SBCET/ME/SEM-VI/DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS-II

1. FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN

1.1 Variable load
The load which is applied on a component is not constant but change with time is known as
variable load which vary with time in some pattern.
Most mechanical systems and devices consists moving or rotating components. When they
are subjected to external loadings, the induced stresses are not constant even if the magnitude of
the applied load remains invariant.
There are different types of fatigue/variable loading. The worst case of fatigue loading is the
case known as fully-reversible load. One cycle of this type of loading occurs when a tensile
stress of some value is applied to an unloaded part and then released, then a compressive stress
of the same value is applied and released.
Consider a rotating beam of circular cross-section and carrying a load W, as shown in fig.
1.1. This load induces stresses in the beam which are cyclic in nature. A little consideration will
show that the upper fibres of the beam (i.e. at point A) are under compressive stress and the
lower fibres (i.e. at point B) are under tensile stress. After half a revolution, the point B occupies
the position of point A and the point A occupies the position of point B.

Fig. 1.1: Reversed or cyclic stresses.

Thus the point B is now under compressive stress and the point A under tensile stress.
The speed of variation of these stresses depends upon the speed of the beam. From above we see
that for each revolution of the beam, the stresses are reversed from compressive to tensile. The
stresses which vary from one value of compressive to the same value of tensile or vice versa, are
known as completely reversed or cyclic stress
1.2 loading pattern
There are various types of stress due to variable loading represented by the diagram. The stress,
as represented by dotted line, is known as endurance or fatigue limit (e ).
1. The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the same nature,
(i.e. tensile or compressive) are called fluctuating stresses which is shown in fig. 1.2.
2. The stresses which vary from zero to a certain maximum value are called a repeated
stress which is shown in fig. 1.3.
3. The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the opposite
nature (i.e. from a certain minimum compressive to a certain maximum tensile or from a
minimum tensile to a maximum compressive) are called alternating stresses which is
shown in fig. 1.4.

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Stres
s

Time
Fig. 1.2: Fluctuating stress

Stres
s

=0

Time

Fig. 1.3: Repeated stress

= 0 Time

Fig. 1.4: Completely reversed stress

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1.3 Endurance stress
The maximum stress which can be applied to a material for an infinite number of stress cycles
without resulting in failure of the material is known as endurance stress.
When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield point
stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue.
The highest value of the stress amplitudes in a symmetrical cycle of mechanical load
variation, or the maximum stress of an asymmetrical cycle, to which a material can be subjected
for an unlimited number of cycles without failure. The value of the amplitude or the maximum
stress in a cycle that, when repeated for a specific number of cycles, causes fatigue failure or
produces macroscopic cracks is called the fatigue strength.
A graph plotting stress amplitude, S versus number of cycles to failure, N for a fatigue
test. A variety of laboratory tests exists to produce such data, including rotating bend, cantilever
bend, torsion, etc. Some materials, notably low carbon steels exhibit a fatigue limit, below which
stress, failure never occurs. More commonly, no such limit exists and an endurance limit must be
defined as the stress required causing failure after 108 cycles.

Fig. 1.5: Endurance and fatigue limit

1.4 Influence of size on endurance stress
A little consideration will show that if the size of the standard specimen is increased, then the
endurance limit of the material will decrease. This is due to the fact that a longer specimen will
have more defects than a smaller one.
Let Ksz = Size factor
Then the endurance limit,
(1.1)
e e K sz
1.5 Influence of surface finish on endurance stress
When a machine member is subjected to variable loads, the endurance limit of the material for
that member depends upon the surface conditions. Fig. 1.6 shows the values of surface finish
factor for the various surface conditions and ultimate tensile strength.

