of the slope ond
coused o mojor londslide, killing 132 people.

On 5 June 1993, o rototionol slump occurred in the bock gorden of the Holbeck
Holl Hotel in Scorborough. Although the couses of this slump ore ot leost
threefold (soturoiion of boulder cloy on the cliff following o porticulorly wet
spring, undercutting of the cliff by coostol erosaon ond the extrd weight of the
hotel) there seems liltle doubt fhof the ptesence ol the hotel wos o significont
conlributory fqctor in cousing fhe slunp.

d) Shocks ohd vib.otions

Abrupf shocks (e.g. explosion, operotion of heovy construction rnochinery,

vibrdtion coused by heovy iroffic) olso destobilize slopes

4. EFFECT5 OF MAS5 MOVEMENT

Moss novements, especiolly londslides con suddenly rush down o steep slope
ond couse greof desfruction ocross q wide qrea of hobitoble lond
con couse floods by domming up bodies of wqter.
This will result in o greot loss of lives ond property
Domoges to buildahg struciures ond infrostructure
Loss of productivity of ogriculfurol londs
Loss of industriol producfivity 5ecouse ol interrup{ion of tronsporlqlion
systems by moss movements
5low rnovement of creep does long lerm economic domoge to roilroods,
buildrng structure ond underground prpes.
5. MANAGEMENT OF AAASS MOVE/IAENT HAZARDS

i) Mitigotion,tAeosures

. The likelihood of rnoss movenents cdn be reduced by increosing sheor strenglh

ond reducihg sheor s-iress. This will reduce the chonces of slope foilure whrch
occurs when sheor siress is greoter thon sheor strength.

. Wiih coreful onolysis ond plonning, logether with oppropriote stobilizotion

techniques, the impocts of moss moveneht processes on humons con often be
reduced or eliminoted.

o) Prediction ond Hozqrd Assessment

. Londslide control is most successful when combined with urbon risk ossessment
ond londuse plqnning through the use of hozord mopping techniques, legislotion
ond eorly worninq sysfern.

. Hozord ossessnenfs posed by poientiol moss movement events qre bcsed on:

1) Reconstruction of similor posl events an order to evoluote their mognitude

and freguency;

2) Anolysis of slopes to deiermine their susceptibility to destobilizing

processes through the following pqrqmefers: geologicol doto (rock
structure), geomorphologicol doto (slope ongles), hydrologicol doto
(groundwoter) ond the seismicity (susceptibility to eorthquokes)

I Hazard nopping

. Through the use of Gl, (Geogrophicol fnformotionol Systerns)

. Mops showing oreos lhot coald be affected by noss rnoven€ht e\ents ote
imporiont tools for lond-use plonners.

. Hozord zonoiion is inportont becousel

.1. Vulneroble oreos con be identified ond developlnent con be minimized in
fhese oreos
.a. Ftequency of movement con be idehlified ond preventive meosures con be
tokeh in odvonce
. An ideol hozard mop should provide informotion on:
d. Spotiol probobiliiy
b. Temporol probobility
c. Type of mcss movement
d. Moghilude
e. Velocity
f. Runout distonce

@ 8ddrnfu h.:.d
srod,e h..nr
'E414

Figure 15. A londslide hozord tnop

> Legislation

. The use of low ond reguldtion to restrict construc-tion in oreos of known high
risk oreos so thot domoges will be minimol

For e.9. lond thoi is susceptible to mild foilures might be suitqble for some
Iypes of development (e.g. tectealion or pork) bui not others (e.9. intensive
ogriculture of housing).

Groding ordinonces such os the Uniform Euilding Code odopted in the USA ore
importon t regulotory tools.
\
E.g.With the inlroduction of o gtoding ordinqnce in Los Angeles in 1952, losses
ot new construction sites ore less thon 27". Befovihot, more thon 10% of
building lots were dornoged by slope foilure.
c) Slope Stqbilizotion Technigues

. In oddition to
ossessmeni, prediction ond eorly worh,hg, sone e gineering
fechhiques con be used to mitigote ot even ptevenl londslides. These include
reloining devices; droinoge pipes; groding; ond diversion wolls.

. Slope stobilizotion, olong wifh hozord-resastonf construction techniques, is the

most effective preventave strdtegy for new development.

1, structurol Control / Enqineerinq Meosures

> Pelaining structures

. A reloining woll is o structure thot holds bock eorth. E.g. Piles, buttresses ond
retoining wdlls, geotextiles.

. Retoining wolls stobilize soil ond rock from down slope moverneht ond provide
supporJ for verticdl or neor-veriico! grode chonges.

. One of the most common opprooches is the use of concrete block wolls, poured
or sproyed concrele (sholcrete), rock bolts or gobions (rocks conJoined in wire
mesh coges) to sirengthen slopes

. Guidi^g structures near lhe slope bose, such os diversion wolls con deflect smdll
debtis f low s el I ectiv ely.

unstdble slopes. The locotion of properly boundories moy olso resfrict the use
ol t hrs opprooch

Figure 16. A reloining woll

 Drdhage

Mefhods include the removol of surfoce wotet.lhe dtainoge ol fension crocks,

the use of droinoge pipes ond fhe insertion of ttenches filled with grovel or
horizoniol droins.

Slopes thqf ore subjected to creep can be stobilized by drqihing or purnping

woter from sofuroted sediment.

subsurfoce droinoge con be equolly effective where chonges in pore woter

pressure hove been coused by d rise in the wote toble.

This is occomplished by the inseriion of permonenl droinoge pipes, often in

combinotion with o woll.

. Properly designed ond constructed droinoge systems work well bui others soon
\ecome clogged by fine porticles.

FiE)re 17. Droinoge conf.ol meosures

6rading

Oversteepened hill slopes ccn 6e prevenled from slumping if they ore regroded
to ongles equol to or less fhon the noturol angle of repose.

This type of rcgroding is usuolly successful but it becomes more expensive os

fhe slide oreo increoses.

Groding con be done through the use of excovotion ond filling methods to
produce o more stoble overoge slope, especiolly ot roodcuts olong hill slopes.

Specific fechniques include unlooding the heod of o slide ond looding the toe,
with .the replacernent ol f oiled moteriol with lighter loods.
 EXCAVATON AY SIDECASTING

FINAL ROAO I/1/IDTH

Figure 18. Excovotion ond Fill lilethod of Rood Consfruction on Hillslopes

> Diversion Walls

Downslope s-tructures con be prolected by consiructing diversion wdlls if the

slope itself connot be sidbilized.

In some mouhloin volleys subject to mudflows from qctive volconoes, resetvoits

con be emptied so thqf doms will holf mudflows before they reoch populotion
ceklefs, \
2. Othe. ,l^eosures

> Chemical sldbilization

. e.9.Ion exchonge to improve the slobility of slopes

> fncredse densify of vegefation cover

. This will increqse sheor strength if more ttees cre plonted in o plot of lond
since vegetdtion binds soil togeiher which teduces the likelihood of noss
movement.

. Vegetoiion conopy olso helps to protect the soil dgoinst roinsplosh inpoct which
reduces the cohesion of the soil porticles.

I Soil biotechnology or soil bioengineering syslens

. These construction methods use moinly un-rooted cuttings, token from live
plonts ond instqlled in the ground. The plont cuttings ioke root ond become
estoblished on the slope.

. These systems reduce surface erosion qs well os reinforce the soil. How
effective the soil is reinforced depends on the depih of which the culfings cqn
be ploced ond the depth to which roots will penetrote.

