CHAPTER 1

MEASUREMENT AND ERRORS

Principles of Measurement
Measurement is the process of comparing an unknown quantity
with an accepted standard quantity.
It involves connecting a measuring instrument into the system
under consideration and observing the resulting response on the
instrument.
The term measurement can also be used to refer to a specific result
obtained from the measurement process.
Measurand (Unknown
quantity to be measured)

Standard (known
quantity)

Process of comparison
(measurement)
Result
(Read out)
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Measurand
The physical quantity or the characteristic condition which is the
object of measurement in an instrumentation system.
Also called i. Measurement variable
ii. Instrumentation variable

iii. Process variable

The measurand may be:
- Fundamental quantity, e.g. length, mass, and time;

- Derived quantity, e.g. speed, velocity, acceleration.

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Before measurement process we have to ensure:

Methods/procedures of measurement
Characteristics of the parameter
Quality: time and cost, instrument capabilities, knowledge of
measurement, acceptable result
What instrument to use
During the measurements we have to ensure:
Quality- best instrument chosen, suitable position when taking the
data, etc..
Safety- electric shock, overloaded, instrument limits, read
instruction manual
Sampling observe parameter changing, taking enough sample
After measurement
Analyse the data mathematically/statistically
Full result must be reported completely and accurately
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What is an instrument?
1. Device that communicates, denotes, detects, indicates, measures,
observes, records, or signals a quantity or phenomenon, or controls
or manipulates another device.
2. A tool or device used for a particular purpose; especially : a tool or
device designed to do careful and exact work.

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Instrumentation
The technology of using instruments to measure and control the
physical and chemical properties of materials is called
instrumentation.
When the instruments are used for the measurement and control
of industrial manufacturing, conversion or treatment process, the
term process instrumentation is used.
When the measurement and control instruments are combined so
that measurements provide impulse for remote automatic action,
the result is called a Control system.

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The basic requirements for getting meaningful result of

measurement are:
1. The standard employed for comparison purpose may be accurately
defined and should be commonly acceptable.
2. The standard must be of the same character as the measurand and
usually but not always, is prescribed and defined by a legal or
recognised organisation, e.g. the International Organisation of
Standards (ISO).
3. The apparatus used and method adopted for the comparison
purposes must be provable.

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Why do we need measurements?

The significance of measurement is discussed below:

1. Measurement plays a very significant role in every branch of

scientific research and engineering processes which include the
following:
- Control systems;

- Process instrumentation
- Data reduction.
2. The whole area of automation or automatic control is based on
measurements. The very concept of control is based on the
comparison of the actual condition and the desired performance.
The exactness of error depends on the precision and accuracy of
measurement made.
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Why do we need measurements?

3. The measurements confirm the validity of a hypothesis and also
add to its understanding. This eventually leads to new discoveries
that require new and sophisticated measuring techniques.
4. Through measurements a product can be designed or a process be
operated with maximum efficiency, minimum cost, and with desired
degree of reliability and maintainability.

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SI Systems
International system of units (S.I) are divided into three classes:

S.I Unit

Base units

Derived units

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Supplementary
units

10

S.I Base Units

Base Quantity
Length
Mass
Time
Electric Current
Thermodynamic Temperature
Amount of substance
Luminous Intensity

Base Unit

Name
Meter
Kilogram
Second
Ampere
Kelvin

Symbol
m
Kg
s
A
K

Mole

mol

Candela

cd

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Derived Unit
Derived Quantities are formed by combining two or more of the
fundamental quantities.
Examples:
Area = length x width
Volume = length x width x height
Speed = distance/time
Density = mass/volume
Most of the units in the International System are derived units, that
is units defined in terms of base units and supplementary units.
Derived units can be divided into two groups - those that have a
special name and symbol, and those that do not.
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Without Names and Symbols

Measure of

Derivation

acceleration

m/s2

angular acceleration

rad/s2

angular velocity

rad/s

density

kg/m3

electric field strength

V/m

magnetic field strength

A/m

velocity

m/s

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With Names and Symbols

Unit

Measure of

Symbol

Derivation

coulomb

electric charge

As

farad

electric capacitance

As/V

henry

inductance

Vs/A

hertz

frequency

Hz

cycles/s

joule

quantity of energy

Nm

ohm

electric resistance

V/A

tesla

magnetic flux density

Wb/m2

volt

voltage

W/A

watt

power

J/s

weber

magnetic flux

Wb

Vs

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Supplementary Units
Third class of S.I units
Supplementary units may be regarded either as base units or as
derived units
Quantity
Plane angle
Solid angle

S.I Units
Name
radian
steradian

Symbol
rad
sr

Example of S.I derived units formed by using supplementary units

- Angular velocity ( rad / s )
- Angular acceleration ( rad / s 2 )
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Instruments Performance Characteristic

Performance Characteristics - characteristics that show the
performance of an instrument.
Allows users to select the most suitable instrument for a specific
measuring jobs.
Two basic characteristics :
1. Static
2. Dynamic

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Static Characteristic
I.

Accuracy the degree of exactness (closeness) of measurement

compared to the expected (desired) value.

II.

Resolution the smallest change in a measurement variable to which an

instrument will respond.

III.

Precision a measure of consistency or repeatability of measurement,

i.e successive reading do not differ.

IV. Sensitivity ratio of change in the output (response) of instrument to a

change of input or measured variable.
V.