Fig. 1.6: Surface finish property

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When the surface finish factor is known, then the endurance limit for the material of the
machine member may be obtained by multiplying the endurance limit and the surface finish
factor. We see that for a mirror polished material, the surface finish factor is unity. In other
words, the endurance limit for mirror polished material is maximum and it goes on reducing due
to surface condition.
Let Ksur = Surface finish factor
Then the endurance limit,

e e K sur

(1.2)

1.6 Influence of notch sensitivity and stress concentration on endurance stress

When a machine member is subjected to variable loads, the endurance limit of the material for
that member depends upon the design or load factor so the endurance limit has been changed by
e .
So the endurance limit for reversed loading is,

e e K d
(1.3)
Where, K d = modified design factor
We know that the modified design factor is reverse of fatigue stress concentration factor
So,
1
Kd
(1.4)
Kf
Where,
K f 1 q( Kt 1)

(1.5)

Where,
q = notch sensitivity.
1.7 Combined Influence of size, Surface Finish, notch sensitivity and stress concentration
on Endurance Limit
When a machine member is subjected to variable loads, the endurance limit of the material for
that member depends upon the many conditions like as the type of loading, finishing of surface
and size of specimen, so the endurance limit has been changed by .
So the endurance limit for reversed loading is,

e e K d K sf K sz

(1.6)

Where, K d = load factor or design factor

K sf , K sz are the Surface Finish Factor and Size Factor.
1.8 Stress concentration
Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-section, the simple stress
distribution no longer holds good and the neighborhood of the discontinuity is different. This
irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is called stress
concentration. It occurs for all kinds of stresses in the presence of fillets, notches, holes,
keyways, splines, surface roughness or scratches etc. In order to understand fully the idea of
stress concentration, consider a member with different cross-section under a tensile load as
shown in Fig. A little consideration will show that the nominal stress in the right and left hand
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sides will be uniform but in the region where the cross section is changing, a re-distribution of
the force within the member must take place. The material near the edges is stressed
considerably higher than the average value. The maximum stress occurs at some point on the
fillet and is directed parallel to the boundary at that point.

Fig. 1.7: Stress concentration

1.9 Theoretical or form stress concentration factor
The theoretical or form stress concentration factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum stress
in a member (at a notch or a fillet) to the nominal stress at the same section based upon net area.
So theoretical stress concentration factor ( K t ),
Maximum stress
Kt
Nominal stress
1.10 Fatigue stress concentration factor
When a machine member is subjected to cyclic or fatigue loading, the value of fatigue stress
concentration factor shall be applied instead of theoretical stress concentration factor. So the
Fatigue stress concentration factor ( K f ),
Kf

Endurance limit without stress concentration

Endurance limit with stress concentration

1.11 Notch sensitivity

In cyclic loading, the effect of the notch or the fillet is usually less than predicted by the use of
the theoretical factors as discussed before. The difference depends upon the stress gradient in the
region of the stress concentration and on the hardness of the material. The term notch sensitivity
is applied to this behavior. It may be defined as the degree to which the theoretical effect of
stress concentration is actually reached. The stress gradient depends mainly on the radius of the
notch, hole or fillet and on the grain size of the material. Since the extensive data for estimating
the notch sensitivity factor (q) is not available, therefore the curves, as shown in Fig., may be
used for determining the values of q for two steals.
The notch sensitivity of a material is a measure of how sensitive a material is to notches or
geometric discontinuities. When the notch sensitivity factor q is used in cyclic loading, then
fatigue stress concentration factor may be obtained from the following relations:
K f 1
q
(1.7)
Kt 1
K f 1 q( Kt 1) ...For tensile or bending stress
(1.8)
K fs 1 q( K ts 1)

For shear stress

(1.9)
1.12 Relation between endurance limit and ultimate tensile strength
It has been found experimentally that endurance limit (e) of a material subjected to fatigue
loading is a function of ultimate tensile strength ( u).
(1.10)
e 0.5 u
For steel,
Cast steel,
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e 0.4 u

(1.11)

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Cast iron,

e 0.35 u

(1.12)

(1.13)
And for non-ferrous metals and alloys, e 0.3 u
1.13 Factor of safety for fatigue loading
When a component is subjected to fatigue loading, the endurance limit is the criterion for failure.
Therefore, the factor of safety should be based on endurance limit. Mathematically,
Endurance limit stress

Factor of safety (F.S.)