D Peduce slrippihg of ldnd

. shear strengfh will increose if strrpping of lond by deforestotion qnd

oyetgrszing is reduced

ii) Responses to the Effects of Moss Movement

> Disdsler Aid

. fndividuol moss movemeht disdslers rorely ottroct ot)ention ond emetgency oid
due fo fhe smoller scole losses os compored to othet geologic hozords.
. emergency relief cornprises the provision ol sheher, food, bosic hygiene
omenities ond medicol core.

. E.9. the londslide disoster of December 1999 in Venezuelo prompted the

nqtionol government to evocuote obout 130,O00 people fron the densely
populoted northern coostol strip qnd relocqted them to less crowded ports of
the country

End of Topic

Summdry of topic; ,tloss Movements

. Mass movement opplies fo ony unit of novement of o body of moteriol, propelled

ond controlled by grovity.

. Moss movemenls con ronge frorn dry io wet, slow to fost, smqll to lorge ond
from free-folling to g.oduql or intermittent.

. The ongle of repose of loose sedirneni groins represents o bolonce of driving ond
resisling forces on o slope.

. Vegetotion con influence slope sfqbilify beneficiolly or odversely.

. The hydrologicol mechonisms thot leod to

lower pore-woter ptessutes ote
beneficiol, while those thdt leod to increosed pore pressures ore odverse. Of
the mechqnicol rnechonisms, those thot increose Sheqr resistonce in the slope
ore 6eneficial, while those thot increose sheqr stress ore odverse.

. As people hove increosingly developed slopes, porticulorly in LEDCS, moss

movements ore more common ond people ore increosingly more vulneroble.
 Types of Mass Movements
Types of Noture of Noture Chorocferis+ics of Couses / Triggering Processes Effects Exomples
Moss mqieriol of Slope /llovemenl
Movements (speed, form etc)
Soil creep . Gentle a slowest ol o role of r Repeo+ed expohsion ond r smoothen ond
Rocks glopes less lhon 1 cn o yeor conlrqclion of porticles due 10 rolnds the slope
(obout 5" - huhid tehperote freeze-thow octioh . formdtion of
or more) clinoles: 1-2 tnfir o r ol+erno+e wetting ond drying of convex slopes
. ndturol
- +ropicol hulnid . thermol expohgioh ond downslope
climotes:5nmoyeor controc+ion of rninerol groins occumulotion of
a conlihuor.ts paocess . biologicol activity such os wedging soil
+hof occurs ih the top €ffect of plont roo+s, burrowing . formo+ion of
few hetres of the ond trompling terrcceites
surfoce r underculting from runoff ond . couse lilling
Streoms oJ +tee +runks ,
H r high roinfoll or snow fences, poles,
E . eorthquqkes
a corclruc+ion octivi+ies

Solifluctioh . Sotlroted . Gentle . siow but s ighily . salurotion of soil by hleltwo+er a formotion of . Lewis Hills,6ros
soilond slopes foster +hon soil creep froln snow ond grolhd ice durihg solifluction lobes
regolilh . role ronging from 5 the +how seoson ond sheets of
Newfoundlond,
cmondlmoyeor debris ihot

aveatide one . so ifllctlon

onother iobeB, Jotunheim
 Types of Noture of Noture of Chorocleristics of Couses / Triggerihg Proc€sses Effecfs Exomples
mareridl slope
(speed, form etc)
. Deroched r sudden lorge-scale
lnovesrent on o relo+lvely . sudden shocks e9. EorlhqLrdkes
(formed by floi incliied rock pldne 4 berrd in 1903
gldciers, such os Joinls, foLrhs ond
bedding plones
waves)
. b.eoklng !p of rocks

Property ard loss

5
L Debris slide . Debris slide
I . 3Lrdden shock eg. Eorthquokes Voiont, Ilo y in 9
regoliihond O.robet 1963
D
E

rnoveneht - (rhiforln . sLrdder shocks e9. Earthquakes lohdslide in

Moniand. 1959
of lives (earihquoke):
. lnovenl€nt olong o well- movemeni of 28
defined plofe r'\i lioh cubic hetre

Slunping; . rolotion6l movernent - . Slunlp in

Rototiona s p moierio (cloy nlovenrenl occurs olohg
orcuote sllde p ones
tilied bockwords wrth
the ioe risii9 at the end
. sudd€n shocks e9. Earlhqldkes ot the !pper port Ensenodo,
. offiflciol nlodificolion of the
londecapa eq. Comtruction ociivities
thoi overste€pen slopes, c{rttinq of
. undercutiinq of ihe bdse at the s ope
by streom ond wdve dctioh

. bllging toe ihot

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1 28 GEOMORPHALOGICAL HAZARDS

100 feared dead as mudslides hit south Italy

Llp to
100 lblians wcrc feaEd
dcad in a scrics ofmudslides seL
otl by freak hea\a rarns in the
southe.n region oI Canpania
The iesjon had beei douscd
with he.!y rai.f,ll ovcr thc
Rescue workers used 18

,esierdiy. As hundreds oftrooF helicopters 10 scour the st icken

joined in tl'c rcscDc etron, ar{ for slrvilors Anong rhc
regional authorities and the dead and nissi.g wcrc parie.ls
llaliar govement were accused and doctos at the Sanro hospital.
ol failitrg b take steps to tr€vent which Ms engul|d by . wale

At le!s1 25 pcopl€ were Tlre.ising dealh toll pronplcd

conimcd dcad whilc 70 others
wcre tisted asmissins and leaEd
dad and abo!1 800 were madc
bobeLess. louses, atarinent
blocks, ca.s dd 6re eDgines wre
swcpr away in ives ofmud lhar
streaked thrcusb rhe towns ol
Samo, Sieo and Ildclglituro nl
the p.ovince ol Salerno ald ihe
rown ofQulndici in lhe province
of,{vcll'no Abont 2000 people
had lo be evacuated in Sam0, rhe
worst hil lown. ahcr lddslidcs
on lwo hountanB, Mourt Saro
dd Momi Lc Porche, tumed
'The mounbnr opeEa up in
Iive places hd a sca of niud
pourcd down likc lava,'cxplarned
.n..f ih. rc\.rri uorkers
authondes to lioi.i drc n.ger al
past corruftion in local
government vhich alto*ed
ProPeny developmenl in ddas oa
high risk. Cainparia is tronc t.
l&dslidcs, which havc killed 3?2
pcople over ihe past 50 years
!a6ro Bertinoti, lhe le.<ler ol
the leii wins Rifondazionc
comunistr pirty, sajd thc
golemnent ol Roman. Prcdi,
thc Primc Mnrisler, and the
re8ional adnnistrairon were 1o
blane lor the mudslides &s tncy
had nol car.jed out prclcnraiivc
\ork lter frvc lardslidcs lasl
yer killcd 20 people in
Ecolugical gtuups, inclDdlng
LhcW.'ld Widc Fund for N.ture

and lhllt Le8dbrnre. sdd fiar Lnndslidds and toodnr! lcft

the disdter 'was nor d naLuitl fi!.dead lnd scvenl !r
'n'ssng
cllaniry dis$rd ctused h!
bur a Qui.dici whilc at San Felce .
dccadcs of ransacknre thc land Canccllo. neff Casede, . 73
and sprawling construction ' ,veaFold womu va cushed lo
Among those criticised was death m her hone by a flood ol
Franco Barbei,, lhe UndeF
sec€ory lor Civil Delence. who Abour 65 pc' ccrt ol ltaly (
.eplied that thee had bee. dcl.ys cldsed !s bcng al rsk fronr
in nakingivrilable 53 billion lire landslld€s Thc woNt dsrsler ol
(!i7 nillion) elrhar\ed bJ rli is krrd..rccoid happened
authoritics i. Romc for won{ lf ni ir 1954. wlct
Ca.ipanra
hcavy ranr brooghl tuas
Seven people died nr Sanro landslides which killed 205
and there *ere reports ol 50 peopld .nd nldc anolhcr 5466

lour pcople dierl *hen lhe_v Lllgj iua ircdi, a scnrlor lor
ueE car.ied a$ay by x mldslirir thc.tr.snon l.rzr lblrx pan!.
.rllcn i.i a lxilianrenltty
N
'Ih. b.dics oll
oa a :14 yslr co'.nrissLo. .1 inqutrJ r! he
w.nia, and hcr lhrc. chi[n0 .pcred iuo th. srt.l .ivi
aged bctwecr lour and Il {oc
lasired oul rnlo r s.cel nr
0km2A Bracrjrli o exrly lesterda! alLer
j
r Dudslirle hiL Lh. village thc
prevrous nrghL Lhe aurho.ilics
srld Anoll,e, trvo Fople werr
rdpo ca b hrv..lLel ir the