Error the deviation of the true value from the desired value
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Errors in Measurement
Various types of errors in measurement:
i. Absolute error
ii. Gross Errors
iii. Systematic Error
iv. Random Error
v. Limiting Error
Static error of a measuring instrument The numerical difference
between the true value of a quantity and its value as obtained by
measurement (i.e. repeated measurement of the same quantity
gives different indications).
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i) Absolute error
Error - The difference between the expected value of the variable
and the measured value of the variable:
e = Yn Xn
where:
e = absolute error
Yn = expected value
Xn = measured value

Percentage Error:
% error =

Yn X n
100
Yn

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 Relative accuracy (A):

Yn X n
A 1
Yn
% Accuracy:
a = 100% - % error
= A 100
Precision:

Xn Xn
P 1
Xn
Where

X n value of the nth measurement

X n average set of measurement

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Example 1.1
Given expected voltage value across a resistor is 80V. The
measurement is 79V. Calculate,
1. The absolute error
2. The % of error
3. The relative accuracy
4. The % of accuracy

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Solution 1.1

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Example 1.2
From the value in table below, calculate the precision of 6th
measurement?
No

Xn

98

101

102

97

101

100

103

98

106

10

99

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Solution 1.2

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ii) Gross Error

Due to human mistakes in reading or in using instruments or error
in recording observations.
Example: incorrect reading, incorrect recording, improper use of
instruments, etc.
To minimize:
Take at least 3 separate reading.
Take proper care in reading & recording.

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iii) Systematic Error

Due to shortcoming of the instruments or environmental effects or
observational errors.
example
defective or worn parts
ageing
parallax error
wrong estimation reading scale

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Types of Systematic Errors

a) Instrumental errors :
Due to friction in the bearings of the meter movement, incorrect spring
tension, improper calibration, or faulty instruments.
Can be reduced by proper maintenance, use, and handling of instruments.
b) Environmental errors :
Due to external condition of the measuring device.
Example: effects of change in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure,
electrostatic fields etc.
Can be avoided by: air conditioning, hermetically sealing certain
components in the instrument and using magnetic shields.
c) Observational errors :
Errors that introduced by the observer.
The two most common observational errors are probably the parallax
error introduced in reading a meter scale and the error of estimation
when obtaining a reading from a meter scale.
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Example 1.3 (a)

A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1 k/V is connected across an
unknown resistance in series with a milliammeter reading 80 V on 150
V scale. When the milliammeter reads 10 mA, calculate the
i. apparent resistance of the unknown resistance,
ii. actual resistance of the unknown resistance, and
iii. error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter.

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Solution 1.3(a)

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Example 1.3 (b)

Referring to example 1.3 (a), if the milliammeter reads 600 mA and the
voltmeter reads 30 V on a 150 V scale, calculate the following:
i. Apparent, resistance of the unknown resistance,
ii. Actual resistance of the unknown resistance,
iii. Error due to loading effect of the voltmeter.
Comment on the loading effect due to the voltmeter for both
Examples 1.3 (a) and (b). (Voltmeter sensitivity given 1000 /V.)

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Solution 1.3(b)

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iv) Random Errors

Errors that remain after gross and systematic errors have been
substantially reduced.
Are generally the accumulation of a large number of small effects.
May be of real concern only in measurements requiring a high
degree of accuracy.
Such errors can only be analyzed statistically.
These errors are due to unknown causes, not determinable in the
ordinary process of making measurements.

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iv) Limiting Errors

Most manufacturers of instruments state that an instrument is
accurate within a certain percentage of a full-scale reading.
Eg: a voltmeter is accurate within 2% at full-scale deflection
(limiting errors).
However, with reading less than full-scale, the limiting error will
increase.
therefore, it is important to obtain measurements as close as
possible to full scale

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Example 1.4
A 300-V voltmeter is specified to be accurate within 2% at full scale.
Calculate the limiting error when the instrument is used to measure a
120-V source?

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Solution 1.4

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Example 1.5
A voltmeter reading 70 V on its 100 V range and an ammeter reading
80 mA on its 150 mA range are used to determine the power
dissipated in a resistor. Both these instruments are guaranteed to be
accurate within 1.5% at full scale deflection. Determine the limiting
error of the power.

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Solution 1.5

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Dynamic Characteristic
Dynamic measuring a varying process condition.
Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to changes in the
measured variables due to such things as mass, thermal
capacitance, fluid capacitance or electrical capacitance.
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are:
I. Speed of response
II. Dynamic error
The difference between the true and measured value with no static
error.

III. Lag response delay

IV. Fidelity the degree to which an instrument indicates the
changes in the measured variable without dynamic error
(faithful reproduction).
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Statistical Analysis of Measurement Data

Important because it allows an analytical determination of the
uncertainty of the final result.
A large number of measurements is usually required.
Can be divided into 4:
i

Arithmetic mean / Average

ii

Deviation

iii

Average deviation

iv

Standard deviation

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i) Arithmetic mean/average:
The most probable value of measured variable.

The best approximation when the number of readings the same

quantity is very large.
n
x1 x 2 x 3 x n
xi
x

n
i 1 n

n = total number of reading

xn = nth reading taken
xi = set of number

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ii) Deviation:
The difference between each piece of data and arithmetic mean

d n xn x
d1 x1 x
d 2 x2 x
Algebraic sum of deviation,

d total d1 d 2 d n 0
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iii) Average deviation (D):

Indication of the precision of a measuring instrument used in
measuremnt
high D low precision
low D high precision

d1 d 2 d n
D
n

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iv) Standard Deviation

Also known as root mean square deviation.
The most important factor in statistical analysis.
Reduction means improvement in measurement.

d12 d 2 2 d32 .... d n 2

n 1

dn2
n 1

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Example 1.4
For the following data

Compute:

No.

49.7

50.1

50.2

49.6

49.7

(a) The arithmetic mean.

(b) The deviation of each value.

(c) The algebraic sum of the deviation.

(d) The average deviation.
(e) The standard deviation.
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Solution 1.4

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END

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