= e
(1.14)
Design or working stress d

For steel,

e = 0.8 or 0.9 u

(1.15)

EXAMPLE
1.1 A component machined from a plate made of steel 40C8 (Ultimate strength= 630 N/mm2) is
shown in fig. it is subjected to a completely reversed axial force of 50kN. The expected
reliability is 90% and factor of safety is 2. The size factor is 0.85. Determine the plate thickness
of plate foe finite life, if the notch sensitivity factor is 0.8.

Solution:Given
P 50kN, u 630 N / mm2 , ( fs ) 2.0, R 90%, q 0.8, Ksz 0.85
Step-I Endurance limit stress for plate
e' (0.5) u 0.5 630 315N / mm2
Now from the Data Hand Book For machined surface
Ksf=0.76,
And for 90% reliability
Kr=0.897
For design factor from data hand book for

The

D 100
2

d 50
r 5
0.1

d 50
Kt= 2.27
K f 1 q( Kt 1)
=1+0.8(2.27-1) =2.016
1
1
Kd

0.496
Kf
2.016

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e e K d K sf K sz K r
= 315 (0.496) (0.76) (0.85) (0.896)
= 90.54 N/mm2
Step II Permissible stress amplitude
For steel,
( e ) a (0.8) e (0.8) 90.54 72.43N / mm2
Now,
( )
72.43
a e a
36.22 N / mm 2
fs
2
Step-III Plate thickness
Since,
P
P
a
A (50)t
P
t
27.61mm
50( a )
2. COMBINED STEADY AND VARIABLE STRESS
The failure points from fatigue tests made with different steels and combinations of mean and
variable stresses are plotted in Fig., as functions of variable stress (v) and mean stress (m).
The relationship between variable stress (v) and mean stress (m) for axial and bending
loading for ductile materials are shown in Fig. The point e represents the fatigue strength
corresponding to the case of complete reversal ( m = 0) and the point u represents the static
ultimate strength corresponding to v = 0. A parabolic curve drawn between the endurance limit
(e) and ultimate tensile strength (u) was proposed by Gerber. Generally, the test data for ductile
material fall closer to Gerber parabola as but because of scatter in the test points, a straight line
relationship (i.e. Goodman line and Soderberg line) is usually preferred in designing machine
parts.

Fig. 2.1: Gerber line, Goodman line and Soderberg line for fatigue
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2.1 Gerber method for combination of stresses
According to Gerber, variable stress
2

1
m F .S v
F .S u
e

(2.1)

F.S. = Factor of safety,

m = Mean stress (tensile or compressive),
u = Ultimate stress (tensile or compressive), and
e = Endurance limit for reversal loading
Considering the fatigue stress concentration factor (Kf), the equation may be written as,
2
Kf
m
1
F .S v

(2.2)
F .S u
e
Considering the fatigue stress concentration factor (Kf), K sf , K sz Surface Finish Factor and Size
Factor the equation may be written as,
2
v K f
m
1
F .S

(2.3)
F .S u
e K sr K sz
2.2 Goodman method for combination of stresses
A straight line AB connecting the endurance limit ( e) and the ultimate strength (u), known as
Goodman's failure stress line. This line is used when the design is based on ultimate strength and
may be used for ductile or brittle materials. If a suitable factor of safety (F.S.) is applied to
endurance limit and ultimate strength, a safe stress line CD may be drawn parallel to the line AB.
Let us consider a design point P on the line CD. Now from similar triangles COD and PQD,

Fig. 2.2: Goodman line

From diagram,

PQ QD OD OQ
OQ

1
CO OD
OD
OD

v
m
1
e / F .S
u / F .S
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v

1
m

m
1
e
F .S u / F .S
F .S u

1
m v
F .S u e

(2.4)

Considering the load factor, surface finish factor and size factor, the equation may be written as,
v K f