Figure 7,5 Newspaper articlc: 100 feared .lead as mudstio.s hit south ltaLv lSource: In: tme. ' Nrar 19981
NATURAL HAZARDS ON ALIUVIAL FANS:
THE VENEZUELA DEBRIS FLOW AND FLASH FLOOD DISASTER
T'IATURAL HAZABDS ON ALLUVIAL
fAt'lS
Larye populations live on or near
alluvial fans in locations such as Los
Angelcs, Califomia, Salt Lake City,
Utal, Denver, Colomdo, Naples, Italy,
and Vargas, Venezuela. In time scales
sparming thousands of years, alluvial
fans are dynamic zones ofhigh
geonorphic activity. D€bris flows
and flash floods occur episodically in
these environments, and placc many
comnun;ties at hieh risk duing
inlens€ and prolonged rainfall.
ALthough scientists arc constantly
inproving their abilily to understand
and deiineate areas ofhigh natuml
hazard, population expansion and
development pressure have put more
people a! risk than ever before.
Thercfore. debris flow and flash
flood hazard analysis is a critically
US Deoanm ol the nGio,
Highly dewloped alluval fan, Caftballeda, Venezuela, aetial view laokins nafth
importan! ar€a ofnatural ha"ard material. A debris flow ilpically has
research. This fact sheet d€scrib€s the the consjstency ofwetconcrete and
alluvial fan €nvironment and moves at speeds in excess of 16
associaied hazards. with examples neters persecond (li miles per hour).
WHATARE ATIUVIAT FANS?
WHAT ARE DESNIS FLOWS?
Alluvial fans are gently sloping.
Deb.is flows are fast moving cone- to far-shaped landforrns created
lafldslides that occur in a wide mnge ov€r thousands to millions ofyears by
ofenvironments. A debris flow is a deposilion ofcroded sediment at the
Epidly rnoving mass ofwater and base of mountain ranges. They are
material $at is mainly composed of easily recognjzed in arid, to semi-arid
sand. gravel, and cobbles, but environments such as that of the
typically includes trees, cars, small westem United States; however-
buildings, and other antluopogenic alluvialfans can occur in more hn'nid
Ablique view laoking south at the Cudilleta de la t:ostu. Venezuela
lod\d.dlL. dlfan pd Io oD t
"Dp"d "\
2,0U nete6 ^tdorFtt"
the base at the 16.6AA feet) high nomtain range The alt tuat
fans wee heavily inp ted by ftaads and debtis lbw it 1999 tftlt!
caunsy of f Uftani. Univ{sidadde venezuela
environments, including the northem
coasr ofVen€zucia- Alluvial fans may
be highly active. whcrc floods and
debris flows cart occur episodically at
any location on thc fbn suriace. Other
alluvill fans are less acriv€.1vherc
tcdonic uplift and incision have
.h,nneliz€d flows so tlralmuch ofthe
fan is not affccled during floods.]'hc
principal natural hazards on alluvial
fans are floods and debris flows that
arc induced mainly by lntense and
prolonged rainfall. Floods on alluvial
fars commonly occur with little to no
waming, and have high velocities and
sedimenttransporting capabilities.
Water-generated natural hazatds
on alluvial fans are!"ically relalively
shallow but can strike wilh little
wamlng, travel al high speeds, and
car4' massive smounrs of sed;menl
and debris- Alluvialfan floodins
t_vpically begins at the hydrographic
apex, which is lhe highest point wberc
{#,.
".,r'..
flow is lastconfincd
by moDntain
multiple channels.
Flooding is
cnough encrgy lo
shallow flow
depths. The abrupt
Aetialvjew ol l:araballeda aluvialfan laakins south. shawil9 ar
Estinated 1.8 nillon tans of fteshly deposied sednent that was sptead
actu$ he hlghly ufianized cannunry by floods and debris flows n
during a flood may
subsbntially alter
hydraulic conditions
and initiate new, distinct flow paths ol perceived as too large to overflo\!- Il
uncertain directioo. The uncertainry is this floa path unceftainty that
oflddslide risk csn blj heighteoed by nrakes debr;s flou, anrl flood hazard
scdiment deposidon in an alluvial fan on alluvial fhns extremely dangerous.
channel, resulting in rapid overbank
Ilooding ofa channel that wr-s