1
m
(2.5)
F .S u e K sr K sz
Considering the theoretical stress concentration factor (Kt), then the equation may be written as,
v K f
Kt
1
m

(2.6)
F .S
u
e K sr K sz
2.3 Soderberg method for combination of stresses
A straight line connecting the endurance limit (e) and the yield strength (y), as shown by the
line AB in Fig., is known as Soderberg's failure stress line. This line is used when the design is
based on yield strength. If a suitable factor of safety (F.S.) is applied to the endurance limit and
yield strength, a safe stress line CD may be drawn parallel to the line AB. Let us consider a
design point P on the line CD. Now from similar triangles COD and PQD,

Fig. 2.3: Soderberg line

From Diagram,
OQ
PQ
QD OD OQ
1

OD
CO
OD
OD

e / F .S

y / F .S

m
1

F .S y / F .S

1

e
m
F .S y

m v
F .S y e
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(2.7)

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For machine parts subjected to fatigue loading, the fatigue stress concentration factor (Kf)
should be applied to only variable stress (v). And considering the load factor, surface finish
factor and size factor, the equation may be written as,
v K f

1
(2.8)
m
F .S y e K sr K sz
EXAMPLE
1.2 A cantilever beam made of cold drawn carbon steel of circular cross-section as shown in Fig.
is subjected to a load which varies from F to 3 F. Determine the maximum load that this
member can withstand for an indefinite life using a factor of safety as 2. Assume the following
values: = 550 MPa, = 470 MPa, = 275 MPa, Ksz = 0.85; Ksur = 0.89 Fatigue stress
concentration factor, Kf =1.378.
150
20

-F

13
125

3F

Solution:Given
= 550 MPa, = 470 MPa, = 275 MPa, Ksz = 0.85; Ksur = 0.89
Fatigue stress concentration factor, Kf =1.378
We know that the maximum bending moment at point A,
M max Wmax 125 3F 125 375FN mm
And that the minimum bending moment at point A,
M min Wmin 125 F 125 125FN mm
Mean or Average bending moment,
M M min 375 (125F )
M m max

125FN mm
2
2
M M min 375 (125F )
M a max

250 FN mm
2
2
Section modulus,

Z
d3
(13) 3 215.7mm3
32
32
Mean and variable bending stresses,
M
125F
m m
0.58FN / mm 2
Z
215.7
M
250 F
v m
1.16 FN / mm 2
Z
215.7
Now the fatigue stress concentration factor,
K f 1 q( K t 1) 1.378
We know that according to Goodmans formula,
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v K f

1
m
F .S u e K sr K sz
1 0.58F
1.16 F 1.378

2
550
275 0.89 0.85
0.00873F
F 57.3N
And we know that according to Soderbergs formula,
v K f

1
m
F .S y e K sr K sz
1 0.58F
1.16 F 1.378

2
470
275 0.89 0.85
0.00891F
F 56 N
2.4 Design of machine members subjected to combined, steady and alternating stresses
When a machine part is subjected to both variable normal stress and a variable shear stress; then
it is designed by using the following two theories of combined stresses :
1. Maximum shear stress theory, and 2. Maximum normal stress theory.
According to Soderberg's formula,
v K f

1
m
(2.9)
F .S y e K sr K sz
Multiplying throughout by y, we get

y
F .S

y v K f
e K sr K sz

(2.10)

The term on the right hand side of the above expression is known as equivalent normal stress
due to reversed bending.
Equivalent normal stress due to reversed bending,
y v K f
(2.11)
neb m
eb K sr K sz
Similarly, equivalent normal stress due to reversed axial loading,
y v K f
nea m
ea K sr K sz

(2.12)

For reversed torsional or shear loading,

v K f

1
m
F .S y e K sr K sz

(2.13)

Multiplying throughout by y , we get

y
F .S

y v K f
e K sr K sz

(2.14)