AN EXAMPLE OF ALLUVIAL FAI'I
HAZARDS:
THE VENEZ UEI.A DEBRIS FLOW AND
FLASII FLOOD DISASTCS
Severat hundred thousand people
live in a nanow coastal zone nonh
Calacas, Venezuela, in the state of
Vargas. Located at the base of ste€p
mountains that rise to elevations of
more than 2,000 meters (6,600 feet),
th€ population is highly vuln€rabl€ to
episodic rainiall-induced landslid€s.
An unusually wei period in Decernber
1 999 included rainfall accumulalion
along the Caribbean coast of200
mjtlim€ters (8 inch€s) on D€cember
2-3, followed by an additional9ll
milljmeters (36 inches) ofninfsll
from December 14 to 16.
The rdinfall induced thousands of
debris flows and other t p€s of
landslides in the coastal mountains,
and downslope, these landslides
coalesced into massive debris flows
that moved rapidly though steep
narrow canyons ,nd onto tie alluvial
fans- Residents with hon€s on the
alluvial fans d€scribed nultiple floods
and debris flows fllat began late on the
night of December 1 5 and continued
until the aftemoon ofDecember 16.
Debis flow danage ta apannentbuillJing
on alluvial tan, Carabal leda. Varyas
Venezuela Eouldets passed lxough the
fiat twa stuties af the builtlinA
of
Ihis house was canied and rotaEd by debtis flows in Arabaleda.
The landslides (mostly debris
flows) and flash floods along the
coastal zone oftbe slate ofvargas and
neighboring stat€s in northem
Venezuela killed an estimated 19,000
people, caused extensiv€ ProPertY
darnage, and changed hillslope,
strean chamel, and alluvial ran
morpholog/. Residents had little
advance waming ofthe debris flolvs
.nd n.sh floods ihar stflrck in the
early hours ofDecember 16, so many
were caught in their homes and their
bodies were canied outto seaor
buried by the flood debris.
A combination ofdebris flows
that transpoded massiv€ boulders, and
flash floods carrying er.lremely high
sedim€nt loads, were dle principal
agents of destruction. On virtualiy
every alluvial tan alongtbe Vargas
coastline. rivers incised new chamels
into fan surfaces to depths of several
meters, and massive amounts ofnew
sediment were disgorged upor fan
surfaces. Sedirnent and debris,
including massjve boulders a5large as
l0 meters {ll feet' in diairetcr. s erc
dcposited in layers up to seveftl
meters thick across large poriions
thc alluvial fans east ofMaiqueria.
Hundreds of houies, bridges and other
structurcs wcrc damaged or destroyed.
Total danage h Vargas was estimated
ai $1.9 billion.
.IH
E PAST IS TH E KEY TO
THE FUTURE
The landslides and
flooding trigge.ed by
intense rainfall nr
December 1999 were
not unique in this
region or elsewhere in
Venezirela. Sedimcnts
banks ofriver channels
prehisto.ic floods and
debns flows. Histori.al
records indicate that.
on average, at least one
or two high-magn iiudc
flash-flood or landslide events per
century have occurred in this regio.
since the l?th century. Spanish
archives indicate that flash floods and
debris flows caused extensivc damasc
1() 219 homes and goverunent
buildings and destroyed aU bridges in
La Guai.a in lebruary 1798; Lre
floods and debris flows associated
wilh this event were so iarge that
Spanish soldiers placed cannons
cross,w;se in ftont of the upstrearn-
facing €ntrrnce of a fon 10 banjcade
the structure near the strcam channel.
of
?astan caused by lE 1999 nom expased tht
foundalan al lh3 hause and gatage n
Canbaleda fhe santj. eTbbles and boultJets tD.n
which the sttucture.ests aE an jtl debtis il1w
 Irlanhew C larsen:, ccEld f. W onel7.
L S..11 Eamn3, Bedani n A. [40.0a1, ar!
feribetuTorersient
IU s ceoioo.i S{ruel Gr bbpan D sn ri. CNI l]e.rer
651tederal v., Sr r-A 400 15 Cmyiah,P!c1atu
009i5.llSA mcl sr@rqstuv
Gcolo,oic, Suv.y R-arof,Vlninia !SA
':U.S
ij
James [,ladisonUnive6qHarisorl!ru,!fi rr, tlSA
A,[!c/*d06rfuil4!.:h
 GepW
THE LANDSLIDE HAZARD
The definition dil.mdr
Landslide h a common lem used by many pcoplc 1o describ. a sudden complelely alterins thc hndscrre ol e arca whilsl rDst landslidcs big and
\lopo failutu or c6llapsc, involving the dowDlrill tmDslerofnraterial, bod) snDll occLr h remolc and uninnabitcd are6 where they present ltulc or nd
consolidaled and unconnn,ddlcd, by dnc or norc of thrcc manr hazrd Lr people, $c n.rcasing ulillsilio. of marenral laDd for setllemenl,
mccnrnism: fall. slidc.nd now Irirnnl8 a.d comnmicaliotrs hls led ro an incr€ase in the Imdsldo htz.rd

whilsr tbk umbrcllarype of den tion is perfeclly accepLble when

considerins the hazards associated with slopc llilure, il is idrotult t) Case Stutu 1: vaioat Resetvn Slid.,Itab', t96l
appre.irle tlat 6e lcnn 'landslidc'docs lmvc a vcry prccisc nrccl ical Or E^Acbber t9()3 a h se sbb oltu k, :."1e 2Alrh ttid., slri dow d
de6.i1ion in lhai il rs only oDe olsever,l specific tlTes or apid has wfut sile ihlo dt liaioht Resnor'tFE 2) I/.'"ated a hq?wve t00nt
nove eit fF,& /./, ils mair lcaturcs bcirei hiEh thd.wnopper! rhelan (untuzkglynot btuaki git!)udnlry.di o
th. rolley belo\ itrrddti Erilag4 and f.ilha 2013 teqle
. It itroltet a ii.le ne.ltutistn, olen dohg a lit ofweaLie$ et h FiE.2 Uaio,l &esmoir slirlz, hab 1963.
6 o fou, or a b.d.ling plane
. h is 6uotq a w!lai lon alhorcn.
. It ihralv6 kntendl that 6 n1arc. ar ks drr
. h wuat4, inr.ltes ttu lovllhil b.^1, alr larCel! coheteht Jlab
ofhldterial, \|hj.h ntar then breok,p as it..nes to rest

Fig. I Comnon tfpes ofsuddcn mass movcm.nt

What were lhe ro tihubr! caus.s?

. tlt t6ls wftd|,ptnstlowk lowanlt 4t" bor,, oJ lu tuIq.Mtiltt
Mtwl slip pla"6. TLft \Erc dL\o lrtl lh.\ Natirg sla pld$.
. r'tu tuI.! hrd Lr.. thc st.n. ofd pttriors lu ,ltlila nnl n th
aftre tuck \'6 r
. The rc:arwir hd.l'ttrbk
!.J to h thct 6c it arcu d\rd1tr p.i.
ln r61ity, Ibw oflhe $ecific t)!6olslope fa,llE illNblred in F,!: / dcu in ?ttsvltc ds the \ftter table ros. ir the m.k\
isolaln,n Usu,lly dindiliduxl dcnt rvill involvc . onbi.ntio. ollwo or
. Th. siteshorld netet hay blen cha:ch lbtd rcseno": itv's a
Dorc qlcs of novemon for cxample a slnle will ft.qumr.ly hrve a 'flow tnnjot ehgireeiht error
componol paniculdly n tr irs roc rror tlis nasor I is nuppop'iatc in drc trhat wer. rc tiggartrcto$?
study ofslope haads, rvhere lne concem is abo $e impacr olslope flillre . Th(r pau,l te oflhe tqLnal in.trdsinat)ot tu.tpt?set
o pdrplc, to $ick ri8omusly to dic tiglrt .rcchanical dcnrition. ds li b u lungenur l.v.l d .l redctitdthgah ald ttule
l,acrshect wc shall adopt ihc brcadcr dcfinition oldre Icm lanGlide', so all . A pdiod af hea\y rctnJa||
rlt tlTEs ol molem.nt shoLm in Fls / crn hc includcd
Whtt the cots.qa.rc.s?
r,, '!.r.F
1,.a,. ..\ar\rt.
Whrt is th. l.ndslidc hazard?
l', irs brold sense, rhc&nrc, r Lndn c cm bu rh.ughr o1 trs ! suddcn lnd
d.rs lnadcn ti't6 nE k!6rn :hLuU nLr( tuk L,e.n.o^tha.t n
at t :x1r,raswa ndtd a1trt het 1]u n nahnl li\ulter
rurcipcctcd downnill novcncn( ol pan ol a hillsidc lr can bc a vcry rDall 'tr'!
scal€ bdldgely in. onsc qucnrial c\ c ! sucl n clill.otlaps.ardEco6l, or
€n nvohe llre catatrcDh,c novenent or! huse chunk olnrounbinsidc,
The landslnlc hazarl