The term on the right hand side of the above expression is known as equivalent shear stress.
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Equivalent shear stress due to reversed torsional or shear loading,
y v K f
es m
e K sr K sz

(2.15)

The maximum shear stress theory is used in designing machine parts of ductile materials.
According to this theory, maximum equivalent shear stress,
1
(2.16)
es (max)
( ne ) 2 4( es ) 2
2
The maximum normal stress theory is used in designing machine parts of brittle materials.
According to this theory, maximum equivalent normal stress,
1
1
ne(max) ne
( ne ) 2 4( es ) 2
(2.17)
2
2
2.5 Design for finite life
When the component is to be designed for finite life the S-N curve can be used
This curve is valid for steels.

Fig. 2.4: S-N curve

It consists of straight line AB drawn from (0.9 u ) at 103 cycles to ( e ) at 106 cycles on a longlong paper.
Design procedure: Locate the point A with coordinates [3,log10 (0.9 ut )]
Since
(2.18)
log10 ( 103 ) = 3
Locate the point B with coordinates [6,log10 ( e )]
Since
(2.19)
log10 ( 106 ) = 6
Join AB, which is used as a criterion of failure for finite life problems
Depending upon the life N of the component, draw a vertical line passing through log 10
(N)
This line intersects AB at point F.
Draw a line FE parallel to the abscissa.
The ordinate at the point E, i.e. log10 ( f ), gives the failure strength corresponding to N
cycles.
2.6 Design of Shafts under Variable Stresses
The maximum shear stress theory is used in designing machine parts of ductile materials.
According to this theory, maximum equivalent shear stress,
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1
( ne ) 2 4( es ) 2
(2.20)
2
The maximum normal stress theory is used in designing machine parts of brittle materials.
According to this theory, maximum equivalent normal stress,
(2.21)
1
1
ne(max) ne
( ne ) 2 4( es ) 2
2
2
EXAMPLE
1.3 A hot rolled steel shaft is subjected to a torsional moment that varies from 330 N-m
clockwise to 110 N-m counterclockwise and an applied bending moment at a critical section
varies from 440 N-m to 220 N-m. The shaft is of uniform cross-section and no keyway is
present at the critical section. Determine the required shaft diameter. The material has an
ultimate strength of 550 MN/m2 and yield strength of 410 MN/m2. Take the endurance limit as
half the ultimate strength, factor of safety of 2, size factor of 0.85 and a surface finish factor of
0.62.
Solution:Given
Tmax = 330 N-m (clockwise); Tmin = 110 N-m (counterclockwise) = 110 N-m
(clockwise); Mmax = 440 N-m; Mmin = 220 N-m ; u = 550 MN/m2 = 550 106 N/m2 ; y =

es (max)

410 MN/m2 = 410 106 N/m2 ; u = 0.5 u = 275 106 N/m2 ; F.S. = 2 ; Ksz = 0.85 ; Ksur =
0.62
Let d= required shaft diameter
We know that mean and Variable Torque,
T T
330 (110)
Tm max min
110 N m
2
2
T T
330 (110)
Ta max min
220 N m
2
2
Now the mean and variable shear stress
16Tm 16 110 560
m

3 N / m2
3
3
d
d
d
16Tv 16 220 1120
v 3
3 N / m2
3
d
d
d
Since the endurance limit in shear is e is (0.55) e and strength in shear y is (0.55) y
Therefore
e (0.55) e 0.55 275 10 6 151.25 10 6 N / m 2

y (0.5) y 0.5 410 10 6 205 10 6 N / m 2

We know that equivalent shear stress,
y v K f
es m
e K sr K sz
560
1120 205 10 6 1

d 3 d 3 151.25 10 6 0.62 0.85

3440
3 N / m2
d
Mean and Variable Bending moment,

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M max M min 440 (220)

110 N m
2
2
M M min 440 (220)
M a max

330 N m
2
2

Z
d 3 0.0982d 3 m 3
32
Now mean and variable stress
M
110
1120
m m
3 N / m2
3
Z
0.0982d
d
M
330
3360
m m
3 N / m2
3
Z
0.0982d
d
Since there is no reversed axial loading, therefore the equivalent normal stress due to reversed
bending load,
y v K f
neb m
eb K sr K sz
Mm