h d'c past. drc landslidc hazard has bcetr sonrewhat neglect.d dd Fig.3 Frciorr contribdln'g lo slope insrrbiliq:
urdcrestimrtsd in lnatit has bcon li.tcd solclyraith thchiglr maenitudc.
lo$ fr.quoncy events thal luve caus€d nassivc ioss ofltla, such as tho Slzep EratidL llc slc.pd rslopc, lhc great.r will be thc
l96l Va,o.l Dam d6r{d n,Iraly, whc. ovd2000 pcollc fqkhcd lLl.art cfclivcress of the dorvnrvard pull ol sravity, tolknrg c.lltpsc
l]14 J) or lhc l9T0lluascanu rock avaiarchc in lhe teruvian A.dcs, nrore likcly t o.cdr lt is, h.wcvcr, wrore lo asumc drat
*hich rv,ped oullv. vilhgcs rnd killcd 25,000 lcotl.. lrndslidcs arc onlyasociatcd wilh stecD slopes.
ll..t /)'/a Rocls dillij in 6cn.bili(y lo lDld a sloNi grn.it. and
Nlany p.ople, panicul.rly h tlio lrlc hilcd b lray rptropri.tc lnn6bnc. for exanrple, r'ill hold a vcnical slope vidorr collaps,ng
atenrion to drc 'n.dir,
hdilnLs drt ..cur $ a ...scqucncc ol c.rthquxkcs. {
wh@as sands rd chys dc only irblc il llr slopc is a lorv turglc
!olcr.oe\ orhuFicrnc\ NIL'ch ol rho dcrlruclion dld loss ollifcllrl occu6 Rocks lnal arc loos. and uncoDsolidaled arc nruch more prone ro
durina rh.sc dlcnG is oltcn d,rc.lly rlaled to slope failurc ranrcr nrar to collatle R.ckjrhl[snni is nrlpon too, as wc.terrocks or lop of
gtuund sliaknig .r leq
nnr and slonB w ds. All ioo ohen, lhe cfiecls ol sNnaer rccks nay be prcne ro slidins o\er thc $de yins srdla
Ihc landslidcs. h tcrns oflos ollifc a
finnncFl cosls, are lorrecordins ceotusiut ttruLtute |l\c dip al rocLs. or lhc frscncc ol inclbcd
ptrrtoses, $rbsumcd wiihin thc nr.in event itsclfind theefoE receivc lirtle iaults. rviilinnuene lhe likelihood ofshdins. Hcivrly |raclurcd or
acknowlcdscrrcntas a baard in $en orm nsh!. The result is ttol lddsldcs jo cd rocks qill bc n.rc pro.c ro qcathcrn€ proc.s.s such rs
oftcnro l.pely utrccosniscd asse.ous and li€quenr nrrurnlhaaftls. nost snaftcri.e, making them wlnerble to collaps..
n'ntu co"tent an.l pcthcobilit, W3rur conrcnl, or mlrc trcu,s.ly
Su.h tr'istolre'ntalion is dturgLrous in nad studr.s, for il Esulis in a lack of
varcr pore prossurc, is rc.og.is.d as bcnrg o.c oi rlrc noli
lotrs o. dr ul k$6 t or.xmph, nr an nrqukcpmneara,weshouldnot
impodnnt lacros in afiectinj. sloDe vulnembility. walcr scncs k)
o lv build boNs tlft will sld$i{d shakiux brt we slould build ddn ir ald
icducc llrc friclian ber$ec. panicles a.d n lubricares the sloD.
.way tuD lhe danscn olslop3 lailure llslor€ frilure scs uln@snisql {s a
polential hu&l $en lhe ask ol,lnf,{cr is incMsul hgcly rhrough ,gnomcc.
p.omorinscollapse Thcmdjdiryollandsl,d$cdnbclinkcdtiltr'
picscncc ofwatel nr a slope.
H,s thc lrtrdslide hazrrd inc.e,s€d? Retnowl of vesetalio". vegdldlio., prnicularly in tlle fom of
lteE {e sfleEl r6oN why dd lMdslidc lEtd hts i..rety{ n, 4ht yca: irccs, rcduces 1he likelilood olslopc collapsc because 11 intercepls
. L@se t)ot1t oJ th? w'lrt hdE bea opeEl rq li rcmnle expbitdir-, ninrall, uies w.icr to grorv and hclps r.bind soil and rock
Eenaali. d d inJ stttlw l&Aqn.nk ,1Mr thd w otu
t)avcr parriclcs togelhc. if vecetalion n reDoved, for cxample, lnr
. tidaal b he Ende hnv lx.onlt.bthped, p ti'g nnnr ?.L?Luti:L timbeior aor drc dcvclopnrcntofrski slopc, tlrc slopc immcdiately
. tnb iw itrt, ?aniculurt i| LttDCs, hu: l.d t tht t?rutul.J urlun bcconcs more wlDerable to collapse.
ure^ o b hjlL-itL: ?rctiausl!.ottrLrcd too tuhgctols for hdl'naian slop. undscutlir!. ll a slope k 0.dercul, cilho !y DaLual
t g in Litna, P.tu dnd llin de Johent. Brdil atul in llo\K.ry. processes such trs lluviilor mrn.c smsnin,.rby humln a.lions,
. Cauiul au: hdt. b.." ihct osiht, d.r.lap..l lor ittduirr od sucl, is road buildnrg, n becomcs unslnble, incFasnrs rhc
tonri:n, arl.lilfl..r!: ur pd nrlarb' rtlherabl. ta calhps.
. thnu aLt^iLr hr! nrarrcl vrh slnp. !tuft.s ad rr,c.scs Itz,t,u rrro,j ,\s ihc dcv.lopmo.i ol slopes bas increanal rr
Sl.rc: h.r.l.rh rnotltfrd c.! fot turtl l, llr\ ar.l tlrdi a!., trd rcccnr ycrA ior sctlcDrenl. resourcc cxploiklion rn{l injiAtucru,t
th4t tno,lili.dLiahs ahl dh.r.tiohs r) thc notunl slat). srsta hz\e deve)qlncn! noFs hilc bc..ni. n!.r.rsnrgly rbdincd, oncn
t h.,n!.1 \ (: nfld trd l\' r?q,rr.r t)f lor.tstt.l.t
maknre lk.r nrorc $hcrxblc lo collapsc.Ilouringdere lnDcnr ln'
To$, r,trisr. r,orc p.opLc tu.'L.warffk 6onra sr.nid nurnlis ollandslds qinpl., b.i i,r.r.xscd tlr vciglfon nopcs: l irlerlcr.d wnhI r
naluai dr? .Be syscnr.1hc duorti.g ol collieq Nx{. on rmcr
$ lar c!usrs landslidesl sbpcr ir rodrcr \'.y lruna a.tions . pljt nMeascd pres$E on a
lr h po$lblc ro dislirrllrslr ber\een n{o set ol lirclo6, fimtly those sLol]c, 6 a( AbcrlD. In allen.|: slopc I'olilcs and F)rcss.s, dy
contiliurlnE Io th. lillclihood ol a l.ndslide, and sccoodly, those sulo ol balan.o rhat rngl,r hrle cxhled is nnnr.dmrcly
rcspoNiLl. lo, lri8ecrne thc laDdslide ilsell co prcmned lnndslides € nrcreasing beirg linled lo hum n
ac1ivr1y, lbr exampl. lcaking titls, lhc .cnrral ol \cgctriid\ ard
I. Co,ttibutoryJAdts- I J dur rg or o! . \l .oo onar pLL.r- .. e r'. <.'i'
L
Aslopc ir i c.n\kntly clolving l.ndslrpc unir Ir i. a rcsNnsc b a nrruril lakc accounl olrbc Dossitrlc cllccrs ol{lovclopncnton in.rcNt'g tllc
sct ol tucrffs r.d cond tuns, such rs tuck tytc, vcgcrrrion cdvc. ..d
climrrc, rnd non slopcs will rvcnlually Nhicvc a sirt oI b.l.n.c or
cquilibnud H.lv.vcr it n a dyn.nic cquilibriunr 3s it is onl' vlcn
.ondnbns.llr.gc, cilhcr naturnll!, sDch as a for6t firc or cafhquakc, or as
dr.suholhuhma.livit' llat thc stoN bccomcs usablc and rcsFnds by
dilcntrgnsprollcinordcr lorchi$canewshteolbaldrear..Irr .r.
2. Ttigeo Dtethant a
E .h lbdnide cvcntcan bc linkcd lo a l'loces lhal IDs tiiggercn ihc slopc
lirild rqikt scvcnl proccscs car acl .s tieScs, srch as a pciod of
imcn\c atusl shxrcn.g, slotc udcrcunnre by tie sea or vibntions caused by
./,l rgg. T'o{Jr.r.trdsi.n,i ,r\.y
'.'ll'
. t1tr12\ l inmt! ',.,o"ino
in gtuurl*akr'.1pn:in is r.n!id.rc./ L'! sLp.
t 9\\.' b b! th( rn.rt L.nD o" tut!.ltd,rtst ta lht urldi , n
\n1?r.anLdn? rt. bdkinrlai aspir)asa. .!olen,.li t hd^y
rax4a En|]rtDna : rthjtdta b roi.dt ol int.Lt tklin. fu
dn plc q,.lo .r .t ,bn\r. t drc t)aturrldtlf v ne,abl. t. lndtlid4
1\.se ttr'L\lider \t.r1 n trinr rtnbld) d\ a ft! t .l t ttt.:dtu Mix:h
. Seienit a.th'itt. 71k ,ihanid6 tr:tLair !Lr| urtlqnaka! tnl
vtu"i. dhi0frqtl( h hirsu land:lirla: t'r un cuihqrub tt.nt
e|! .li.n b( h..L$..n!r.l lanlthl.s that eill.d^t Et?tt.n kas
. l l ilL u l dtna tc 1. p'? r,..rr't r it is pa ii.rlarlt th..ns. ||Act sirs
u.l.laJ,! L,..o c hqt./i.J A.|\lik ) ir t"st)ors. to shdki,E at \ns
td..ts. th th. 19614laJknr an4rle t985 M6w att, rd rtjudkut
The lrndslide hazard

Ilor can thc landslide hlzard be redu.€d? 2. Sbuctural cryit.erhry t.spo s.s (p@ention)
Reducina rhe sio|c h'2'd.xn hkc Ift lonD olb€[ ioural rcsponscs, Srruclurdl r.sponscs. hlolvnrs sonrc loro ol .nsinccring, a,e lh. mon
Nhich involvo rcdu.ire pcople s{rlncEbilrry lohndslidei ,nn rr-rri co'nDoD and lvldesp.crd ftspiin\cs ro rl,c landslidc hrzat(l Thc us. o1
or cneineerila responses, r'h,ch dcdcsigrcd to r.duc.lbe lik.lihood ola s(ccl pi.r, Rrc cagcs .nd rclinlg arc. a€. t rc umnon rdnriqos
l.ndslidccvcnl occurnls Landslides nr rcmorc and unpopuldtcd arcasdo aimcd ar nabilisins a slop€or rcdu.ing rl[ cfii.ts ol$allsctrle collapsc,
rot E|rercnr a haTrrd is su.h and c.n bc lar!.ly rSmred. su.h rs rocklalk. lnrrcvhs sloDe drinar:e lFt d) is a tunld.onnnor

t. Behdriount rcspons6 (a,oilanc4

Orc of rlre mosl impotunL l,nl ncps in hazxnl nnig.tiod ls lhc Fig. 5 j\t€thods of slope sr.bilisittun.
rnl cton ol r
lannslidc hazad map lhesc nllN rrc connrucrcd
lollowiru cxrcnsnc cnsi.ccin! survcys olcucot slopc chaftctcisiics,
bgcrlrcr $ill cvidcncc ol pasl landshle lcrility. Tne linished nlls
nrdicalc rhose areas rl slerresr risr li'onr hndslidcs and. iluscd !Lotcrly
in rbs rlan.t,g lroccs, snould scNc to rednce the llndslde hazard by
kccpins people a{ay lron rhc n!^l lulncriblc sl.p.s

Landshdc baza'd Dal,t,na is rscll dcvclopcd nr nany I[rts ofdrc w.rld -

how.vcr $oh sur!.ys are expeDsive and requrc consideriblc tcnnicrl
expedisc Thcy !ls) rcquft plbnds Io rcspond apt&prialcly to lhcir
lindnres, whi.h ls nol alval,s rbc c"sevhc. prcs:u.c lnrdcvclopmcn( is
hiah Urbdn sprdwl omo mareinal lrillsides incities such $ Cnracas fc6c
,!r,/f l) occu6 bec.us rhc sho rcmr dcDrnds lar housing dnd lmd
{urvcrsh rhc p.$ible problcnrs associarcd wilb a landslide, which, of
coursc,nrshtneverluppen.Nevenhcl€ss.rlnsvcrybasiclevcl,plaMcn
do hrve r duty to oltcr advi.c to pco|lc and 10 hclp thc'n rccogDisc Ihc
rosr bl.tantly dang.rous slopcs, {hich should be rvoidrd rorhabihd.n

S.i.rnn. noflnorn,e can be ettcclilc m prcdicdr8 lrd5lidcs lnshacnrs

can be used to moni!' gJund dchnnrt.n, gmundrvilci picsurr ard rc
.xprnsni ol.rack.rd fisurcs. llowelc't Lhe hndsllc cvcnrs lbcDsehcs
irt onen so $ dco rs !r givc Do *minA Thcrclnrc, n$ iGi.g can orlt
rus!.$thc lik.lihood olcolhrs.- il cxnnot p'o e a rclirblc ri'ncsalc

Cts. StutU 2: IIMr Et*t stop. st'bitisutit Notther" IriC- 6 lntrrovn,s slopc dnn,rge.
',

Dt 4: n torlrr<tu.r rl ntt h!r\ Pt ,ift nn r^rur,:)hulldr

ltrntlltr .tt ,&! o o[ th. ,(\U .u1 n.t6. i1 on'L)irrtiat oJ
:tnd(t.l nt&!n?s \4s slh\.qrotLr. Vloftl t. lahiht! thr ll.pc

I tt. 1 lloa. Ldcr,Irp. ldbni\ i r. tlLaat l'rtlr J.

^,

Tne a"st../ ttupnf L ru: l.*.ttd b ftnt.c thc ltk.lihDod af In conno. wilh allfonns ofhazad manrgcmcnl, a c.sl l,cdcil analysis
lutttr sti^ tak s pkr. nceds to be conducrcd bcrrc.nginccring works rF underllkcn
A tu.k L,unrcst iat tonrruttulb k !u: u \rrlldt th( hu:tor h. UIl,mr{cl}, only {hoso slopcs losnrS thc grcalest risk t) pcoplc an!
Irieh.sr lDancial losscs rvill bc pdccled *irh thc ho$ cxlcnsiyc an.l
sothntlrtd nructtrcs lidhennorc,.s wilh flood.lclcnccs, no schctr,c
'!ltu;t ntc wll rnt t\ld i) !!&t h) 1t .:drL u .tn thut ". r roc.in.r\lron 1",i
,
'lun r(.'1. 0.r1.'. "' ''tuJ_
oJ
b. lqo ofiablr'tuhbn i l,!lor,1h. st1\,1n 'l n|h,'l
" r,'mi,,lnriLt,,rL i h, ,.'\ rn rl
r'.tc dtlat:hrd Th",

ar,. -n,,r", O.*. *, ** Drevenhon can be both Lvo'Ll,rvhile .nil

Ttu'e h^ h?en n. t!.r.n1sih..lt.s. rta.Latus \tc,".htlot d eflccr,ve Ior r l.w h.gnirudc. buttolcntirlly ticqlcnr tnJc ofev.nr.
The lardslidc h.rzard

( as. Stud! J: l/u..u.la lr.btis flo$,1999 What N.re the.ontributory &us.s?

. k thc Jjttt tu rael-\ nt D(anb.r t999, L ht.h v.nra1.Lj
t\pcrittud lt. lrcdrir! tri8 to hdw olrtnd n1 104 :r!ax. nrL l.l
O)I5 I6" D".anhr lrt9 l tl:tu1.sr d,1udll.rt ncrattdl.tl p.ts.[ 1a s.ib bL@antasntotukt anlt rdula, intpatultdtnt juttrr'r
,oin,rh vdd"dn (Fi1: 7) ,p b aa,a00 pr.pl. ].a thdr lir.J dn.l
nn? |ho 400.0A0 *ot Lu.l. h.nkl.s dt 90,040 h.ni.r \FR . hr turh1d..td.s. tary.e tructs oJtan.l ha./ bto .ta,rt .4t, !! ri
l.trtuj,al. rdllt.d.t".t.t httied ht v*rnt na,t:4 nul Ttu r.^t )itkt \tu) fur uhda.l.talorDLt t, in patt)rutu:l)u t) to\t"s. 11.
ltrt dr.a' \'.t. !h? \ttutr b\n! u th. .d!. .f aim.as ot.l Lh. .hwtt al b..s to trl.r../ tallall ird n.ld to[cttv a)it
sllcrnal! h l1t :nal itlr .f l/aryns k, th.. r.tlt .l the .:drilat undorbted, tonhb"led to thr s.ah.J thc A'urlar:
I'ltuttatio r, bntlt n rl hjf,h\u!! trctr J^lnld unl dp.r]J,rt"
.|.tu|.|nknni d.r! Bilio !.lnaltatt wdh oJ ldrndEc wt\ uu\&l . 1-h! oald sttip.fr.tth tle .?u.la is u.u,tartaur o.l lkr u.L
tt, in t( ddr\ tn ulidldf l lldring th.lloarls uhd ldnlsfulrs,Jo.d tnrf st.:.p tl.pc!. The lfib Mounnlin RanE4 tht r.nh4n nrrt
:h.Icrahd n.dtal h.lp |et? r' lhon ntnU pttt rl th.,1n.1.s tkcs t..\,.t 2,500hr6t rno,.l ofth..oda

Fig. T Locatio ttCarucas, Wnezu.lu . aatuut t L.u lcl. nLa! s l.! l'! ttt st..? ,illslopcs tu d
"'ap a uuryi al Jorhabitunn O'ullttyu]:
th.t i: devril,ed ds bei
\ht t L\tr |x1t b.. d(t.lopd on nr6. !.cp !1.p.!, $tnti
*dh lr ..t ro pla rE u d a srbsequdl !a.:k./hutite\ sr|h
ds .ltaitnXe Presidthl Chnr.z Llo,t.l .ortut)t pt r\\n
Sor.rr .rts lor oU.viry iI.1:41 shd,ty bw"t b dlvtlop r nrl i
L.ntideret! b he bo nnhg.ttllt ht habitalioh il CNN rcp,t
pnblish.d on 19\ De.e thct I99t staled 4rat nlil!tun.t .tJ p.rr
p.arle hut! huilt h.hte! (JIihLtr pft.ati.u!ry ?efth.d shd.ks) o
th. t outot sd. becnus. the) cartdnl .4lotd b tire ary. rra
.ls., atullotdecad.t, sor.rhnt.nt alJn:ialt d.1tr11te b i.p thL t

tntu $as the tiegerfact.'t!

Ih.r, ninfull rhtuu,lh.rr Decrthbet 1999, ponictldrb'thc e,brrtt
tajnJa ercr$ th acruttu.lo" t5n.l 16 Dr. antho dvins *hi.h rr
b 9qt)tnn f(ll 1h.!. !.nhs lcd 1.ltusl1 ll.odr't ard , iql!.tttl ,rl

,lhat Nu. the.ons.quu.d?

th i ,l$ast.t hdt illtrttdki l)c b pld tthu t/!rrlofn)t"^ rt,!
rotluth n tht jntutr .li,t $ltili "ttlnr.k krc ntut nttrrul
lklu.
.ottnbrtiuE to\tdt.lt th../i\ua.'i ?.tof1! tl nrU ltu\r hr. ulhrt(l
"01
lo.tcutrr suth pt?"tialL h"F,aus htlLlo!^

Case Studj 4: chctry Hilt! La"lslid., Anlipolo Cil), [is. I Thc Chetr IIiUs landnide.

(rt.l",,luAt:r l919
a liM:ln,1: lunlsli.l.o..rrtul ih the ah.tt! lIils
ol Ahtip.la Ci4, (Fk 8), tust ! qbt to thc eatt aJ Mdnila Manr
li:ti.t
A.6es wre de:h.yed ona ent! 53 peapL l.! theirlit.s.

What eerc the .oatibutoryfactors?

. me Chezt- Hilts drvloptol .rnpti::tl l.\r..st hDutihg knns
u,tln1d.d ut sL..p st.!.s (up 1a 25 .t.Erc.s) a th. c&.s oJ the .:lry
. 1 he tucks.ot4,1s..1 h.nritlrcchu?l Ftt;ntnarr tnrl': (:i|tra1!s
' '<-^ .
vtutu.ns a1d Lla):), f irh tdtlhq des@s af pen .dbih\ x d
shc(strc sth. Therc hdd beo u tcnu\ t.nllilet nt hepn!
. r' r\t r.r" tL t , Lu D,1 \,or,1t,I\,dJ p- :"1
of tulb. ?diuhn), dfier hedv), rah mesc sis'ts ofsbp. i5tahililr
ntauv ha\ e atetud ttu urluiti4 to kc inp.ntlk,r dung.r af d
^q./
lund.'lidt th.rt t6 .rilcr.. .fpreri.6 landslid5 ir thc d"d ar.t th.
lad | 6 lerb, ur,llthl. Jnr ]tmun hdritutu,1
What was I'e t,:t$
lnttut!
Jl'JrUard2 Aq,:t as..totcd vtt Ttori.al
ttrutt- rutnlnll h.ht..k Uthat erc tl'e co$d!terc6?
Ct.l.t. hrtt:, \dinh nbt,-il;cd t]1a,on l nnn:.on :knr. Th1! tti!^1.1 rtls th. tduh D{pa tldrrrE M& |t.l tltr chn)'
\o) nuth
565 n afruin tu^ tur.hl.d th nan'lhta. d,rt 'ujnkl htlls tlcvelat)h)c,lrha,ld (rcr h@r htu q')hlt&l tr nk nbkrr!.,)
.1. :!. t,.,-1f..,.i.8.uu lLt r,,i.4 t 1.
Thc landslnlc hazard

C6e Stutl! 5: Los Coti,ns n'udnida, El Sut'u.lor,2001 Whd ,'erc thz Mnszqut"tt!!
1tu ?rt!'nr 1. d.\ch4, c\ nkar l h :nt( is .aned.nnn. rnn
d(rit. th. dnan.: it :ro: liktlr thnl hrt.h ol 14. tdnd ettt hc
Oh lJ'J.ruory 2001 a'.artA,1udk. h!1 tl)a (-o t11l ,1.toi.un !at(.1 It\,?lL?el .n.. aquin, olthouAh p$rhlr thr n./.I. ctls!
F! Snlv.dn': .tt'in! (i.l(4rrt.l .Lrtstrlior ar.i .iEt.tul: t.\.rtl A.,sirq thnt w ttlelt btpr. th. ntulsl"l.
"ot "i1h
l&1dshl.r /11 Lor Cahui the.npiLlt su Salrrtlot (t i! 9) |
".at
c rudllN :utrul tl.\!n a ,tlkid. h .Er4 tt. ,1tt. . t Mar.\ t-ig , Lo.ation ,1dtr of EI Snlrnlor.
"us! ^
hur. .dt aJr.p!'.1o\1 tht. !rr?\ d t1 se,.n] th.talrtl \t.r. n't tl
,/hat .r. ntz uncibttot!lacto6?
. nE t?t.1et1intt^lnLt hcs ut ]tu /i'.! .,ld r.t| !.rr hillslr,r,. t,.tt
.f \hnh snrt,L" ..ltrt.'i o b lhr h."\nt[ htt.r\ ,h r th?
,oL\i)E hat d h.r t. !t1r.t.rl ." t( hnlslat. itstf. it las
Lltuh tuht(tnLlr la lot)r fonurc
. Frt \tvrdl ftd)\ ori)unkntul lt tp! unl lorrl tultt.rb hll
L'(" ptrAtunt: uttn)! thc dtttrlttau.r d att dtrrL)pn)ut o1
At ridti.tJ t!1t ( t,drtlou tal Bul:otu .' tkUrlih? ntu.\.tl.okr
Lu: CDllhdt. ) l.rlrtit vrt c|d l.dEll .A uln tit t,t:1tu...
..nt)a t!t, rhrth bt.ryh! . nrlu!4 h.l,q .lc\rlop"1.ht. |!o\t r.t:
thdl \!tt.r.rr.it..l at 1999 a ddevlip'on",u!lba4)uru!
t t!: nntl L linbttul).s?.,f11.hi:l.pe
. H.arf rcn^-.1ufi1A11t. wnkt hd.! t ttle 1tu eil\ hlow unl s.hnne.l
tYhnt wus lte triqst fu.hr?
th.r'iSS.rlot th. hu.Lrtt,l.:!a: d t a:sir!7 6a,tl)quul! tlnlorLu,trl
n the Pd.lir dzu b th. eutL.fsah Sohad..

Exant Hint: Case studies 3,4 and 5arci.t.alt.t suppo4ing your 'l herc nrchr roo mJny ki lii t'ctuj.ny s.ar.h wiLlre\.allilc'n ly hundrrdr
ow, exaa a.swers as 16eyarc recent, cteadv set our and lutt ol
pte.is. fa.tua| derail. Read thtough .l sircs Lllobxl rnd locrl ncu\ xgcDcics ($w,6rr. .. h rl\Lils a rtn.ri
th. causcs \9.rc physjcat, good rlrnins roi'n) \vill lrni!id. r.u pil| addilion uionnrlron on (hr
tuccr1..sc n!di$ lcalured jI this !ni.l. !n1l oD orcs 1l,r( pon-dilc i(.

l'o. cxccllcnl lrionnriion or rh. ltn./uclrn lx lnil.s. rinr colon.lo SLrl.

tlnivc^ir) s Franr lir.$d LaLonr.ry x\ | | na tu .rlor,r' d14l,!h\.r!.k1|
'lhc iinnrlilchazai lrir nrhc l)rib..n tun.\!hrt und.rcs(nmtd, olic.
t.'anrllr.ponard re TJSCS'S wir.r Rc!)urcr tirr dr. c rbbern s1! ar
bcin! $,bsu.rod *1trLi,, tlrc co.1r\l !l odr.r ritual c!.n1s, su.h d l ttr :ttnnta xqlr.ptt ulli /\ttr-rl.1d ld nnlnLi.cnr nr{s rd tho(,sof ls
carthquilcs and vol.inic crlrplions lakcn ir isohrroD, ho*c1.r,
Lndshdes are .rc ol tt,c m.{ scrious or rl1 natual h.zards, posnrc
ri:n,liclnr rlkats u !..!1. and frp.rly lvorldn c
A what n tu landslidc nazad?

Lrn,lnnfus tukc n'xry Lnns rrd, wlrikl msny occur iir remole !re!s
Ll W|al L.1o6 are resfonsibl! lni lrnilslidcsl
C. Eunnr, with rcfcrcncc lo cxrnrples you l,alr nudicd, rhc rolc ol
por.slinldl ea! to pcorlc, rn,.cusns runbcr nrw o.curnr lofulalcd pcoplcandlunanrctirilyinnrrcNnrgtl[landsl chrztrd.a/r,tr 1,
rrrs \Vhilnlr.ddidcs arcp.,i.clly naluml Espooses roslo|re $hbility,
in in rcasnrg numhcr olthonr hrr r dNtn.(ilc h!dr. clc.rnl ir lhcir
crui., rturi.nlarl] $hcLcunnritiblc land hrs becn ovcrnovclol)cd
A This is a rrirly sbriglrtfor*tud qucslon rcquinnr dein{n,n. xnd rlcrr
ll rhc lrndslidc |rhrd
h rol to in.rcisc nnhel' srenier reserch needs 1o
lntu bclwccn lhc n.luftl er€nt u]d $c mrl
sci ro roDlc RcDrcnrb!,
Lharx h':nl'onlycxisl whc Fcopleor hunran &tl!i1yrrcrlnst
bc undcnlk.n lo slody sbpc rfuccssc\ ldJ ro ptuducc hazald na$.
tlrn.c6 thcn nccd to rcstord accordrnely. enher b] rcsiridins B Hcrc y. nccd ro be clea' about thc dillirc cc benvcen ibr
conrriburory ficlors.nd rl,c kiggcr hclols llnrtralclhc ftrcrors ulth
dcvclopmcrl on dangeurs slopes, or by e.sunng rhrr adlors arc Ixkcn
.€laicncc to cxaDpl.s.
C. Thn is a Drorc chrlleneing qucslnt! q4rich rcqunes you 10 evalurt.
d,c rolc ol l.oplcorlum actions in either sendfutins ddid.s oi
-lhe.6t
l
Rcfcrcnccs and furthcr rcserrch
turnnrs rncnr Iionr Dalural evcnrs inlo rn Dade disxstcr
Mon,4S rndA2 lcvcltcrdr.ks lirlc.nrtle,sncvolcdbslopcpocesses,and
srudics in th. rn,clc givc you rnd't/ to rci.r lo, bur mrkc surc to!
drto dc \.v.r.lbools dcihrg {ilh Nrunl Hxzrds dlrhrvc nh.le(harre$ tucus on lhc qucstio..
deroled to linGlnLs Ir iall,Nins rclLrcnccs tu! NnrN lcis vcllktu]vn.

wahlraD, A c-. /i,f,/d!r, ! .t trrz,rnri a;f,/,,rry (Blac[c Acadcnnc .\. ..-!o

h-,.- -}.;
-)" ",1h^''
M.Crll, G J.H (I:J ) a;r,rr,/A (chn0n)a and llalL, l!92) ,,1,r"4' rt tu"r,i,t n4u o auiln r\"r. )4
'
td,.l1i./c I.*
(lipnr Lanl]ll,de S.riely) bArd d Ky.r) Ulivcrsir!.
Ui,, Kyot',6l I 001l, Japan (w.6stt. h4, t,'t rt\rt.tlj)ri tu\.ou.at jt't i:
rn ourstarlrgtubl'rxrn)n Fxckrd li l rl rccc l Lrtrdslid. c.s. studics
@\ dhrttht tt r4 trt 'lar.tthtu tturtat r{4'\i, ijlh, rdr'hr t\stt