1120
3360 410 10 6 1

d3
d 3 275 10 6 0.62 0.85
10626

N / m2
d3
Now we know that the maximum equivalent shear stress,
1
es (max)
( ne ) 2 4( es ) 2
2

205 10 6 1 10625 3440

2
2 d3 d3
d 39.5mm
2

2.7 Bolted joint under fluctuating load

When the external force acting on the bolted joint fluctuates between two limits, in case
We know that
(2.22)
Pb Pi P
And
k 'b
(2.23)

P P
k 'b k ' c
So
(2.24)
k 'b

Pb Pi P
k 'b k 'c
Pb Pi CP

(2.25)

k 'b

C
k 'b k 'c

(2.26)

Where

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In many case, the external applied force acting on the bolt fluctuates from zero to maximum
value (P). So
(2.27)
Pb max Pi CP
Pb min Pi
(2.28)
The maximum and minimum tensile stresses in bolt is given by,
Pb max Pi CP
(2.29)
A
A
Pb min Pi Where, A is the tensile stress area of the bolt.
A
So the mean and alternative tensile stresses are,
1
1 P CP Pi
m max min i

(2.30)
2
2 A A A
P CP
m i
(2.31)
A
A
And
1
1 P CP Pi
(2.32)
a max min i

2
2 A A A
CP
(2.33)
a
2A
So
P
m i a
(2.34)
A
Now from this procedure the size of bolt can be obtained.
EXAMPLE
1.4 The assembly of two circular plates with 3d and d as outer and inner diameters are clamped
together by means of bolt, is subjected to a variable loads P varying from 0 to 10kN. The bolt is
made of plain carbon steel 45C8 ( =630N/mm2, =380N/mm2, E=207kN/mm2). The two
circular plates are made of aluminium (E =71kN/mm2). The fatigue stress concentration factor is
2.2 and the expected reliability is 90%. The initial pre-load in the bolt is 5kN. Determine the size
of bolt, if the factor of safety is 2.
Solution:Pi 5kN, P 0to10kN, ( fs ) 2
For bolt
=630N/mm2, =380N/mm2, E=207kN/mm2
For plate
E =71kN/mm2
Step-I Endurance limit stress for bolt
e' (0.5) u 0.5 630 315N / mm2
Now from the Data Hand Book For machined surface
Ksf=1.0,
And for 90% reliability
Kr=0.897
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For design factor from data hand book for
The

1
1

0.4545
Kf
2.2
e e K d K sf K r
= 315 (0.4545) (1.0) (0.897)
=128.42N/mm2
Kd

Step-II Stiffnesss of bolt and plates

E
207000
k b' d 2 d 2
(3251.55d 2 ) N / mm
4
l
4
50

E
k c' (2d ) 2 (d ) 2 (3345.52d 2 ) N / mm
4
4
l
Step-II mean and variable loads on bolt

The maximum and minimum force in the bolt are given by

P max Pi CP

k 'b

C
k 'b k 'c

So,

Pi (0.4929) P 5000 (0.4929)(10000) 9929 N

Pi CP 5000 (0.4929)(0) 5000 N

max

And

3251.55d 2
0.4929
3251.55d 2 3345.52d 2

min

Mean and Variable loads

P P
9929 5000
Pm max min
7464.5 N
2
2
P P
9929 5000
Pa max min
2464.5 N
2
2
Step-III Size of bolt
According to Sordrbereg formula for variable loading

v
1
m
F .S y e K sr K sz K r

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Pv / A
1 Pm / A

2
y
e K sr K sz K r
1 7464.5 / A
2464.5 / A

2
380
315 (0.897) (0.4545)(1.0)
1 19.64 19.18

2
A
A
A 76.63mm 2

UNIT- I/ FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN