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An Introductory Approach
Editors
CALCULUS
An Introductory Approach
by
IVAN NIVEN
Professor of Mathematics
The University of Oregon
LONDON
NEW YORK
COPYRIGHT@ 1961, BY
D.
PREFACE
My purpose is to present the ideas that lie at the heart of calculus, along
with the necessary background material from analytic geometry. I restrict attention to a small collection of central concepts, and hence many
of the topics offered in the larger books on calculus are omitted. I have
aimed at a balance between theory and applications.
This book grew out of lectures given at Stanford University in the
summers of 1957 and 1958 in a special program for high school teachers
sponsored by the General Electric Company. It is hoped that the book
The section headings in the table of contents suffice to describe the topics
considered. Special features of the book are as follows: an immediate
discussion of actual problems in calculus, with a minimum of prelimi-
~'i~----------------------~P~R,EFACE
system. I have tried to avoid the first of these difficulties by a restriction, mentioned already, on the scope of the material. As to the second
difficulty, I take two fundamental propositions about real numbers as
axiomatic. It is assumed that a bounded sequence of increasing real
numbers has a limit. The mean value theorem is also assumed without
a strict proof, although a heuristic argument is given to show the plausibility of this result. These results cannot be established without a rather
thorough analysis of the real number system, which is precluded by the
self-imposed limitation on the length of this book.
The more difficult problems are starred. Answers to about one third of
the problems are given at the end of the book.
I was fortunate in having the manuscript read by two friendly critics
of quite different backgrounds, one a university student, the other an
experienced mathematician. First, I am indebted to my son Scott Niven
who, in addition to making helpful suggestions about details, drew my
attention to certain obscure passages. Second, I am grateful to Professor
Herbert S. Zuckcrman for pointing out possible arrangements of the
material; among other things, the final chapter was expanded considerably
along lines he suggested.
I. N.
Eugene, Oregon
Jan'Uary 1961
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER
PREFACE
1.
Slope
An Example
The Slope of a Special Curve
The Notation for a Sum
Some Special Sums
An Example from Integral Calculus
A Refinement
1
1
4
5
7
9
12
15
Inequalities
Absolute Values
Sequences and Limits
Theorems on Limits
2.5 Functions
2.6 Radian Measure
2.7 The Limit of a Function
2.8 The Definition of the Limit of a Function
2.9 Continuous Functions
17
18
21
24
29
33
35
36
39
46
WHAT IS CALCULUS?
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
2.
Lll\IIITS
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
3.
INTEGRATION
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
4.
DIFFERENTIATION
48
48
52
56
58
60
62
65
67
68
70
73
TABLE OF CONTENTS
viii
CH:\PTF..R
PAGE
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
Trigonometric Functions
The Chain Rule
Inverse Functions
The lvlcan Value Theorem
Maxima and Minima
The Problem of Minimum Surface Area of a Cylinder
of Fixed V olumc
4.10 The Refraction of Light
5.
6.1
6.2
6.3
7.
FURTHER APPLICATIONS
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
I, I
79
82
84
90
92
96
97
100
100
101
103
106
108
112
112
114
119
121
121
125
128
131
136
138
141
143
143
144
146
150
152
154
157
161
166
INDEX
171
CHAPTER 1
WHAT IS CALCULUS?
* Any reader with a ~nowledge of the concept of slope should bypass this section.
I
CHAP. l
the angle " being obtuse and acute, respectively. If any two points
with coordinates (x1, YI) and (x,, y,) are selected on the line, then the
definition of the tangent function in trigonometry gives the wellknown formula for the slope m,
(1)
Any line parallel to the x-axis has " = 0 and y2 = y1, and the slope
of such a line is zero. Any line parallel to the y-axis has " = 90,
and so such a line has no slope because tan 90 does not exist. Another
way of seeing that a vertical line has no slope is to observe that in
such a case x2 = x1 0, and so equation (1) involves division by zero.
y-axis
y-axis
x-axis
x-axis
FIG, 1.1
FIG. 1.2
The slope of a curve at any point Pis defined as the slope of the tangent line to the curve at P. The tangent line at P can be described as
the limiting position of the chord PQ as the point Q is moved along the
curve towards the point P. In case the curve is a circle for example, a
well-known theorem from elementary geometry states that the tangent
line at any point is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of
tangency. For curves other than the circle there is no corresponding
theorem, but we shall be able with the use of calculus to determine the
tangent lines of many types of curves. From these considerations we
can observe that whereas a straight line has one slope, a curve has a
slope at each point, and the slope is generally different from point to
point.
WHAT IS
SEC. 1
CALCULUS~
FIG. 1.3
FIG. 1.4
Problems
l. Prove that the formula (l ) can be written
Yl - Y2
?n = - - - .
Xl-X2
12.
at an
!3.
at an
14.
CHAP. I
Prove that the line through (7, 0) and (!0, 3) is inclined to the x-axis
angle of 30. (Recall that tan 30 ~ Ifv3.)
Prove that the line through (!, 5) and (8, 12) is inclined to the x-axis
angle of 45. (Recall than tan 45 ~ !.)
Find the slope of the line joining (a, b) and (c, d), presuming that a
is not equal to c.
!5. Find the slope of the line joining (a, b) and (a+c, b+d), presuming
that c is not equal to zero.
rrr"h and
2m2+ 2nrh.
nr2h,
h
S
18jr2,
2nr2+2nrh,
18
2rr(r 2 + r ).
r
WHAT IS CALCULUS ?
SEC. 3
S-axis
30
r-axis
Problem
In the above analysis, we derived a formula for S as a function of r.
Obtain a formula for S as a function of h.
CHAP. 1
(x+ 3)(x- 3)
x-3
/
'-Gap at
the point (3, 6)
i.'
FIG. 1.7
I'
!
Graph ofj(x)
x+3.
FIG. 1.8
Graph ofj(x)
(x2-9)/(x-3).
with a point missing, a gap at (3, 6). It is clear intuitively that the
limit of (x 2-9)/(x-3) as x approaches 3 is the same as the limit of
x+ 3 as x approaches 3. We shall spell out a precise definition of limit
later. In the meantime we write the standard notation for limits
x 2 -9
lim
- = lim
(x+3) = 6,
x-)3 x _ 3
zry3
where ''Iim'' stands for ''limit'', and ''x --+3'' is short for ''as x approaches
3". We notice that while (x2-9)j(x-3) has no value at x = 3, never-
WHAT IS CALCULUS 1
SEd.4
3.1
3.01
3.001
3.0001
3+ l0-10
6.1
6.01
6.001
6.0001
6+ l0-10
This table of values suggests the germ of the idea of limit, namely that
x2-9
lim-- = 6
X--+3
X-
Problems
Find the slope of the curve y = 2x' at the point (3, 18).
Find the slope of the curve y = x2 at the point (2, 4).
Find the slope of the curve y = x 2 at the point (l, l).
Find the slope of the curve y = x2 at the point ( -3, 9).
5. Solve the preceding problem by using the information that the slope
of the curve y = x' is 6 at the point (3, 9), and the fact that the graph of
l.
2.
3.
4.
This is written
lOO
"i,j,
j=l
k~l
100
lOO
or
Li
i=l
or
"i,h.
h=l
CHAP. l
100
or
100
or
k~?
2 i.
i=7
2P
j=7
In general, if m and n are any two integers with m < nand ifj(x) is a
function which is defined (i.e., has meaning) for all the integers from
m ton, then
n
2 j(j)
j=m
j3 = 103+113+123+133+143+153;
j=lO
90
2 j(i+l) =
j-3
70
k'-20
70
k=20
2P
.,
= l2+22+3'+ ... +(n-l)2+n2.
j=l
Problems
\Vhich of the following are correct, and which incorrect? Give reasons for
each conclusion.
70
l.
k=20
70
(k2+l) =51+
k=ZO
k2.
SEc: 5
WHAT IS CALCULUS 1
100
2.
2:P =
99
2_)2.
lOO+
j=1
j=1
100
3.
100
2: J'2 .
2_j'= I+
j~1
j~2
99
100
4.
2_j' = 10001+
2: J'2 .
j=l
j-2
5.
n-1
2_j' = n2+
L Jz .
j-1
i=1
100
6.
100
= 2+ 2j.
2: (2+j)
j=1
i'""l
100
7.
2: 2 =
200.
j~1
8.
2:
n.
j=1
9.
2 3j' = 3 2 j'.
j-1
.1-1
10.
2j= 2i
j=l
j=O
11.
2 (j+l) = 2
12.
(j + 1).
j~1
i'-0
I n
j=1
c j=l
2' - - 2'J,
13.
2 .i'
j=1
10
10
2 j . 2 j'.
j=l
j~l
1.5 Some Special Sums. It is well known that the sum of the
positive integers from I to n is equal to n(n +I )/2, thus
(2)
ij=n(n+l).
j-1
10
CHAP. 1
2 . 1+ 1
32-22 = 2. 2+ 1
42-32 = 2 3 +I
n2-(n-1)2 = 2(n-1)+1
(n+1)2-n2 = 2n+l.
We add these equations, noting the extensive cancellation on the left,
to get
n
,L
(n+1)"-12 = _L2j+
1 =
j=l
j=!
,L
2j+n.
j=!
We note that
n
(n+1)"-12 = n2+2n,
,L
and
2j
j=l
2 _Lj,
j=l
n2+2n
= 2
_Lj+n,
l"l
j~l
(3)
,LP=
j~l
3x2+3x+ I.
WHAT IS CALCULUS?
SEC. 5
11
(n+lJ3-13 ~ 3 2:P+3
j=l
2:j+
j=l
2: 1.
j=l
(n+I)3
n3+3n"+3n+I,
I~ n,
j=l
and hence
n3+3n'+3n
3n(n+I)
- - - - +n+3
2
3n(n+ I)
'J'"
~ n"+3n"+3n~
2
2:P
3n2 n
-n ~ n3++2
2'
Problems
I. Find the value of l+2+3+4+ ... +I000.
2. Find the value of l"+2'+3 2 +4'+ ... +I002.
3. Find the value of 50'+ 5J2+ 522+ ... +lOO'.
5. Prove that
n-1 .
2-J
j~-1
6. Prove that
2_ j2
j=l
n(n-1)
~J.
j=l
12
CHAP. 1
9. Prove that
n
2:
n-1
U-1)2=
j=!
2:P-
j=l
2:
(~i+3j2).
J~l
' s.
"'"J
J=l
c: .o). Go).
1
I3
WHAT IS CALCULUS 1
SEC. 6
the points Cr and D2 are on the curve y = x2, their coordinates are
I (.i- I )2 ) .
c,..(j--,
,
2
D2:
(LJ
n n
2
2
y-axis
x-axis
FIG. 1.10
Because the base segment B 1B2 has length !Jn, we have the area formulas
I (j-I)2
(j- I )2
area BrB2 C2 Cr
2
n"
and
I
j2
area BrB2D2D1 = - -
n n2
j2
= -
n3
The sum of the areas of the lower rectangles is less than the area A
under the parabola, whereas the sum of the upper rectangles is greater
than A. In symbols, we have*
n
(4)
2
J~l
(j -I)2
n3
<A<
j2
2-.
J=l n3
14
The
n"
CHAP. l
1.5 we get
n
j2
1 n
.L
(j- I)'
j=l
_L
1 n-1
J=l
=n 3 k=l
n3 3
I ( n
_L k'
(j-1)'
-+-+-,
3 2n 6n'
=3
_L lc'-n'
k=l
~- _2 + - -.2
3
2n
6n'
2n
6n
---+-<A<-+-+-,
(5)
6n'
2n
and we shall see that A is thus trapped between values which get
arbitrarily close to l/3 as n increases indefinitely.
The expression on the left of (5) can be written in the form
~-__1_+_1__ ~-_1_(3n-l)
3
6n2
2n
2n
3n
and since l/2n and (3n-l)j3n are positive, this shows that
I
- - - + - < -.
32n6n'
But though the expression on the left of (5) is less than 1/3, we see
that we can make it as close to 1/3 as we please, because as n gets
very large, lj2n and lj6n 2 get very small. We can state this in another
way by saying that as n tends to infinity, lj2n and lj6n 2 tend to zero,
in symbols thus
l
lim- = 0,
n-KD
2n
Iim- = 0,
n-)co
6n2
lim
n-oo
(~+__J_+-)
3 2n 6n2
~.3
SEC. 7
WHAT IS CALCULUS 1
15
Problems
!. Find the area bounded by the parabola y = x' from (0, 0) to (1, 1),
the y-axis from (0, 0) to (0, 1), and the straight line from (0, 1) to (1, 1).
Suggestion: use the answer A = 1/3 from !.6.
2. Find the area bounded by the parabola y = x' and the straight line
joining the points (1, I) and (-1, 1).
3. Find the area enclosed between the parabola y = x2 and the straight
line y = x.
4. Find the area bounded by the parabola y = I +x2 from (0, 1) to (I, 2),
and by the three straight-line segments from (I, 2) to (I, 0), from (I, 0) to
(0, 0), and from (0, 0) to (0, 1).
*5. Find the area bounded by the parabola y = x' from (0, 0) to (2, 4),
the straight line from (0, 0) to (2, 0), and the straight line from (2, 0) to (2, 4).
*6. Find the area bounded by the parabola y = 3x' from (0, 0) to (1, 3),
the straight line from (0, 0) to (I, 0), and the straight line from (I, 0) to (I, 3).
Unit area
Rectangle
Triangle
Polygon
with 5 sides
Fw.l.ll
triangle, and from there to any figure that can be triangulated, namely
any polygon. We do not propose to go through the steps of this development, but we draw attention to the essential difficulty that arises at
16
CHAP. I
CHAPTER 2
LIMITS
Then to each point on the line there belongs a number which apart from
sign denotes the distance of that point from the origin. The collection
of all snch numbers constitutes the system of real numbers, and when
we refer to a "number" in this book, the referent is one of these real
numbers.
Continuing our intuitive description of real numbers, we observe
that all numbers belonging to points on the right side (the same side
as the point I) are positive, and all on the left side are negative. By a
non-negative number is meant one which is positive or zero. We shall
take as axiomatic-without proof that is-the following properties
of real numbers: both the sum and the product of two positive numbers
are positive numbers; the sum of two negative numbers is negative,
but their product is positive; the product of a positive number and a
negative number is negative; for any real number a, a+ 0 = a and
17
18
CHAP. 2
a 0 = 0; the sum and product of two non-negative numbers are nonnegative; the sum of a positive number and a non-negative number is
positive.
If two numbers a and b are equal we write a = b, and if they are not
equal we write a of b. If two or more mathematical statements imply
one another, we say that they are equivalent. For example, the four
equations x = y, y = x, x- y = 0 and y- x = 0 are equivalent. If
a of 0 then a-1 or Ija is called the inverse or the reciprocal of a.
0,
y-x ~ 0.
That the sum and product of two positive numbers are positive can
be written mathematically as follows:
If a > 0 and b > 0, then a+ b > 0 and ab > 0.
~
~
0;
LIMITS
SEC. 1
19
applies to the second conclusion. To see that ac > be, we note that
a-b and c are both positive, and so is their product ac- be. Thus all
parts of the theorem are established.
THEOREM 3. Inequalities can be added. If a > b and c > d, then
a+c > b+d.
PROOF. Since a-b and c- d are positive, so is their sum (a-b)
a> b and
- <a
b
are equivalent.
PROOF. Applying the last part of Theorem 2 with (ab)-1 playing the
role of c, we get
- >
b
a
20
CHAP. 2
we can replace these by the principles that the sum and the product
of two non-negative numbers are non-negative. This is all that we need
to observe, because a ~ b is equivalent to a-b ~ 0, and it means that
a-b is non-negative.
One of the principal uses that we will have for inequalities is to
designate sets of values. If we want to indicate that x is positive we
can write x > 0. If we want to say that y is non-negative, we can
write y ;oo 0, or what is the same thing, 0 ;;; y. Again, if we want to
say that x lies strictly between 3 and 7, we can write 3 < x < 7. If x
lies between 3 and 7 with the end values included, we write 3 ;;; x ;;; 7.
Another useful device for indicating sets of numbers is the notion of
absolute value, which we discuss in the next section.
Problems
I. Give a numerical example to show that the second sentence of Theorem
2 does not hold if the restriction " c is positive" is removed.
2. Give an example to show that "if a > b and c > d then ac > bd"
does not hold under all circumstances. (Compare this with Theorem 4).
3. Give an example to show that Theorem 6 does not hold if the restriction
"a and b are positive" is removed.
4. Prove that if a ~ b and b > c then a > c.
5. Prove that if a-;oo b and c > d then a+ c > b +d. If furthermore b
and d are positive, prove that ac > bd.
6. Prove that ljn2 < ljn holds for every positive integer n, with one
exception.
7. If the temperature rp in the last 24 hours ranged from 50 to 80 degrees,
show that this can be written mathematically in the form 50 ~ T ~ 80.
Show that an alternative way of writing this is -15 ~ T- 65 ~ 15.
8. Given that '1' satisfies the inequalities -20 ~ '1'- 62 ; ;: ; 20, what are
the smallest and largest possible values of T?
*9. Let a and b be two different numbers. (This is written mathematically
a# b.) Prove that a'+b' > 2ab. Suggestion: a-b is not zero, so (a-b)'
is positive.
*10. Let c and d be positive numbers. Their arithmetic mean is (c+d)j2,
and their geom({tric mean is V cd. Prove that if c =- d, then their arithmetic
mean exceeds their geometric mean. Suggestion: VC and Vd are unequal,
so ('Vc- V d)' is positive.
11. Which of the following propositions are true for all real numbers
a, b, c, d, and which are false? Give reasons for your answers.
(i) If a# band c # d then a+c # b+d.
(ii) If a# b then c+a # c+b.
(iii) If a # b, a # 0, b # 0, then !fa # ljb.
(iv) If a # b and c # d, then ac # bd.
(v) If a # b then a 2 # b'.
(vi) If a # b and c # 0, then ac # be.
21
LIMITS
SEC. 2
12. Which of the following propositions are true, and which false?
(Remark: A mathematical proposition is true only if it is universally true,
not just in some cases or some circumstances.)
(a) The sum of two positive numbers is non.negative.
(b) The sum of two non-negative numbers is positive.
(c) The sum of a positive number and a non-negative number is positive.
(d) The product of a positive number and a non-negative number is
positive.
(e) The product of two positive numbers is non-negative.
(f) The product of two non-negative numbers is positive.
131 = 3,
l-141 = 14,
IOI = 0,
161 = 6.
There is another way of defining lxl that amounts to the same thing,
namely lxl = V x2. This is the same as the earlier definition because
of the convention in mathematics that the
symbol always denotes
a non-negative value in the real number system. For example we see
that
S,
so
1- SI =
v(- s)2.
1-xl-
lxl = x,
IYI = y,
so
22
CHAP. 2
lxyl =
-xy,
lxl = x, IYI =
-y,
so
-3
<X<
and
lxl
<
3.
I
I
-4
I
I
-3
.....
set of values of x
I
I
I
I
-2 - l
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
3
I
I
3-JQ-5
<X<
3+ JQ-5.
-lQ-5
J0-5.
Now this can be written lx-31 < J0-5. Since lx-31 and
are the same, this can also be written 13- xl < J0-5.
13-xl
LIMITS
SEC. 2
23
I
I
II I
II I
I
I
I
I
-4
-3 -2
-l
(a)
3< x < 7
(f)
lx-31
lx-31
(c)
lxl < 6
lxl < <
lx-31 <7
(g)
lx-71 < 3
(d)
lx-31 <
(h)
lx-3! : 7
(a)
(b)
<
"'
24
~--
CHAP. 2
-9 <
(b)
-9;;; x;;; 9
(e)
(c)
14 < x < 30
(f)
< 9
(d) 12 <
< 20
or
or
0, l, 0, 1, 0, I, 0, 1, ... .
lim- = 0.
n
n-)oo
lim- = 0,
X-iCO X
LIMITS
SEC. 3
25
The sequence (3) has limit a provided that for any given
positive number, < no matter how small, the inequality
DEFINITION.
)an-a\<,
(4)
Le.,
-e
<an-a<
holds for all but a finite number of terms of the sequence (3).
When this is the case we write
lim an = a,
or an -+ a
as
n -> oo;
n~oo
26
CHAP. 2
if E is very small, say E = 10-20, then an must be within 10-20 of a, except for a finite number of values of n. Furthermore, in order that a
sequence may have a limit, the inequalities (4) must hold for
< = lQ-50, = 10-1oo, in fact for any given positive <, not for all
values I, 2, 3, ... of n, but for all but a finite number.
Let us apply the definition to the simple sequence 1/1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, ... ,
and let us test whether our claim that this has limit 0 meets the requirement (4). To be specific, let us take< = 1/100. Then (4) becomes
~ - ol
In
< _I_
wo'
i.e.,
- - <- < - .
100
n
!00
I I I
I 2 3
100
-,-,-, ... , - .
Let us take another value for <, say
i.e.,
= 10-20.
,I
- - - <- < - - .
1020
n
1020
(5)
< - <
n
Now the inequality- < (1/n) certainly holds since nand< are positive.
Furthermore, (1/n) < holds for all values 0f n satisfying n > _-1,
because these two inequalities are equivalent by Theorem 6 of 2.1.
Thus we have established that the sequence {1/n} has limit zero.
Not every sequence has a limit. For example, consider the sequence
-I, I,.-!, 1, -I, I, ... whose nth term is ( -J)n. It is intuitively clear
that this sequence has no limit, but we can establish this conclusion
analytically in terms of the definition. For suppose there were a
limit, say a. Then let the given number be taken as }. By (4) the
inequalities
(6)
SEC. 3
LIMITS
27
would have to hold for all but a finite number of values of n. Now
either a ;:"; 0 or a < 0, and we treat these two possibilities separately.
In case a ;:-; 0, then for n = 1, 3, 5, 7, ... the absolute value in (6)
becomes I( -1)- al. But this is a measure of how near -1 is to a, so
we see that I( -1) -a I ;:"; 1, and hence (6) fails to hold for all odd values
ofn.
hold for all but a finite number of terms of the sequence. But - < < an
< e implies - e < bn < e because bn is non-negative, and because
bn ;;;; an. Hence the theorem is proved.
CoROLLARY 10. As n -+ w, (1/n) -> 0, (1/n') -> 0 and in general
(ljnk) -> 0 for any positive integer le.
PROOF. We have already proved that lim 1/n = 0, and since by
Theorem 6 (1/n 2) ~ (1/n) we conclude that (1jn2) -+ 0 as n -> w, by
Theorem 9. A similar argument applies to 1jnk.
* Some of the proofs of the theorems on limits in 2.4 and 2.8 might well be omitted
at a first reading, especially if these proofs seem obscure or difficult. However, the
reader should certainly study the statements of the theorems with care in order to
comprehend their meanings.
28
CHAP. 2
t
Problems
I. Find the limits (if any) of the following sequences:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Ill!
-, -, -, -, -,
I
~,
2 4 6 8 10 12
1
z'
1
I
4'- 6'
... ;
I
1
3'- 10'
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-, -, -, -, -,
-, -,
1234567 8
-, ... ;
12
... ;
(d)
I
I
1
I
I
I
1, -, l, -, l, -, l, -, I,-, 1, -, ... ;
(e)
I
2
3
4
5
6
1, -, l, -, l, -, l, -, l, -, 1, -, ... ;
2
3
4
5
6
7
(f)
(ii)
... ;
(iii)
(iv)
LIMITS
SEC. 4
a2,
(l)
(2)
29
*6. Prove that the sequence .3, .33, .333, .3333, ... has limit}. Suggestion:
use the formula a(J-rn)/(1-r) for the sum of n terms of the geometric
.
progressiOn
a, ar, ar 2, ar3 , ....
have limits --} and !i respectively, These can be obtained by multiplying the original sequence by - 1 and 2, respectively. The general
result is as follows.
THEOREM 11. If c is any constant, and if the sequence a,, a2, aa,
has limit a, then the sequence ea,, ca2 , ca 3 , ... has limit ea. Stated more
briefly, if lim an = a, then lim can = ea.
PROOF. First consider the special case c = 0. In this case the sequence {can) consists of 0, 0, 0, ... , and the limit is 0, which is the value
of ea.
Second, we consider the situation when c is not equal to zero, that
is c # 0. Then [c[ is positive, and for any positive < the number
</[c[ is also positive. We apply the definition of limit with /[c[ as the
"given positive number". Thus by (4) the inequality
[an-a[ < -
[c[
holds for all but a finite number of values of n. Multiplying this inequality by [c[, and using Theorems 2 and 7, we see that
1I
30
CHAP. 2
lim(an-bn)
liman-limbn,
lim(anbn)
and
and
holds for all but a finite number of values of n. Hence these inequalities
on an- a and bn- b hold simultaneously for all but a finite number of
values of n. For example, if the inequalities on an- a hold for all
values of n except n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, and if the inequalities on
bn- b hold for all values of n except n = 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, then the
inequalities hold simultaneously for all values of n except n = 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 8, 9, 12. By Theorem 3 we can add these inequalities to get
-<
E,
LIMITS
SEc. 4
31
bn = b+f3n,
anbn = ab+af3n+b(/.n+(/.nf3n
The last equation suggests that we can study lim(anbn) in the following
way:
lim(ab + af3n + b(l.n + (l.nf3n)
<
an- c <
e,
and
<.
E.
Since this holds for all but a finite number of values of n, we conclude
32
CHAP. 2
that lim an = c. Applying Corollary 13, with c now playing the role
of a, we also conclude that lim bn = c.
THEOREM 15. If no term of the seq"ence {en) is positive, and if lim Cn
= c, then c ~ 0.
PROOF. We use an indirect argument. Suppose that c > 0. We
apply the definition of limit to the sequence {cn), using c/2 as the
"given positive number". Thus by (4),
- (c/2) < Cn- c < (c/2)
holds for all but a finite number of terms of the sequence {cn). But
to the inequality - (c/2) < Cn- c we can add c by Theorem 2 to get
(c/2) < Cn. However, c > 0, and so (c/2) > 0, and thus Cn > 0. But
this is a contradiction, and hence we conclude that c ::'i 0.
THEOREM 16. If lim an = a and lim bn = b, and if an ::'i bn holds
for n = 1, 2, 3, ... , then a ::'i b.
PROOF. We see that lim(an-bn) =a-b by Theorem 12. Applying
Theorem 15 with Cn replaced by an- bn, we conclude that a-b ::'i 0,
or a ::'i b.
THEOREM 17. S"ppose there are seq"ences {Sn ), {Sn} and {an} satisfying
lim 8n = c, lim Sn = c and
LIMITS
Silo. 5
33
Problems
1. Evaluate the following limits:
(a)
(b)
lim
n~oo
(c)
(d)
(e) hm en-]
--
n7oo
lim
n7oo
lim
n-)XJ
4n'+n-5
n~co
100+200n
n2
c
c
n'
(g)
2n
6n2
I + I- )
lim - - 3 2n 6n2
n-)(o
(n-l)(n-2)(n-3)
n3
2. Prove that if all terms of a sequence {an} are positive, then the limit
Suggestion: Apply
3. Given that the sequence {an) has limit a, and that the sequence {bn)
has limit b, find the limits of the sequences:
(i)
(ii)
... ;
*4. Given that a sequence {an} does have a limit, and that a1, aa, as, ...
are all positive but az, a4, ao, ... are all negative, what must the limit be?
Exhibit such a sequence.
5. Prove that iflim an = a then lim(c+an) = c+a where c is any constant.
CALCULUS: AN
34
INTl~ODUCTORY
APPROACH
CHAP. 2
vx
LIMITS
SEC. 6
35
Problems
1. If the domain of values of xis the set of all real numbers) we can write
this symbolically as - oo < x < oo. Write similar symbolic inequalities to
_indicate that the domain of x is (a) the set of all positive real numbers;
(b) the set of all non-negative real numbers; (c) the set of all negative real
numbers.
2. Assuming that the equation specifies the domain and range of the
function, give the domain and range of each of the following:
(a)
j(x) = y4-x'
(b)
j(x) = y4-x4
(c)
(d) j(x) = 2x
3. Given j(x) = 2x2-3x+4, find the values of j(1), f(2), f(3), f(4), j(O)
andf(-1).
4. Verify thatj(x) = x+3 and F(x) = (x'-9)/(x-3) are almost identical
functions, the difference being that whereas the domain of J(x) is - w < x
< oo, the domain of F(x) is -eo < x < eo except for the value x = 3.
2.6 Radian Measure. Just as there are various units such as foot,
centimeter, and mile for the measurement of length, so there are
various units for the measurement of angles. The best-known measure
of angles is the degree, and its subparts, minutes and seconds. This
unit of measure, the degree, is obviously an arbitrary measure. A
right angle contains 90, but why not 80 or 100? A more natural
measure of an angle is the radian,
which we now define. Given any
angle e, we locate it in a circular
sector of radius 1,sothatCA =CB
= 1 in the diagram. Then the
radian measure of the angle e is
the length of the curved arc AB.
FIG. 2.1
The length of the circumference of
a circle of radius 1 is 2rr, and since this corresponds to an angle of 360,
we have
27T
radians
360,
7T
radians
180.
These equations give the relation between radian measure and the
common degree measure. It is customary to use no sign or symbol
for radians, so that such a trigonometric equation as sin 90 = l is
'i
I
!
36
CHAP. 2
Problems
l. Prove that 1 radian is approximately 5718'. Suggestion: Begin with
tr. If -rr is taken as 22/7, which is too large,
then the result will be too small.
eOS7Tj3
(g)
(c)
COS7Tj4
(h) sin7T
(d)
COS7Tj6
(i)
(c)
tan7Tj4
( j ) tanO
sin7T/3
sinO
4,
x 2 -9
lim-x-)5
X-
= 8,
lim(x2-6x)
x~s
16.
sine
lim--
0--'>0
()
,
e approaches 0.
LIMITS
SEC. 7
37
.l
.998334166
sin .01
.01
sin .001
---
.001
sin .0001
.0001
.999999833
0->0
I,
E
B
8 90
D
FIG. 2.2
38
CnAP. 2
radius of circle
BD
sin8
~- ~
cos8
~- ~
tan8
~- ~
BC
CD
BC
EA
CA
CA
CB
I,
BD
-,
BD~
sin8,
CD
--
CD~
cos8,
EA
-,
l
EA~
tan8,
l '
j(CD)(BD)
{(CA)(EA)
cos8 sin8,
i(l)(tan8) ~ ttan8.
The area of the entire circle (of which only the arc AB is shown
in Figure 2.2) is 7f ]2 or 7f. The area of the sector CAB is in proportion
to the angle at the center. That is, the sector subtends an angle 8
at the center, whereas the entire circle subtends an angle 27f. Hence
the area of the sector CAB is to the area of the whole circle as 8 is to
27T, and so
area of sector CAB
Next we see that
21T
2.
- (7r)
area of triangle CBD < area of sector CAB < area of triangle CAE,
or
8
I
cosB < - - < - - .
sin 8
cos e
If we take reciprocals and use Theorem 6, we obtain
(9)
l
sin8
- - > - - > cos8.
cos8
LIMITS
SEC; 8
39
8 tends to 0, we see by formula (9) that (sin 8)/8 is caught between two
values that are tending to 1. A similar argument applies to 8/(sin 8)
in the inequalities preceding (9), and so we conclude that
sin 8
lim - -
(10)
1)--->0
= I,
8
lim - 0--->0 sin 8
= I.
= I
= 0.
In the set of problems at the end of 2.8, there are examples of functions which, although they have the form 0/0 at 8 = 0, have limits
that are different from I as 8 tends to 0.
2.8 The Definition of the Limit of a Function. The result (10)
that we have just obtained rests on rather shaky ground, because we
have not yet given any definition of the limit of a function. The defini. tion is not very different from that of the limit of a sequence in 2.3.
In analogy to (4), for example, we would expect a functionf(x) to be
near the limit, say a, and so we 'vould require
(11)
jf(x)-aj < e,
i.e.,
a.
-+
0;
40
CHAP. 2
y-axis
y= f(x)
Height
a+E
Height
a-E
x-axis
FIG. 2.3
v;
LIMITS
SEC. 8
41
(a < b < c instead of c > b > a) and with 1 subtracted from each
expression, we have
sinB
1
cosB-1 < - - - 1 < - - - 1 .
B
cosB
(12)
- - < 2,
cos8
and so
1
cosB
1-cosB
1
1 = -----;,--- = --(l-cosB) < 2(1-cosB).
cos B
cosB
(13)
-sinB
sinB
_ B = -B-,
analogous to
cos(- 8) = cos B.
Consequently the inequalities (13) hold for both positive and negative
values of B in the vicinity of 0.
42
CHAP. 2
[f(x)- a[
= [ - f(x)-
(-a) [
for
lim[ -[c[f(x)]
-le!,
and we
-lim[[c[f(x)]
LIMITS
SEC. 8
43
of limit to bothj(x) and g(x) with /2 now playing the role of<. Hence
there exist positive numbers 81 and 82 such that
and
8,,
for
for
lim[J(x)+(-g(x))J
=
limj(x)+lim(-g(x))
limf(x)-limg(x) =a-b.
for
IG(x)l <
for
and
G(x) = g(x)-b,
so that
limF(x)
lim[J(x)-a]
Iimj(x)-lima
a-a
= 0,
and
lim G(x)
lim[g(x)-b]
limg(x)-Iimb = b-b = 0.
44
CHAP. 2
Hence by the first part of the proof we can conclude that as x tends
to zero,
lim[f(x)g(x)]
lim[{F(x)+a}{G(x)+b}J
!im[F(x)G(x)+aG(x)+bF(x)+ab]
0+0+0+ab =ab.
IF(x)-11 < /2
(14)
for
11- -
-l
F(x),
<
E,
for
)-1
1,
a
lim g(x)
= l.
Problems
l. Evaluate
sin28
lim--.
8->0
28
2. Evaluate
sin28
e->o (}
lim--.
SEC. 8
45
LIMITS
Suggestion: Write
sin28
8
sin28
28 ,
--~2--
2 sin
e cos e.
sin38
lim-- and
{HQ
sin38
lim--.
3(;1
0->0
()
4. Evaluate
sinx/2
lim---.
x-;.O
5. Evaluate
1-cosx
lim--x->0
Suggestion: Multiply by
l +cosx
l+cosx
6. Evaluate
tanv
lim--.
7. Prove that
v->0
lim x
lim xz
x~o
x~o
0.
x2 -x
lim-x~o
sin2x
lim--x->0 X COSX
x3+4x
lim--x->D
5x
sinZx
(d) lim-x->0
5x2
x2-2x
(e) lim--x~o
(f) lim
7x2 +4 sinx
x~o
3x
~
46
CHAP. 2
written
limf(x) = a
x->b
lf(x)-aj < e,
i.e.,
a SUCh
holds for all X in the domain of f(x) Satisfying 0 < jx-bl <
a.
aof b.
Now we
b if as x tends to b,
X->b
!I
1:
i:
I
I
lim -ylx
x->0
o,
with the understanding that the limit is taken with positive values of
x only.
. SEC. 9
LIMITS
47
Problems
l. Prove that the function j(x) = xis continuous at every real number.
2. Given that j(x) and g(x) are continuous functions at x = 0, prove that
j(x)+g(x), j(x)-g(x), cf(x), andj(x)g(x) are continuous functions at x = 0.
Suggestion: Use the theorems of 2.8.
CHAPTER 3
INTEGRATION
3.0. We have now developed enough of the theory of limits to continue the study of integral calculus, begun in 1.6. Our program is to
define the integral and to evaluate some specific examples. The definition is not logically completed in this chapter; in order to avoid too
much theory too soon, we postpone the question of the existence of
the integral in general to Chapter 5 and Appendix A. Our present purpose is to discuss the idea of an integral; existenc.e must wait!
In 3. 6 we shall use the trigonometric identity
2 sin a sin ,8 = cos( a- ,8)- cos( a+ ,8),
which can be obtained by subtracting the well-known identities
cos(a-,8) =cos a cos,B+sina sin,B,
and
J=I
n3
<A<
j2
i=l
L -.3
ni' j2,
i=l
n3
and thus the two sums differ by a single term n2jn3 or !jn. But
lim !Jn = 0 as n tends to infinity, so that the above inequalities show
48
SEC. I
INTEGRATION
49
n {j-1)2
L -n3n-.oo J=l
lim
or
lim
n->co
L -.
j=l n3
The fact that the difference between these two sums tends to zero
tells us that if one limit exists so does the other, by Corollary 3 of
2.4. To the second of the above limits we apply formula (3) of 1.5
(and also Theorem 12 of 2.4 and Corollary 10 of 2.3). Thus we get
n
j2
1 n
L- =
n->ro J=l n3
lim
lim-
L;P
n3 1=1
I
I
I
lim- +lim- +lim3
2n
6n2
+0+0 = -.
3
3
=-
The notation used in calculus for the limit of the sum just calculated
is
J>2 dx,
J:X2dx,
and it represents the following limit of a sum,
(I)
lim
n (
b-a)2b-a
L
a+j-- --.
n
n
n-)oo J=l
50
x;
(2)
a, Xn
CHAP. 3
b-a
a+j--.
n
y-axis
x -axis
----~~~*-~~
(b, 0)
(x 2 ,0)
FIG. 3.2
Fw. 3.1
(x;, 0). The rectangle in Figure 3.2 has base (b-a)jn and height x; 2 ,
and so has area
x; 2
b-a
n
--
or
.b-a)'b-a
a+y-- - n
n
by use of (2). Thus the sum in (I) represents the total area of the
rectangles illustrated in Figure 3.3. For purposes of illustration we have
used n = 10, and it is intuitively clear that as n tends to infinity the
sum of the areas of the rectangles tends to the area under the curve.
We note that (I) could be written, in view of (2),
f
a
b-a
x' dx = lim
INTEGRATION
SEC. 1
51
f(x) dx = lim
n-K.o
b-a
L f(x;)~
j=l
n
L (x;-x;-l)f(xJ).
n->co j=l
= lim
The first expression is read "the integral of f(x) from a to b". The
geometric interpretation of this is analogous to Figure 3.3 with y = x2
replaced by the curve y = f(x). Thus the integral (3) can be interpreted geometrically as an area, as in Figure 3.4, bounded by y = j(x)
above, the x-axis below, the line x = a on the left, and the line x = b
on the right.
y=f(x)
X=a
FIG. 3.3
FIG. 3.4
represents tbe area of the triangle with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0) and (1, 1).
3. Express the integral J~ x dx as a limit of a sum, and evaluate this limit.
4. Verify the answer to the preceding question by observing that the
52
CHAP. 3
integral represents the area of the triangle with vertices (0, 0), (2, 0) and
(2, 2).
I
xo
Xg
Xn-1
Xn
(4)
J>(x) dx
J:f(x) dx+
S:
j(x) dx,
if a < c < b.
S1lc. 3
INTEGRATION
53
~~~~~----------------=
FIG. 3.5
Equation (5) is illustrated in Figure 3.6; the total area is equal to the
sum of the areas of the two parts into which it is divided by the line PQ.
From an analytic point of view, equation (5) can be seen from the
definition {4) in this way: suppose that the interval from x = a
to x = b on the x-axis is divided
into n parts, with the point x = c
always one of the division points.
x=a
Then the sum in (4) can be separX=C
ated into two parts around the
division point x = c, and these
p
x-axis
separate parts of the sum give the
two integrals on the right side of
FIG. 3.6
equation (5).
Before discussing further properties of the integral, let us consider
whether the definition {4) really defines something. For after all, the
integral is defined as a limit, and as we have seen, limits do not necessarily exist. Moreover, the limit in equation (4) is not as simple as
those discussed in Chapter 2; the limit is now to be taken over many
possible points of division xr, x2, ... , Xn-I, and many possible intermediate points {',, 6, ... , /;n. Thus the definition (4) is not a simple
limit of a single sequence. It is the limit of a whole class of sequences,
and hence the definition (4) makes sense only if the limit exists and has
the same value for all possible choices of the sets of division points
xr, x2, ... , Xn-1 and all possible intermediate points {',, /;2, ... , tn.
Thus we see that there is much more involved in the limit {4) than in
the limits discussed in Chapter 2. The limit (4) does not in fact exist
for all conceivable functions f(x), but it does exist for the fairly simple
types of functions with which we deal, such as x, x2, x3, sin x, and cos x.
54
CHAP. 3
Proving the existence of the integral is one of the most basic parts
of the theory underlying calculus. We postpone this proof in order to
develop first some of the needed background, and to permit the reader
to gain more familiarity with the notation. In Chapter 5 we prove the
existence of the integral in a restricted setting which covers virtually
all cases in this book. Then in Appendix A we remove one of the restrictions to get a more general theory covering all the situations that
we treat. These proofs will not rely on any intuitive ideas about
geometry.
In the present chapter we shall presume that the integrand f(x) in
the integral
f(x) dx is an integrable function, meaning that it is a
function for which the limit (4) exists. Since the limit given in equation
(3) is just a special case of (4), we are presuming a fortiori that (3)
exists.
In all developments of the theory we shall use (4) as the definition
of the integral. But in evaluating integrals, it is usually easier to employ
the special case (3). The full justification for this procedure will be
given in Chapter 5 and Appendix A.
The discussion of equation (4), and the illustration of its meaning
in Figure 3.5, have suggested that the number a is always to be taken
less than the number b, that is a < b. There is no necessity for this
restriction in the formulation of an integral. The numbers a and b
in f(x) dx, called the lower and upper limits of the integral, can
satisfy any one of the three possibilities a > b, a < b, or a ~ b.
(Notice that the word "limit" is being used in a different way here;
a and b are not limits of the type discussed in Chapter 2.) We now
extend the definition of an integral to cover all these cases.
The extended definitions are suggested by either (4) or (5). If for
example we want (5) to hold for all possible sets of values a, b, c, then
the replacement of c by a suggests the definition
s:
s:
J:
f(x) dx
0.
I:
f(x) dx
=I:
f(x) dx+
f(x) dx,
55
INTEGRATION
SEC. 2
J:
(6)
j(x) dx = -
J:
j(x) dx.
With these definitions it turns out that (5) holds whatever the relation between a, b, and c, provided of course that f(x) is an integrable
function. We give no proof of this, but the reader is asked to prove
it in a few special cases in the problem set of this section.
The case c = 0 of equation (5) is especially useful, namely
J:
j(x) dx =
J:
f(x) dx +
J:
j(x) dx.
J:
(7)
f(x) dx =
J:
f(x) dx-
J:
j(x) dx.
Problems
l. Taking equation (5) for granted for all numbers a, b, c such that
a ;:; c ;:; b, and presuming the definition (6), establish the following results:
.(a)
J>x) dx
=I:
J>(x) J>(x)
(c) J>(x)
J>(x)
J>(x) J>(x)
(b)
J>x) dx
dx-
(d)
dx+
dx;
dx
= 0;
= 0;
T
56
CHAP. 3
/(x)
dx+
7
J'" f(x) dx
7
J:
n (jb )2b
n j2b3
2-=lim 2-.
n n
J=l n3
x2dx=lim
n--;ooo 1=1
n-)oo
Since the sum is over values of j, we can factor out b3fn3 and then use
formula (3) of 1.5, thus
x2dx = lim
b3 n j2]
-2
n3
J=l
lim[~:
=lim[ba(~+2_+)]
3 2n
6n2
b x2
dx =
b3(Jim(~ + 2_ +
2n
_ l ))
6n2
ax2dx =
b3
a3
3 - 3.
SEC.
INTEGRATION
57
PROOF.
f bx
dx
~fb x 2 dx-Ja x 2 dx ~
THEOREM 2.
b'
a'
fabdx
b-a and
fb xdx
---.
...
""'
PROOF.
f bdx ~ b
(9)
and
fb x dx ~
~
2
These results can be obtained by the use of the definition (3), with
~ l we have
dx
lim
Ln n-b l
(b b
n-->oo j=l
b)
lim - + - + ... + n n
n
~
bj
n
XJ = - ,
lim{b) ~ b.
XJ
bj
n
-,
and so
b
xdx= lim
n--)oo
bbj
L -j=l n
n
~ lim
_b2j
L=
n2
b2
lim- L;j.
n2
x dx
b' n(n+l)
lim-
n2
2
l)
b' (
lim- l +2
n
b lim(l +
2
~)
b'.
2
Hence we have established the results (9), and to finish the proof of
the theorem, we use (7) again. So we get
J>x
J>x-
J: dx
b~a,
and
b' a'
f bxdx= fb xdx- fa xdx=---.
2
2
a
58
CHAP. 3
J:
J:
y-axis
y-axis
(b, b)
(b, 1)
(0, 1)
(0, 0)
x-ax1s
x-axis
FIG. 3.7
j(x)
(b, 0)
(0, 0)
(b, 0)
~
I.
FIG. 3.8
j(x)
x.
Problems
l. Evaluate the integrals
s:
x' dx,
x' dx, [
x' dx .
by use of Theorem 1.
J:Xax
(b)
J:
J:
J:
(c)
xdx
(d)
dx
x2
dx
J:
x3 dx and
J:
x3 dx.
J: J:
2
x dx,
x' dx,
J:
x' dx.
Check that these algebraic expressions satisfy equation (5) of 3.2 with
j(x) replaced by x'.
3.4. The Interpretation of an Integral as an Area. The interpretation of J:f(x) dx as an area, as illustrated in Figure 3.4, needs
59
INTEGRATION
SEC. 4
some reviSIOn in the face of the possibilities that a may not be less
than Q, andj(x) may not be positive. Now in case a = b, the integral
has value zero, and this harmonizes with the idea of an area bounded
by x = a and x = b. Furthermore, in view of formula (6), there is no
need to consider any cases other than a < b, because (6) enables us
to write any integral with the lower and upper limits satisfying this
inequality.
So we presume that every integral s:J(x) dx under discussion has
a < b. It follows that (b -a)Jn or x;-XJ-1 in (3) is positive, and consequently the value of the integral will have the same sign, positive or
negative, as j(x). But this is on the assumption that the integrand
j(x) has the same sign over the range of integration from x = a to
X= b.
Let us turn to the situation where j(x) is positive for part of the range
of integration, and negative for another part. In such a case the value
of the integral will be positive or negative depending on the dominance
of the positive or negative portions of j(x). For example, by Theorem 2
we have
~- ~
x dx
-1
-4,
= 4,
and these integrals correspond to Figures 3.9 and 3.10. The individual
areas in Figure 3. 9 correspond to the integrals
fo xdx=
-1
-2,
- 2'
J"xdx =
0
~,2
x dx = -.
1
y-axis
y -axis
~Area2
x-axis
x -axis
FIG. 3.9
FIG. 3.10
60
CHAP. 3
x=a[+\
x-axis
~Gx=b
FIG. 3.11
Problems
l. Given that
1
x4dx = -,
0
5
1
2
J
21
J2
x5dx = - ,
31
x4dx = - ,
x4dx
s-1
(e)
x5
dx
-2
J-1
J:
s--1
fz
f
(b)
(c)
(f)
x' dx
(g)
x dx
x'dx
(d)
x4dx
x4 dx
(h)
sinxdx
J
l
xn dx.
-1
3. Show that
f"
f
sinxdx
4. Show that
"/2
f"/2
sinxdx.
sinxdx =
J"/2
cosxdx.
INTEGRATION
SEC. 5
61
a to
where the plus signs go together, and the minus signs go together. Furthermore, for any constant c
J:
cj(x) dx
J:
j(x) dx.
1=1
(x; -x;-l)](t;)
L (x; -xH)g(tJ).
j=l
j=!
J:
cj(x)dx
H~ ~ (x;-x;-l)cf(t;).
cj(x) dx
lim c
n~co
L (x;-x;-l)](t;).
j=l
J:
(x2+x) dx.
TI
62
CHAP. 3
5
J
(x2+x)dx=
J5
x2dx+
J5
53
23
52
22
99
xdx=---+---=-.
33222
Problems
1. Evaluate the integrals
(a)
(b)
J:
J:
(xL 1) dx
(c)
(xL2x)dx
(d)
J:
(5x'+Gx) dx
J"
(x2-x-1)dx
-3
J:
J:
5x' dx
(c)
10x'dx
(d)
f
I:
(x'-x') dx
(2x'-5x 4 )dx
x
3x
5x
2 sin2xsin- =cos- -cos2
2
2
x
5x
?x
2 sin3xsin- =cos- -cos2
x
(2n-3)x
(2n-1)x
2 sin(n-1)x sin-= cos
cos-'------'-2
2
2
.
. x
(2n-1)x
(2n+ 1)x
2 s1nnx s1n- =cos
-cos
.
2
2
2
63
INTEGRATION
SEc. 6
(2n+ l)x
J:
sinxdx
for any positive b. From definition (3) it follows that this integral has
the meaning
lim
n~)co
2n
J=l
jb]
sinn
- = Jim-
n
n
jb
2 sin-.
n
1-1
2sm(bj2n)
Hence we have
b .
sm x dx
.
b cos(b/2n)-cos{[(2n+l)b]J2n)
hm - -~_.__.__~_.__ _:__:::___o
2 sin(bj2n)
n-oo n
=lim[cos}'__-cos(Zn+l)b]
2n
(bjZn).
sin(b j2n)
2n
n~oo
(bj2n)
~-c-c--
sin(bj2n)
= Jim - - = l.
8-0 sin&
b
limcos-
2n
cosO = 1,
and
Jimcos (Zn;l)b = limcos[b(l+
2~)]
J:
sinxdx = 1-cosb.
= cosb.
64
CHAP. 3
J:
sinxdx = cosa-cosb.
J:
tanxdx,
Problems
1. Evaluate the integrals
n/6
(a)
f
J
sinxdx
(c)
sinxdx
(d)
n/2
(b)
J:
sinxdx
n/3
4 sinxdx
n/6
2. Evaluate
n/2
cosxdx.
Jn/2 (sinx+cosx) dx
(c)
(b)
fn/4
0
r,
cosxdx
n/4
sinxdx
(d)
J: (x+sinx) dx
SEC. 7
INTEGRATION
65
( -r, 0)
(0, 0)
FIG. 3.13
y, and r. By Pythagoras' theorem it follows that x' +y' = r', and this
is the equation of the circle. Solving this equation for y we get
y =
yr2 -x2
and
y =
-yr2 -x2 .
66
CHAP.
FIG. 3.14
2 lim
XJ 2
)rjn.
This limit can be compared with the right side of equation (3), where
j(x1) is interpreted as ,(,-'-xJ'), and (b-a)jn has the value rjn if we
take b = r and a = 0. Hence we can write
= 2
J:
V= 2
J:
2"r'
m 2 dx-2J "x'dx
J:
dx- 27T
J:
x' dx
,.s
4
2"r'(r)- 27T- = -m3.
3
3
Problems
I. If in the above analysis we had worked with the entire portion of the
x-axis from ( -r, 0) to (r, 0) instead of just half of this, we would have
V=
course that 0 < le < ,.. Find the volume of the smaller of these two parts.
*3. By revolving the triangle formed by (0, 0), (h, 0) and (h, r) around the
x~axis, derive the formula for the volume of a right circular cone of radius
r and height h. Suggestion: The equation of the straight line through
(0, 0) and (h, ?') is y = (rjh)x.
CHAPTER 4
DIFFERENTIATION
A-B
A+B
2 sin-- cos--.
2
2
In case the reader is not familiar with this identity, we note that it can
be o_btained from the well-known identities
sin(oo+f3) =sin"' cosf3+sinf3 cosx,
and
sin(oo-{3) = sinO< cosf3-sinf3 cosO<.
For, subtracting these we get
sin(Ct.+/3) -sin(oo-{3) = 2 sinf3 cos a.
If now we write A for
~- +
so
A+B
"'= - - and
2
f3
A-B
A+B
A-B
-2-,
68
CHAP. 4
b.y
3+b.x-3
b.x'
b.x
6+b.x.
The tangent line at the point A is the limiting position of the line AP
as the point P moves toward A, and so the slope of the tangent line is
obtained by letting b.x approach zero; thus
lim b.y = lim (6+b.x) = 6.
6.X ->
0 6_x
6.X -)
DIFFERENTIATION
SEC. I
69
and
2x+LI.x
1\.y
lim = lim (2x + 1\.x) = 2x.
~X->O~X
L\X-70
It should be emphasized that 1\.x designates the change in the x coordinate from the point A to the point P, and so 1\.x is a variable in its
own right, independent of x. Thus 1\.x does not mean some quantity 11.
multiplied by some quantity x, but a single quantity.
We have established that the slope of the curve y = x' at any point
on the curve has value 2x, and the usual notation for this in
calculus is
dy
-
dx
= 2x
dy
dx
1\.y
lim - .
L\x -->O 6-x
The process of obtaining dyfdx = 2x from y = x' is called differentiation, and this is the central process in that part of our subject known
as differential calculus. In contrast, the subject matter of Chapter 3 is
known as integral calculus.
ExAMPLE.
Differentiate y
x3.
70
CnAP. 4
y+t.y
y+t.y
x"+3x2t.x+3x(t.x)2+(t.x)3,
t.y
t.y
t.x
dy
dx
lim t.y
6-X ->0 ~X
3x2+3xt.x+(t.x)2,
= lim[3x"+3xt.x+(t.x)'J = 3x2.
y = x 2 +x
(c)
(b)
y = 2x2
(d) y
y = 2x"
= x"-x
2. Find the slope of each of the curves in Question l at the point where
2.
3. Find the derivative of y = x4.
X=
x' is
x3
DIFFERENTIATION
SEC. 2
71
x'
y = f(x)
y+D.y = (x+D.x)'
y+D.y = f(x+D.x)
D.y
= (x+b.x) 2 -x2
D.y
(x + D.x)'- x'
D.y
D.x
D.x
D.x
D.x
dy
(x+b.x) 2 -x2
-=
dx
.
hm
fl.x-->o
dy
-=
.6..x
dx
Of these two final equations, the one on the left yields a final simplification
dy
dx
= 2x,
but the one on the right cannot be simplified without specific knowledge about the function f(x). One of the central problems of this
chapter is to evaluate dyfdx for various functions f(x). The above
equations enable us to reformulate the definition (I).
DEFINITION.
'
(2)
.a.x-->0
.6..x,
.
f(c+b.x)-f(c)
lnn
,
a.x -o
.6..x
provided the limit exists. If the limit (3) exists, we say that the function
f(x) is differentiable at x = c. If the limit (2) exists for every real value
of x, we say that the function f(x) is differentiable everywhere. If (2)
exists for all x satisfying a ; x ; b, we say that f(x) is differentiable
for this set of values.
In order that a function may be differentiable at x = c, the limit (3)
must exist. Now as D.x tends to zero, the numerator f(c+D.x)-f(c) in
(3) must also tend to zero if f(x) is differentiable at x = c. Thus the
72
CHAP. 4
c implies that
lim f(c+L'1x)
L\x ->0
f(c),
'
L'1y
!:,x
or
as !:,x tends to zero. Notice that L'1x never actually becomes zero. It is
the essential nature of the limit process, as we analyzed it throughout
Chapter 2, that a limit has to do with the trend of values of a function
up to but not including the critical point.
The advantages of the notation dyjdx fm a derivative are its flexibility and convenience. We shall draw attention later to specific
instances of what is meant by this.
A REMARK ABOUT NOTATION: although we have used dyjdx to indicate
the derivative of any function y ~ f(x), other notation for the same
thing is often used, for example,
d
SEC. 3
DIFFERENTIATION
73
-(v2) = 2v.
dv
In the same way the derivative (2) can occur in any variable:
(x) =
t:..x-->0
~X
j'(n) =
. j(u+!1u)-j(u)
hm
,
t:..u --o
fl.u
j'(t) =
.
j(t+!1t)-j(t)
hm
.
t:..t--> 0
/j.t
Since the derivative is the limit of the ratio of !1y to !1x, it is a measure
of the rate of change of y with respect to x. For example, consider the
function y = x 2 with derivative dxjdy = 2x. If we think of x as increasing steadily from x = 0 to x = !0, then y increases at the same
time from y = 0 to y = 100. As x passes through the value 3, y is
increasing six times as fast as x, because the derivative is 6. As x passes
throu~h the value 7, y is increasing fourteen times as fast as x. Thus
the derivative can be thought of as a measure of the rate of change of
y compared with the rate of change of x.
Problems
l. Prove that the function y = x2 or j(x) = x2 is continuous for every
value of x.
2. Prove that the function f(x) = x3 is continuous for every value of x.
3. Write the derivative of sin x as a limit.
5x2 ,
74
6.y
CHAP. 4
lOx+ 56.x,
6.x
dy
dx
dX
-7
lOx.
du
-=c-.
dx
dx
For example, if u = x 2 and c = 5, then y = 5x 2 , and from the derivative dufdx = 2x we obtain dyfdx = 5(2x) = !Ox.
PROOF. Let a change 6.x in x produce changes 6.u and 6.y in u and y
respectively. Then we have
cu,
!J.u
-=C-,
!J.x
!J.x
dy
du
lim -!J.y =
t..x->0
t..x--;0
l\x
'
-=C-
dx
!J.u]
Iim [ c
- ,
~x
dx
by Theorem 18 of 2.8.
THEOREM 3. If y = c, then dyjdx = 0. If y = x, then dyjdx = 1.
PROOF. In the first case we have
y = c,
y+!J.y = c,
!J.y = 0,
6.y
-=0,
!J.x
dy
!J.y = !J.x,
-=I,
!J.y
dy
!J.x
dx
dx
0,
y+!J.y = x+!J.x,
I.
75
DIFFERENTIATION
SEC. 3
In the next three theorems we shall assume that u and v are differentiable functions of x.
THEOREM 4. Ify ~ u+v, then dyjdx ~ dufdx+dvfdx. Ify ~ u-v,
then dyfdx ~ dufdx-dvfdx.
y-axis
y=c
y=x
x -axis
y+fly
(u+flu) (v+flv),
fluflv,
fly
flu
flv
flx
flx - flx
-~-+-.
FIG. 4.3
dx
2x,
dv
- = 3x2,
dx
dy
dx
du dv
-+dx dx
2x+3x2.
uv then
dy
-
d:r
dv
du
dx
dx
-u.-+v-.
uv
uflv+vflu+(flu)(flv),
76
tJ.x
CHAP. 4
i'J. V
!J.u
tJ. V
u-+v-+!J.u-.
tJ.x
tJ.x
tJ.x
As tJ.x tends to zero, so also does tJ.u. Hence taking limits, we get, by
Theorems 19 and 20 of 2.8,
dy
-
dx
dv
du
dv
u-+v-+0dx
dx
dx
dv
du
= 'lt-+v-.
dx
THEOREM 6. If y
dx
ujv then
dy
v(dufdx) -u(dvfdx)
dx
v2
0.
u+!J.u
y + tJ.y = - - ,
v+!J.v
= -,
V
!J.y
u+!J.u
tJ.y = - - v+!J.v
V'
---:--;-:---
v(v + tJ.v)
vtJ.u -utJ.v
v(tJ.ujtJ.x) -u(tJ.vftJ.x)
tJ.x
v( v + tJ.v)
Finally, we take the limit as tJ.x tends to zero, and the theorem follows
because v + tJ.v tends to v.
THEOREM 7. If y
nxn~l
dx
PARTIAL PROOF. Here we establish this for any integer n, and for
n = !J2. In 4.6 we extend the proof to any rational number n. Thus
we eventually treat all cases except the irrational values of n, for which
SEC. 3
77
DIFFERENTIATION
dx
dv
du
dx
dx
Just as this gives the derivative of x4 from the known derivative of x3,
so we can get the step from xn-1 to xn. If we presume that the derivative
of xn-1 is (n -l)x-2, then we can apply Theorem 5 with u = x and
v = xn-l; thus
du
dx
dy
1,
dv
(n-l)xn-2,
dx
dy
dx
dv
du
dx
dx
= u-+v-,
dx
Thus if the theorem holds for any positive integer n- 1, it holds also
for the next integer. Since we have already seen that the theorem holds
for n = 1, 2, 3 and 4, it follows that the result holds for any positive
integer n. (The proof technique that we have used is called "mathematical induction".)
Part 2. Let n be a negative integer, say n = -m, where m is a
positive integer. Then y = xn can be written in the form
1
=
-,
xm
xm(O) -1(mxm-1)
de
(xm)2
-mxm-1
--:::-- =
x2m
- ( -n)x-n-1
x
= nxn-1,
2n
78
CnAP. 4
y+!:J.y
!:J.y
yx+!:J.x,
x -axis
vx+!:J.x- y'x,
FIG. 4.4
Graph of y =
V;;,
!:J.y
!:J.x
!:J.x
vx+!:J.x+y'x;
thus
,;x:t~:,.~.,-
!:J.y
!:J.x
!:J.y
!:J.x
As
~x ->-
0,
-v:r
v~x+vx
!:J.x
(x+!:J.x) -x
!:J.x[
x+~x ->- x,
yx+!:J.x-1- yx'
I
vx + t,-;, + vx J
and hence we have
dy
2yx
= ___ = -x-112,
dx
It should be noted that the theorem is to be interpreted for appropriate values of x. For example, in case n = -1, \Ve are dealing with
the function y = x-l which is not defined at x = 0. So of course the
derivative has no meaning at x = 0. To take another example, let us
consider n = f. The domain of the function y = xl/2 is x ~ 0, since xl/2
is not real-valued for negative values of x. Thus the derivative has no
meaning for negative values of x. In fact the derivative has no meaning
for x = 0, so that the function y = x112 is differentiable only for x > 0.
Problems
I. Differentiate the following:
(b)
y = 7x2
y = 7x2+I
(f)
y = Ifx4
(c)
y = 7x2 -4x+I
(g)
y = 4x
(d)
(h) y =-I
(a)
5x6-x4
(e)
y = x-3
SEC. 4
79
DIFFERENTIATION
x312
as
(d) xy-x2 -7 = 0.
(a)
y = -3+x
(b)
2+x
y=-x'
(e)
y=-x+3
(c)
x'
y=-x'+3
(f)
y = 4ylx(x+7)-3
vx
(a)
(b)
y = u+v-w
(e)
(c)
y = uv-w
(f)
u+v
y=-w
u+v+w
uv
=-
sin x, cos x, and tan x, where in all cases xis in radian measure.
THEOREM 8. Jj y = sin x, then dyfdx =
COS X.
y+l:!.y = sin(x+l:!.x),
l:!.y = sin(x+l:!.x)-sinx,
l:!.y
sin(x+l:!.x) -sinx
l:!.x
l:!.x
dy
dx
sin(x+l:!.x)-sinx
lim _...:...__..,.:...
_ __
AX-->0
~X
T
80
CHAP. 4
(5)
2sin
~x
sin(l'!.x/2)
D.xf2
cos(x+
COS
~x),
D.x)
X+- .
2
lim-- =I,
0--?0
(6)
1.
Combining (4), (5), and (6) and applying Theorem 20 of 2.8, we find
that
D.x) = cosx.
-dy = lim cos ( x+dx
6-x-)0
2
THEOREM 9. Jj y
cos
X,
then dyfdx
-sin x.
PROOF. The steps are very similar to those in the preceding proof.
In the present theorem we need the identity
cosA-cosB
A-B
2
A+B
2
-2 sin--sin--.
y
D.y
dy
dx
cosx,
y+b.y
cos(x+i'!.x)-cosx
cos(x+b.x),
D.x)
-2sin D.x sin ( x+T,
SEC. 4
81
DIFFERENTIATION
y=--,
cosx
dy
dx
cos2x
cos2x+sin2x
cos2x
1
= -- =
cos2x
sec2 x,
= 1.
Problems
1. Differentiate the following:
(a)
y = cosecx
(f) y =
(b)
y = secx
(g) y = sin2 x
(c)
y = cotx
(h) y = sin3x
(d)
-5 sinx
(i)
cos 2x
(e) xy
sinx+x
( j) y
sin2x+cos2x
sinx cosx
tan(x+,.x)-tanx
Llx_,.o
Llx
(b)
hm ---.,------
(c)
(d)
hm --'--.,----'---.
tan(u+f,.u)-tanu
t:.u--Joo
6.u
cos(v+f,.v)-cosv
hm-------
t:.v->o
Llv
cos(x+2,.x)-cosx
hm-----~X
t..x->0
= xsinx
(c)
sinx
y=X
(b)
x2-cosx
tanx
(d) y = - -
(1+x)2
l
82
CHAP. 4
dy
dx
dy
du
= 5u4,
du
-
dx
3x2 .
Thus we have separated the original function into two simpler functions
whose derivatives are obtained easily, and the next theorem indicates
how to combine these derivatives to get dyfdx.
THEOREM ll. If y is a differentiable function of u, and u is a differentiable function of x, then
dy
dy du
-=-dx
du dx
Before turning to the proof of this, let us see how it applies to the
problem under discussion just prior to the theorem, namely y = u,
u = l + x". The theorem gives
dy
- = (5u4)(3x') = l5x2u4 = l5x'(l +x3)4.
dx
It is perhaps not immediately apparent that this is the same result as
in equation (7). but a little simple algebra will establish the equivalence.
PROOF. Any change Llx in the variable x produces a change !'!.u in the
variable u and a change !'!.y in the variable y. Now by simple algebra
we have
(8)
-=--.
!'!.x
!'!.u
!'!.x
Taking limits as !'!.x tends to zero, we get the equation of the theorem,
by using Theorem 20 of 2.8.
Unfortunately it is not quite so simple. This proof is valid if !'!.u is
not 0, corresponding to any ~x value under consideration. The proof
SEC. 5
DIFFERENTIATION
83
is valid,* for example, for all the problems given at the end of this
section, because in each case we can work with sufficiently small values
of L'lx that L'lu # 0. However, in case L'lu = 0, the equation (8) becomes
meaningless. Now the theorem is correct even in case ~u = 0, as the
following argument shows.
First whenever L'lu = 0 we observe that L'ly = 0, because y is a
function of u; so a zero change in 'U corresponds to a zero change in y.
Now as L'lx tends to zero, the corresponding values of L'lu may be zero
or may not be zero. Define v as the following function of L'lu, and so in
turn as a function of L'lx:
v = 0 in case !J.u = 0;
L'ly
dy .
v = - m case L'lu ,P 0.
L'lu
du
As L'lx tends to zero, so also v tends to zero. Notice that in either of the
cases L'lu = 0 or L'lu # 0 we have
dy
vL'lu = L'ly- L'ludu
dy
L'ly = L'ludu
or
+ vL'lu.
L'lu
dy
L'lu
L'lx
L'lx
du
L'lx
-=--+v-.
Now let L'lx tend to zero, and since v tends to zero, the theorem is
proved.
EXAMPLE.
Solution. Write y
dy
du
cosu,
sin u, u
du
dx
5,
Notice that it is not proper to leave the answer in the form 5 cos u,
because the variable u was introduced for convenience in solving the
problem, but u is not a variable in the original statement of the problem.
*Indeed, it is valid in every case in this book where Theorem 11 is applied. However,
if we wanted to terminate the proof of Theorem ll with this simple analysis of
equation (8), it would be necessary to add another hypothesis to the theorem along
these lines: "and if D.u o;i; 0 for sufficiently small non-zero values of 6.x."
84
CHAP. 4
Problems
1. Differentiate
(a)
y = cos7x
(f) y = cos2x
(b)
y = tan3x
(g) y = cos2x
(c)
= vx+l
(h) y = sin7x
(d)
= yx2 +1
(i)
(e)
= (2+x')'
( j) y
= va'+x'
= yb'+(c-x) 2
2. Differentiate y = 2 cos2x -1, and prove that the answer is the same
=sin(~ -x)
lim
t~.x->0
*5. Evaluate
vx+L'>x+3- vx+3
.
t!.x->0
6.x
lim
7. Verify that equation (7) gives the same result for the derivative as the
expression 15x2 (! +x3)4 obtained from Theorem 1!.
8. Given the identity sin 3x = 3 sin x-4 sin3x, differentiate both sides
to get an identity relating cos 3x, sin2x and cos x.
DIFFERENTIATION
SEC. 6
85
intersects the curve at not more than one point. Because of this property, we can reverse the correspondence and think of x as a function
of y: to each value of y there corresponds a value of x. This is called the
inverse junction, with equation x ~ y113. The graph of this equation
is the same as the graph of y ~ x3,
as in Figure 4.5.
y-axis
Since the graphs of y ~ x3 and
x = yll3 are the same, we can obtain a simple direct relationship
between the derivatives of these
functions. With respect to x ~ y113
we are seeking the derivative with
the roles of x and y interchanged;
thus
dx
dy
1\.x
lim"-Y~o 1\.y
~
. (y + L\.y)ll3- y113
hm -'----'----'---6.y
L\y~o
FIG. 4.5
Graph of y =
,x:3
or x =
yl/3.
However, 1\.x and 1\.y here have exactly the same meaning as for the
function y ~ x3, and as either of 1\.x or 1\.y tends to zero, so does the
other. Hence we can write, by Theorem 21 of 2.8,
dy dx
-dx dy
(9)
For y
~ x3
1\.y
1\.x
lim-lim1\.x
1\.y
dx
~- ~ -x-2 ~
dy3x 2
l.
-:Y-2/3
3
for
yli3.
x113, then
dy
l
dx- 3
_ _ -x-213
'
86
CALCULUS: AN INTRODUCTORY APPROACH
~----~~~~--~~~~~~----~~-
CHAP.4
/''"
(a, a)
Fw. 4.8
Graph of y
f(x) or x
g(y).
If y ~ f(x) is monotonic on an
interval, it is clear that to different values of x in the interval
there correspond different values
of f(x). Hence we can reverse the
correspondence and think of x as
a function of y, say x ~ g(y).
This is the inverse function.
dy dx
-.-
dx dy
'
~
f'(x) . g'(y)
1.
1
I
SEC. 6
DIFFERENTIATION
87
D.y
D.x
D.x
D.y
---=I,
dy
= kyk-1,
dx
= -- =
= nxn-1.
kyk-1
kx1-l!k
um,
u =
xllk,
88
CnAP. 4
and so
du
dy
dx
du
= -x(llk)-1.
le
dx
(mum-1)
(1le
I
'I
I..
m
le
-x(m-1)/k. x(l-k)lk
= nx(m-1)/k
,,
-x(lik)-1
nxn-1,
i
'
r--
f
SEC. 6
89
DIFFERENTIATION
whence
dx
1
- = ~dy
1 +y 2
dx
dy
1 +y2
then-=~-.
dx
dx
1 +x2
-=--
Y= L
-------------
x-axis
Y=-f
FIG. 4.10
Graph of y =
arc tan x.
Problems
1. Prove that the tangent line to the graph of y = arc tan x at the point
(0, 0) has slope 1.
2. Find the x coordinates of the points, if any, on the graph of y = arc tan x
where the curve has slope i.
3. Find the x coordinates of the points, if any, on the graph of y = arc tan x
where the curve has slope 5.
4. Find the derivatives of the following:
(a)
y = arctan2x
(b)
y=2+arctanx
90
CnAP. 4
5. (a) In Theorem 11 let us write y ~ g(u) and u ~ J(x). Show that the
conclusion of the theorem can now be written in the form
dy
dx
g'(u)J'(x)
(b) Next eliminate u and show that the conclusion of Theorem ll can be
g(f(x)) then
dy
dx
g'(J(x))J'(x).
(c) Next remove the y and show that the conclusion of Theorem ll can
g'(f(x))j'(x)
\Ve
get
u'(y)J'(x).
4.7 The Mean Value Theorem. We now discuss one of the most
important results in calculus.
THEOREM 14. Suppose that a junction F(x) has a derivative j(x) for all
x satisfying a < x < b. Then the.e is a value of x strictly between a and b,
say x ~ c with a < c < b, such that
j(c)
F(b)-F(a)
b-a
or
F(b) -F(a)
(b -a)j(c).
To give a plausible argument for the truth of this, let us look at the
matter geometrically. The quotient [F(b) -F(a)]j(b- a) is the slope of
the straight line joining the two
s
Q
points (a, F(a)) and (b, F(b)) on the
graph of y ~ F(x). Calling these
points P and Q respectively, we
see that the theorem states that
there is at least one point on the
graph between P and Q where
the tangent line is parallel to PQ.
In Figure 4.11 there are two such
FIG. 4.11
points.
To continue our intuitive argument, let R be any point on the graph
y ~ F(x) between P and Q with the following property: The perpendicular distance from R to PQ is a maximum. It is intuitively clear that
such a point exists. Next let a straight line RS be drawn through R
parallel to PQ. There will be no points of the graph of y ~ F(x) lying
p~
SEC. 7
DIFFERENTIATION
91
on the far side of RS, that is, the side away from PQ, at least not in
the range x = a to x = b. Thus RS is a tangent line to the curve, and
RS is parallel to PQ.
Such an intuitive appeal to the geometry of the situation is not to be
regarded as an adequate proof. A rigorous proof must be analytic in
nature, that is, it must be based only on the foundations oflogic and the
real number system, not on geometric intuition. Such a proof is beyond
the scope of this book. Our viewpoint is that the mean value theorem
is taken as an axiom, and we build the further structure of calculus on
it. As a first example of the use of the mean value theorem, we establish
a connection between the sign of the derivative and the increase or
decrease of a function.
THEOREM 15. Let F(x) be a differentiable function on a <;; x <;; b,
such that F'(x) > 0 for all x on the open interval a < x < b. Then the
function F(x) is monotonic increasing on the closed interval a <;; x <;; b.
In a similar setting, if P'(x) < 0 then P(x) is monotonic decreasing.
PROOF. We prove the first part only, since the second part is analogous. Let xr and x2 be any two numbers in the closed interval such that
xr < x2, and so a ;" xr < x2 ;" b. We apply Theorem 14 to F(x2)
-F(xr). Thus there is a number c strictly between xr and x 2 such that
F(x2)-F(xr) = (x,-x,)F'(c).
Now F'(c) is positive by hypothesis, and so is x,-x,. Hence F(x2)
-F(xr) is positive, and the theorem is established.
The theorem could have been stated more readily if F'(x) > 0 had
been assumed on the closed interval a ~ x ~ b. However the result
so stated would have been weaker, and would not have applied, for
example, to the function F(x) = x2 with a = 0 and b = 1, even though
this function is monotonic increasing over the interval 0 ~ x ~ l.
Such an example is not as special as it may seem; it occurs in more
general form in the proof of Theorem 17.
Problems
l. Find the c of the mean values theorem (Theorem 14) in each of the
following cases:
= x(x-1), a= 0, b = 2;
(ii) F(x) = x(x-1), a= 0, b = 1 ;
(iii) F(x) = x(x-1), a= 1, b = 2;
(i) F(x)
a = 0,
a= 0,
b = 1r;
b = l.
92
CHAP.4
*2. If rt., (3, y are real numbers satisfying 2rt. + 3(3 + 6y = 0, prove that
(3x+y = 0 has at least one root between 0 and l. Suggestion: Apply
the mean value theorem to F(x) = 2a.x3+3(3x2+6yx with a= 0, b = l.
r~.xZ+
.t(~y=F(x)
:'
f'
1
I
I
I
c
FIG. 4.12
y = F(x).
I
I
'
b
Fra. 4.13
where the function F(x) has maximum and minimum values, the
derivative F'(x) is zero. Note that we are discussing so-called local
maximum and minimum values, that is to say, maximum and minimum
DIFFERENTIATION
SEC. 8
F(~)
~
93
.
hm
F(~+L'.x) -F(~)
tlx->O
6-x
> 0.
Consider positive values of L'.x. Since the limit is positive, the difference
sufficiently small. That is,
of L'.x. But this contradicts
our assumption that F(~) is a maximum.
On the other hand, suppose that F'(~) < 0, so that
.
hm
tlx->0
6-x
< 0.
Consider now negative values of L'.x. Since the limit is negative, the
difference F(~ + L'.x) -F(g) must be positive for L'.x sufficiently close to
zero. Again this gives us the inequalityF(~+L'.x) > F(~), which contradicts the assumption that F(~) is a maximum.
Since F'(x) ~ 0 at both A and Bin Figure 4.12, how can we distinguish a maximum point from a minimum point1 To answer this, we
recall that the derivative F'(x) can be thought of as the slope of the
curve. Thus F' (x) is positive at points on the curve immediately to the
left of A, and negative at points immediately to the right. In the vicinity
of the point Bit is the other way around; F'(x) is negative at points
immediately to the left of B, and positive at points immediately to the
right. These considerations suggest the following result.
THEOREM 17. Suppose that a junction F(x) has a derivative for all x
satisfying a ;:;; x ;:;; b. Suppose furthermore that for a specific value of x
between a and b, say x ~ ~with a < ~ < b, the derivative F'(x) changes
from positive to zero to negative as x passes through ~ from left to right:
F'(x) > 0
for
a ;:;; x <
~;
F'(x)
for
~in
or
0 for
~ ~;
< x ;:;; b.
94
CHAP. 4
It can occur that F'() ~ 0, but that F'(x) does not have different
signs to the left and right of x ~ g. For example, consider the function
F(x) ~ x3. The derivative is F'(x) ~ 3x2, so that F'(O) ~ 0. But
F'(x) is positive both for x < 0 and for x > 0. This function assumes
neither a maximum nor a minimum value at x = 0, as illustrated in
Figure 4.5 in 4.6.
In summary then, we have established in Theorem 16 that in order
that a differentiable function F(x) have a maximum or minimum
strictly inside an interval a ;'i x ;'i b it is necessary that F'(x) ~ 0 for
some value of x in the interval. However, knowing that F'(x) ~ 0
for a certain value of x is not sufficient to guarantee a maximum or
minimum. Additional conditions are set forth in Theorem 17 to assure
the presence of a maximum or n1inimum. Consequently, given a
function F(x) we must take two steps to determine its maxima and
minima. First we must find all values such that F'() ~ 0. Second
we must apply Theorem 17 to each such value in order to determine
whether F(x) is actually a maximum, a minimum, or neither. (In more
extended works ou calculus, alternatives to Theorem 17 are given, but
we limit ourselves to this one result.)
EXAMPLE. For what values of x is F(x) ~ x3- 12x2 + 45x- 40 a
maximum or a minimum?
Solution. By Theorem 16 all maxima and minima occur at values of
x where F'(x) ~ 0. We note that
F'(x)
3x2-24x+45;
F'(x)
if 3x2-24x+45
0.
DIFFERENTIATION
SEC. 8
95
of y:
(a)
y = x2-4x-4
(f) y = x'-3x'+3x+4
(b)
y = 6+7x-x2
(g)
(c)
y = 2x'+3x2 -36x+45
(h) y = x'+-
x'
y=-x+1
9
X
(d)
y = 2x'+3x2-36x+42
(e)
y = x'-6x"+12x+l0
(i)
18
y = 2x"+X
2. For any fixed numbers k1, kz, ... , kn determine x so that each of the
following shall be a minimum:
(a)
(x-k 1 )2
(b)
(x-k1) 2 +(x-k,) 2
(c)
(x-kl) 2 +(x-kz)'+(x-ks)2
(d)
*3. Among all rectangles of fixed perimeter p, find the dimensions of the
one with largest area.
4. Find two numbers whose sum is 12 and whose product is a maximum.
5. Let c be a positive constant. Find two numbers whose sum is c and
whose product is a maximum.
6. Find three positive numbers whose sum is 12 and whose product is a
maximum. Suggestion: Use the result of the preceding problem. If the three
numbers are x, y, and 12-x-y, then x = y since otherwise
x+y x+y
- - - - (12-x-y) > xy(l2-x-y).
2
2
Similarly x = 12-x-y and y = 12-x-y.
96
CHAP. 4.
7. Find two positive numbers x and y whose smn is 10, (a) such that x2y is
a maximum, (b) such that x3y is a maximmn.
8. Find the maximum value of sin x+ cos x for all values of x between
0 and -rr/2.
where rand h denote the radius and height of the cylinder. The derivative is, by Theorem 7,
dS
41Tr- 361Tr-2,
dr
367T:r-2,
= 9r-2,
r3
= 9,
= ~9.
< 9,
9
I<r3 ,
dS
dr
47Tr(l-
~)
r3
< 0.
9
r3'
1>-
dS
dr
18
:r2
9213
h =- =- =
viJ.
2-\1'9.
The use of Theorem 17 could have been dispensed with here. The
geometry of the situation assures us that there is a minimum for some
positive value of r. Theorem 16 tells us that the derivative is zero at this
97
DIFFERENTIATION
SEC. lO
location. Then our calculation showed that the derivative is zero for
a single value of r, and so this must provide the location of the minimum
value ofS.
Problems
1. Find the dimensions of a cylinder of volume 250 cubic units, if the
surface area is to be a minimum.
2. Find the dimensions of a cylinder of surface area 547T square units, if
the volume is to be a maximum.
3. Prove that a cylinder of fixed volume has minimum surface area in
case h = 2r, where h and r denote the height and radius of the cylinder.
*4. A rectangular dog run is to be built, using one side of a house and
60 linear feet of fencing. What is the maximum area that can be fenced off?
*5. A page of a book is to have area 48 square inches, with l-inch
margins at the top and the bottom of the page, and i-inch margins at each
side. What should be the dimensions of the page so that the space available
for printed matter is a maximum?
*6. A right triangle has sides 6, 8, and 10 units long. What are the dimen-sions of the rectangle of maximum area that can be inscribed, with one side
of the rectangle lying along the longest side of the triangle 1
*7. What are the dimensions of the cylinder of maximum volume that can
be inscribed in a sphere of radius 11
*8. Given that one base and the two non-parallel sides of a trapezoid are
each 6 units long, what should be the length of the fourth side for maximum
area1
*9. Two points A and B lie in the same plane as, and on the same side of,
a certain fixed line. The perpendicular distances from A and B to the line
are 16 and 4 units, respectively. The points A and B are 13 units apart, thus
AB = 13. A point Pis chosen on the line in such a way that AP+PB is a
minimum. What is the length PB?
Surface
Water
Path of
light ray
'-;_'"',Appearance
..... .:::-::.:::::;..::::.
Reality
FIG. 4.14
Fw. 4.15
98
CHAP.
Slllr.t.
(10)
sin,B
where v, is
v2 is
a is
,8 is
the
the
the
the
Velocity v1
c
Velocity v2
,8
B
FIG. 4.17
Fw. 4.16
There is a general law, the minimum principle, that says that light
travels from B to A in such a way as to minimize the elapsed time.
We will show that (10) can be deduced from this law. It will also be
assumed that light follows a straight line in a homogeneous medium
such as air or water. We regard A and B as fixed points, C and D as the
points of intersection of the perpendiculars drawn from A and B to
the surface separating the media, and P as the point on the surface
where the path of light changes direction. Denote the lengths AC, BD,
and CD by the constants a, b, and c. Since we do not know at the outset
the location of the point P, except that it is on the line CD, we denote
the length CP by x, and so PD by e-x. Hence we have
AP = ya2+x2,
PB
yb2+(c-x)2,
and so the total time t of passage of the ray of light from A to B via P
is
ya2+x2
yb2+(c-x)2
t =
+
'
V1
V2
Vt
V2
t = -(a2+x2)112+ -(b2+c2-2cx+x2)112,
DIFFERENTIATION
SEC. lO
99
dt
dx
-(a'+x')-11'+
VI
-e+x
----(b'+e'-2ex+x2)-112.
vz
-(a'+x')-112
V1
(12)
1
VI
2 +x2
-sin a
VI
v,
e-x
ya
e-x
--(b' + e'- 2ex+x')-112
v,
- sinfl.
v,
To prove that this result gives a minimnm value oft, we must proceed
slightly differently than in preceding sections, because we have not
computed the actual value of x for which dtfdx = 0. In view of equations
(12) we see that (ll) can be written in the form
(13)
dt
l
l
-=-sina--sinfl.
dx
VI
V2
Problem
(For readers familiar with solid geometry.)
In proving equation (10) we took it for granted that the point P would
lie on the line CD, i.e., that the plane APB would be perpendicular to the
surface of the water. Explain this.
CHAPTER 5
f xn
b
dx
bn+l -
an+l
n+l
n+l
( l)
~ F(b)-F(a),
s:
sin x dx
SEC. 2
--------------------------------
101
Xo
a, Xn
= b,
~~ is any value satisfying x;-1 ;;; ~~ ;;; Xj, and the largest of x1-xo,
x2-x1, ... , Xn-Xn-1 tends to zero as n tends to infinity. This notation
and the accompanying conditions will be assumed throughout the rest
of the chapter.
In this section we assume that f(x) is monotonic on the interval
a ;;; x ;;; b (see 4.6 for the definition of a monotonic function). Next
we define the sums Sn and Sn by the equations
(3)
Sn
(x1-xo)f(xo)+(x,-x1)f(x1)+(xa-x2)f(x,)+ ...
Sn
(x1-xo)f(x1)+(x,-x1)f(x,)+(xa-x,)f(xa)+ ...
+ (xn -Xn-1)f(xn)
THEOREM
Sn ;;;
'2, (Xj-XH)f(~j)
;;; Sn
j~1
(Xj-Xj-1)f(xH) ;;;
(Xj-Xj-1}f(~j)
;;; (Xj-Xj-1)f(xj),
102
CHAP. 5
0.
n~ro
(5)
Sn -Sn =
L (x;-x;-1)[f(xJ)-f(x;-1)]
;;:; 0.
;~1
Sn -Sn ~
.L tn[f(x;)- f(x;-r)]
j=l
n
=
tnL [j(x;)-f(XJ-I)J.
J-1
+ [f(xn)- f(Xn-1)]
f(xo)
+f(xn)
f(b)- f(a).
tn[f(b)- f(a)].
But f(b)- f(a) is a constant, and tn -> 0 as n -> oo, so we can apply
Theorem 9 of 2.3, with an replaced by tn[f(b)- f(a)] and bn replaced by
Sn-Sn. Thus Sn-Sn-+ 0 as n -> oo, and the proof is complete.
!
(7)
limSn = n-)oo
limsn = F(b) -F(a).
n-)c:o
SEC. 3
103
(x, -x,)f(82)
F(xa)-F(x2) ~ (x.-x,)J(Bs)
(x,-xo)f(B,)+(x,-x,)f(B2)+(xa-x2)f(Ba)+ ...
Sn
F(b) -F(a)
Sn.
Problems
1. Computesn,SnandF(b)-F(a)incasej(x) ~ 2x,F(x) ~ x 2 ,a ~ xo ~ 0,
x1 = .2, xz = .4, xa = .6, x4 = .8, b = xs = l.
2. Compute Bn, Sn, and F(b)-F(a) in case j(x) ~ 2x, F(x) ~ x', a~ 0,
b ~ 1, n ~ 10, Xj ~ j/10 for j ~ 0, 1, 2, ... , 10.
3. Compute Bn, Sn, and F(b)-F(a) in case j(x) ~ 2x, F(x) ~ x', a~ 0,
b ~ 1, n ~ 20, Xj ~ j/20 for j ~ 0, 1, 2, ... , 20.
4. The same as Question 1, but with j(x) ~ 3x', F(x) ~ x.
5. The same as Question 2, but with j(x) ~ 3x', F(x) ~ x.
6. The same as Question 3, but with f(x) ~ 3x2, F(x) ~ x.
J:f(x) dx
~ F(b) -F(a).
104
CHAP. 5
PRooF. Again we treat only the case where f(x) is monotonic increasing. Write an for the sum in equation (2), that is
n
(8)
an= 2,(xj-Xj-!)f(gj),
j~!
so that
b f(x)
a
dx = lim an
n-)co
Sn.
n->co
a
FIG. 5.1
interve<l a;
of pieces.
a ~
;:;;
X ~ Cl,
C1 ~ X ;;::; C2,
... ,
Cj-1 ~ X ~ Cj,
Cj ~ X ~
b,
J:f(x) dx = F(b)-F(a).
105
SEC. 3
PROOF. This follows from Theorem 4 and formula (5) of 3.2. First,
by repeated application of this formula we get (dropping the f(x) dx in
the integrals for convenience)
x=b
[F(x)Jx~a
or
[F(x)]a
dx.
x3
cosx dx.
Solution. In this case f(x) = cos x and we can take F(x) to be sin x.
Hence we have
n/2
J
0
cosxdx =
]''"
1T
= S i l l - - Slll0
[ SlllX
= l-0
1.
106
CHAP. 5
Problems
l. Prove Theorem l of 3.3 by the methods of the present section.
2. Prove Theorem 4 of 3.6 by the methods of the present section.
(h) J"l'cosx dx
r4x'dx
(b)
J"/6 cosx dx
J:x3 dx
(i)
(c)
J:rx"-x)dx
( j)
J: sinx dx
(d)
rdx
(k)
J"
1x
(e)
J'x'+
l
--dx
x'
(f)
r2dx
(I)
(m)
x3
sinx dx
/2
1
2
(g)
(n)
cosxdx
Jb
a
xndx =
dx
ol +x2
rS/3 _.'!"'____
o l+x2
51 --dx
2+x'
o l+x2
0,
bn+1-an+l
n+l
s:6x5 dx
6x5.
SEC. 4
107
---
H(b)-H(a)
(b -a)H'(k)
or
0,
I:l(b)
H(a).
Thus H(x) has the same value for all numbers x in the interval
a ;;; x ;;; f3, so that H(x) ~ c.
THEOREM 7. Let F(x) and G(x) be differentiable functions with equal
derivatives on an interval a ;;; x ;;; b. Then F(x) ~ G(x) + c on the
interval, where c is some constant.
PROOF.
F(x)- G(x)
c,
F(x)
G(x) +c.
6x5dx
x6+c.
Jf (x) dx
= F(x)
+c,
108
CHAP. 5
5x4
and
3x2 ,
-(x3)
dx
we see that
Problems
Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
I.
2.
i
3.
I
I
I
xdx
7.
3x2 dx
8.
(4x-6x2) dx
9.
4.
rx
10.
5.
rx
xs
ll.
6.
rx
I2.
x2
x4
I
I
I
dx
I +x2
dx
2+2x2
si:hxdx
cosxdx
I
I
sin2xdx
cos3xdx
dy
- =
dx
x3
dy
(b) - = 2 cosx.
dx
*I5. Let F(x) and G(x) be functions having the same derivative, say J(x),
on the interval a ~ x ~ b. Let J(x) be piecewise monotonic on this interval.
Give two proofs that F(b)-F(a) = G(b)-G(a), one by using Theorem 5 of
5.3, the other by using Theorem 7 of 5.4.
5.5 Inequalities for integrals. The following results are needed
for subsequent work with integrals.
SEC. 5
109
I:
F(x) dx :;;;
I:
G(x) dx.
From a geometric standpoint this theorem has a simple interpretation. As shown in Figure 5.2 it asserts that the are~ between y ~ G(x)
and the x-axis is at least as large as the area between F(x) and the
x-axis, both taken from x ~ a to x ~ b.
y-axis
~y=G(x)
~:
~y=F(x)
lx-a
-
x=b II
x-axis
FIG. 5.2
PROOF. Define the function f(x) as the difference F(x)- G(x), so that
f(x) :;;; 0 for all x in the interval a :;;; x :;;; b. Then by equation (8) of
5.3, we see that if we write
an ~
2 (XJ-XH)f(gj),
j~l
then
b f(x)
dx
~ n-)oo
lim an.
Furthermore since x;- Xf-1 ;;; 0 and f(g!) :;;; 0 we see that an :;;; 0,
aud so by Theorem 15 of 2.4
I:f(x) dx :;;; 0.
Butf(x)
I:
[F(x)- G(x)] dx
~ I:F(x)dx-
J:
G(x) dx:;;; 0,
110
CHAP. 5
and
y= f(x)
x -axis
y=O
Fw. 5.3
PROOF. First we apply Theorem 8 with
G(x) replaced by j(x) to get
J:mdx;;; J>(x)dx,
i.e.
m(b-a);;; J>(x)dx.
Next we apply Theorem 8 with F(x) replaced by j(x) and G(x) replaced
by M to get
Problems
1. Prove that 2(b3-a3) ;;; 3(b'-a') for any numbers a and b satisfying
b ;;; a ;;; 1. Suggestion: Apply Theorem 8 with F(x) = x, G(x) = x'.
2. Prove that 3(b4-a') ;;; 4(b3-a3) for any numbers a and b satisfying
b ;;; a ;;; 1.
SEC. 5
Ill
3. Prove that b' -a' ;,; 3(b2 -a2) for any numbers a and b satisfying
b ;,; a ;,; l.
4. Compute b- a and the best possible values of m and M as in Theorem 9
for the following integrals.
(a)
rdx
(e)
rdx
2 x2
(g)
1 X
(b)
(c)
(d)
dx
al+x
x'dx
fn/3
r3
sinxdx
n/6
(f)
tanxdx
n/6
r~ cosxdx
0
(h)
fn/2
0
(sinx+cosx) dx
CHAPTER 6
n(n-1)
f32 +
n(n-1)(n-2)
Since every term here is positive, the inequality (1) follows if we simply
discard all terms except nf3.
THEOREM. l. Ler r be any real number strictly between - 1 and + 1,
that is - 1 < r < l. Then
limrn
n->ro
0.
PROOF. Consider first the case where r is positive. For any positive
number <, we mnst prove that rn < < for all but a finite number
of integers n. Since r < 1, there is a positive number f3 such that
r = 1/(1 + {3). In fact, by solving this equation we see that
1-r
/3=-,
r
112
Slic. l
113
(2)
rn
by using Theorem 6 of 2.1. Now for any given E the relation (1/n,B) < E
holds for all but a finite number of positive integers n; in fact it holds
for all integers n exceeding l/(,8<). So by (2) we see that rn < E holds
for all but a finite number of positive integers n.
Passing over the case r = 0, suppose now that r < 0. The same proof
as above holds with r replaced by lrl, so that lrl < E holds for all
but a finite number of positive integers.
The next theorem contains the notation n!, read "n factorial", which
denotes for any positive integer n the product of all positive integers
from l to n, thus
n!
THEOREM 2.
n(n-l)(n-2) ... 3 2 l.
en
lim- = 0.
n->oo n!
PROOF. As in Theorem l we prove this for c > 0, and the result then
follows in case c < 0 by the definition of limit of a sequence in 2.3.
Define le as the least integer satisfying le > 2c, so that le is fixed.
Writing k +m for n we see that
ck+m
n!
(1)m.
limGf
o,
114
CHAP. 6
-E<an-a<E,
n=l,2,3, ... ,
Problems
~
l, G(x)
(b)
5n6n+l
2n
lim--00
n- (n+l)!
(d) lim--n~oo
n!+3n
lim---
n->oo
(e) lim
8(4/5)n
n-)oo
n!
n!
(c)
n!
lim---
(f)
n-ro(n+l)!
n!
lim-n-ro (2n)!
J:
cos x dx ;;;
J:
l dx
for any positive number t. Since the derivative of sin x is cos x, and
since sin 0 ~ 0, the integral on the left side of (3) equals sin t, and so
(3) states that sin t ;;; t. This holds for any positive value of t, so we
can apply Theorem 8 of 5.5 with F(x) and G(x) replaced by sin x
and x; thus
J:
sinxdx;;; J:xdx
SEC. 2
for any positive number t. Since the derivative of cos x is -sin x, the
evaluation of these integrals gives
1-cost:::;
t'
2
t'
1 - - ~cost.
2 -
or
f}- :}x
;2
t--~sint
3!-
x'
cosx;;; 1 - -
2!
(4)
x'
sin x f;
x3
X--
3!
x3
x4
cosx
1--+2!
4!
cosx
1--+--2!
4!
6!
x4
x2
sinx ;;:;
x6
x5
sinx
~ X--+-
sinx
~ X--+---
3!
5!
x3
x5
x?
3!
5!
7!
etc.
Let us look first at the inequalities for cos x. We define a 1 , a 2, aa, ...
by the equations
x2
x4
x6
xs
x' x4
1--+---+1--+2!
4!
6!
8!'
2!
4!'
x2
x4
x6
xS
xlO
x12
1--+---+---+2!
4!
x4
x6
6!
8!
10!
12!'
and in general
x2
1 - - + - - - + ... 2!
4!
6!
x4n-6
(4n-6)!
x4n-4
(4n-4)!
116
CHAP. 6
x'
br = 1 - 2!'
b,
x4
x2
x2
x4
xB
2!
4!
6!'
1--+---
x6
xB
xlO
ba = 1 - - + - - - + - - 2!
4!
6!
8!
10!'
x4
x2
x6
xB
xlO
xl2
x14
1--+---+---+--2!
4!
6!
8!
10!
12!
14!'
and in general
x4
x2
x6
x4n-4
1 - - + - - - + ... +
2!
4!
6!
(4n-4)!
x4n-2
----.
(4n-2)!
(5)
cosx
bl
cosx
~ a1
cosx
a2
cos x 'f; bz
cosx
aa
cosx ~ bs
cosx
COSX ~ a4
b4
etc.
Let us think of x as a fixed positive number. Then we can apply
Theorem 14 of 2.4, because
x4n-2
an-bn =
(4n-2)!
x4n-2
lim(an-bn) = lim
n-oo
(4n-2)!
cosx
x2
x4
x6
xB
2!
4!
6!
8!
1 - - + - - - + - - ....
(7)
sinx
x-3!
x5
x7
x9
5!
7!
9!
+ - - - +--
Equations (6) and (7) have been established only for positive values
of x. However, it is easy to see that they must be valid for all values
of x, positive, negative, or zero. Let us begin with (6). If x = 0, equation
SEC. 2
117
x2,
( -x)4
x,
( -x)B
xB, etc.
-x",
( -x)5
-x5,
( -x)'
-x', etc.
Equations (6) and (7) are thus seen to be valid for all real numbers x,
where of course x must be taken in radian measure. The reason for
this is that all our formulas and theorems about the differentiation
and integration of sin x and cos x were based on radian measure.
However, for an angle measured in degrees, equations (6) and (7) can
be applied by first converting the angle into radian measure.
ExAMPLE. Evaluate cos } with accuracy to five decimal places.
Solution. Using equation (6) we see that
cos-~
1--2 5
4! 5
where the symbol ;;: stands for "is approximately equal to".
The approximate value .98007 of cos!; has been obtained here by
using only the first three terms of the series. How can we be certain
that .98007 is accurate to five decimal places 1 Might it not be that the
rest of the terms in the infinite series have influence in determining the
first five decimal places! The answer to this question is no, as the following analysis will demonstrate.
When an approximation a is used in place of a number rx, we shall
say that the error is la- rxj. For example, if the number is 22.9 and the
approximation is 23, the error is .l. Similarly, if the number is 23.1
and the approximation is 23, the error is .l. Thus for our purposes we
are making no distinction between approximations larger than and
those smaller than the number.
THEOREM 4. If the first k terms of the series (6) are used to compute an
wpproximation to cos x, then the error is at most the absolute value of the
le+ 1-st term. An analogous result holds for equation (7).
-~
ll8
CHAP. 6
Before proving this in general, let ns begin with the example :;hove.
In view of the inequalities (5), we can conclude that
4
1-~(~)\
__1:_(~)
- __1:_(~)
2 5
4! 5
6! 5
;o;
cos~5 ;o;
1-
~(~)\
__1:_(~)
2 5
4! 5
or, in abbreviated notation, bz ;;;; cos i ; a2. Thus cos llies between b2 and a2, two numbers whose difference is
- 6! 5
(8)
x4
x6
x2k-2
2!
4!
6!
(2k-2)!'
1 - - + - - - + ... + ( -J)k-l-:-:----c-:-
(9)
x4
x6
x2k-2
1 - - + - - - + ... +(-1)>-1
2!
4!
6!
(2k- 2)!
x2k
+(-1)'~-.
(2k)!
Hence the error in using (9) as an approximation to cos xis at most the
absolute value of the difference between these sums, namely
1(-l)k(::!l l(::J
=
This is the absolute value of the le+ 1-st term of the series (6), and so
Theorem 4 is proved.
Problems
l. Compute sin i to 5 decimal places of accuracy.
2. Compute sin 2 to 5 decimal places of accuracy. Suggestion: The angle
2 becomes 7T/90 when converted to radians. Use 7T = 3.14159.
3. Compute sin 87 to 5 decimal places of accuracy. Suggestion: sin 87
= cos 3.
SEC. 3
119
f(x)
...
...
82
a1 +a2,
83 =
a1
+a2+a3,
... ,sn
L a1.
j=l
Each of the terms a 1 , az, a3, ... may be positive, negative, or zero.
If the partial sums s1 , s,, ss, ... tend to a limit s, then the series (ll)
is said to converge to s.
120
CHAP. 6
CHAPTER 7
x2dx
~- ~
3
122
CHAP. 7
(I)
x3
v2dv
1
=a- 3.
This integral, then, is just another way of writing (x3 -1)/3. Geometrically, the integral signifies the area under the curve y = v2, taken
from v = I to v = x as shown in Figure 7.I. The difference between
this and previous areas is that we have no definite boundary on the
right, since x can be any value we want to specify. It is understandable,
then, that the integral (I) is a function of x, but not a function of v
because v is merely a dummy variable of integration.
Now analogous to (I) we define a function of x, denoted by L(x),
by the equation
(2)
L(x) =
x -dv =
f"
v-1 dv,
v-axis
FIG. 7.1
v -axis
Fw. 7.2
* The theorems on the existence of the integral Jb f(x) dx depended on our knowledge of a function F(x) whose derivative is f(x). In the present case the variable of
integration is v, andf(v) = v- 1 But we have no knowledge of the existence of a function
F(v) whose derivative, with respect to v, is v-t. Thus while we can conceive of some
meaning for the integral {2) from a geometric picture, we are not certain of the existence
of this integral because a careful development of calculus should not be based on
geometric intuition. To avoid an unduly complicated analysis at this point, we postpone
the proof of the existence of such integrals as (2) until Appendix A.
SEc. I
L(l)=
(3)
dv
-=0,
1 V
and L(x) is negative for any x in the range 0 < x < I. These conclusions follow from the general definition of an integral in 3.2.
THEOREM I. The derivative of L(x) is Ijx, i.e., L'(x) = ljx.
PROOF. By the definition of derivative
,
L (x)
. L(x+!lx)-L(x)
hm
L\X->0
D._x
.
I (JxMxdv
J"dv)
hm - - .
L\X->0
_6.x
From equation (5) of 3.2 we see that the integrals can be combined,
thus
] JXMX -dv] .
First let us consider the limit as !lx tends to zero through positive
values. In this case we see that the integrand has maximum value
ljx on the range of integration, and minimum value Ij(x+ !lx). Hence
we can apply Theorem 9 of 5.5. with a and b replaced by x and
x+!lx, and we can take m = Ij(x+!lx) and M = Ijx. Hence we get,
since b -a is replaced by !lx,
(4)
:$
X+Llx -
fx+L\x dv ~ Llx.
x
V -
( 5)
x+!lx
= !lx
JX+L\X dv
x
< ~
= x'
As !lx tends to zero we see that the center term is caught between
ljx and a fraction which is tending to Ijx. It follows that L'(x) = Ijx.
But what if !lx tends to zero through negative values? In this case
we apply Theorem 9 of 5.5 to the integral
dv
x+.6.x V
with m = :,
X
M = ---,
x+!lx
b-a = -!lx.
124
CHAP. 7
-t!.x
~-;:;;
dv
- <
x+6.x V
-t!.x
~ :::; _1_
x - t!.x
fx+6.x dv
: : :;
l
'
v - x+t!.x
which is (5) with the inequalities reversed. As t!.x tends to zero it follows again that L'(x) ~ 1/x.
From Theorem 1 we can easily get the fundamental property of the
function L(x), as follows.
THEOREM 2. For any positive numbers a and x,
L(ax)
L(a)+L(x).
The reader will notice that this resembles one of the basic properties
of logarithms, namely log ab ~ log a+ log b. This resemblance does
not entitle us, however, to say that the function L(x) we are studying
must be the logarithmic function. This identification will come later
in the analysis.
PROOF. We will regard a as a constant, and we consider the derivative of L(ax) with respect to x. We write u for ax and apply Theorem 11
of 4.5 to y ~ L(ax), thus
y
L(u),
= ax,
d
-{L(ax)}
dx
dy
dx
dy
1 du
- ~ L'(u) ~ -, dx ~ a,
du
u
dy du
- du dx
ax
~-a ~-a~-.
Thus we see that L(x) and L(ax) have the same derivative, namely
1Jx, and so by Theorem 7 of 5.4 we conclude that L(x) and L(ax)
differ by a constant,
L(ax)
(6)
L(x) +c.
L(a)
Thus c
L(1)+c
O+c
~c.
Problems
l. Express f~ (dx(x) in terms of the L function.
2. Prove that L(a') = 2L(a), L(a') = 3L(a) and L(a4) = 4L(a) for any
. positive number a.
3. Prove that L(}) = -L(2). Suggestion: Substitute a =
in Theorem 2.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Prove
Prove
Prove
Prove
i and
x = 2
J-+ f' -+ f! dx
dx
!X
!X
dx
!X
L(b1b2) + L(bs)
Continuing in this fashion we see that for any positive numbers b1>
b2, ba, ... , bn,
(7)
If the numbers b1, b,, ... , bn are all equal, say equal to b, we get
(8)
L(bn)
nL(b).
126
CHAP. 7
(9)
L(3) > 1.
1 V
It +I. (say).
3/2 V
(2- ~)2
3
I. ;;; ~
~3'
L(2) ,; - + - 2
5
= -
I.
< 1.
To prove the second part of (9) we do much the same thing, except
that we apply the other part of Theorem 9 of 5.5. It is necessary to
break the integral into more parts; thus we take
L(3) =
5/4
3/2
.+
J512 + J3
7/4
5/2
+ ~ (~ 5 2
z) + ~3 (3- ~),
2
L(3) ;, - +- +- +- +- + -.
5 6 7 8 5 6
It follows by a .straightforward calculation that L(3) > 1.
From the definition (2) of L(x), we can see that since the integrand
lfv is positive, the value of L(x) increases as x increases, and decreases
as x decreases. In other words, L(x) is a monotonic increasing function.
As x increases indefinitely, that is to say, as x tends to infinity, what
happens to L(x) 1 The answer is that L(x) also increases indefinitely as
the following argument shows.
From equation (8) with b = 3, and from (9), we conclude that
L(3n) = nL(3) > n.
L(3-n) = -nL(3).
oo,
oo.
n~oo
lim L(x)
x->0
FIG. 7.3
Sketch of y
y = log x.
L(x) or
Problems
l. ~rove that L(3) ;<; t. Suggestion: Separate J~ into the parts
and J2
2. Prove that L(4) ;'i 1 + !+i.
3. Prove that
s:
L(n) ;<;
L(n);;;
n-1
4. Prove that
* In
n-1
writing lim L(x) = - ro, our notation is somewhat at variance with our lanx->o
gunge about limits. If we ask the question, "Does the function L(x) have a limit as X
tends to zero?", the answer is "No". The reason is that in saying that a sequence or a
function has a limit we mean a finite limit.
128
CHAP. 7
E'(y) = x,
since L'(x) = 1jx. Now x = E(y) so we see that E'(y) = E(y). Writing
this with the usual variable x, we conclude that
d
dx E(x) = E'(x) = E(x).,
(10)
The graph of the equation y = E(x) can be obtained at once from the
graph of y = L(x) in Figure 7.3 by interchanging the roles of x and y,
as shown in Figure 7.4. Note
that the domain of the function
y = E(x) is - oo < x < oo, and
that E(x) > 0 for every value of x.
The fundamental property L(ax)
= L(a)+L(x) of the function L(x)
entails a similar basic result for
the inverse function. Let us write
b for L(a), y for L(x), and w for
L(ax), thus
b = L(a),
y = L(x),
w = L(ax),
w = b+y.
Sketch of y = E(x) or y
ez.
a = E(b),
ax = E(w),
and hence
(ll)
x = E(y),
ax = E(b + y),
E(O)
I.
E(2) E(I),
whence E(3)
E(2) or E(2)
{E(I)}".
(I3)
for any positive integer n. For any positive rational number nfr let us
form the product with r factors,
E(njr)E(nfr)E(njr) ... E(njr) ~ {E(njr))'.
Applying (ll) repeatedly we see that this product equals E(n), and so
from (I3) we conclude that
{E(n/r))'
(I4)
E(n)
{E(IJ}n,
E(njr)
{E(I))nlr.
(I5)
I,
E( -nfr)
{E(I))-nlr.
It may be noted that E(I) plays a central role in these equations, and
so to simplify the notation we replace it by e. Thus (I3), (I4), and (I5)
can be written
E(n)
en,
E(njr)
enlr,
E( -njr)
e-nlr.
(I6)
ex
v2
130
CHAP. 7
But does this sequence have a limit! Our approach assures us that it
does. For the sequence (17) can be written, because of (16), as
(18)
E(a,),E(a,),E(as),E(a4), ....
e,
L(e)
I.
Now we proved that L(2) < 1 and L(3) > 1 in equation (9) of 7.2,
and since L(x) is a monotonic increasing funqtion, it follows that e
lies between 2 and 3.
Furthermore since E(x) is an exponential function, the inverse
function must be a logarithmic function. Specifically, the inverse of the
function
y ~ E(x) or y ~ ex
L(y) or x
log,y.
1jx.
Also, the basic property in Theorem 2 can now be written in the form
(19)
logax
Ioga+logx
for positive numbers a and x, and similarly (11) can be written in the
form
(20)
eb eY
eb+v.
Jf y
= ex,
then dyjdx
= ex.
Problems
I. Write E(l), E(2) and E(3) in terms of e.
2. Evaluate log e, log e' and log e3.
3. Find the derivatives of
(a)
y = log2x
(c) y = log(x+l)
(b)
y = log4x
(d) y = log(2x+I)
4. Differentiate
X
y =log--.
x+I
y = ex+l
(c)
(b)
y = e2x
(d) y = e-x
y = xex
J:
eu, u
-x,
132
CHAP. 7
dy
du
eu
du
'
-=-I,
dx
dy
dx
d
-(e-x)= -e-x.
dx
(eu)(-1) =-e-x,
I: e-xdx
(21)
= [
-e-x]g = -e-b+eO
1-e-b.
ex
I:
e-x dx ;;;
I:
1 dx,
I - e-b ;;; b,
1- b ;;; e-b.
This holds for any positive value of b, so 1- x ;;; e-x holds for any
positive x; it also holds for x = 0. Again we apply Theorem 8 of
5.5, this time with F(x) replaced by 1-x and G(x) replaced by e-x.
We get
b- bZ;;; 1-e-,
2
b (1-x) dx ;;;Ibe-Xdx,
I
e-b;;; 1-b+ b .
2
This holds for any b > 0, so e-x ;;; 1-x+x2j2 holds for any positive x;
it also holds for x = 0. Once again we apply Theorem 8 of 5.5,
with F(x) replaced by e-x and G(x) replaced by 1-x+x2j2. We get
I:
1-e-b,; b - -
b3
b2
b3
1!
2!
3!'
+- = - - - +-
b2
b3
1!
2!
3! -
1 - - + - - - , ; e-b.
1--
l!
x2
l!
2!
x
x2
x3
1--+--l!
2!
3!
1--+~
x3x4
xx2x3x4x5
1--+---+1!
2!
3!
4!
1--+---+--l!
2!
3!
4!
5!
x x2
etc.
Thus for any non-negative x we see that e-x is caught between successive partial sums of the series
x
(22)
x2
x3
x4
s1 = I,
x6
x5
x7
1 - - + - - - + - - - + - - - + ....
1!
2!
3!
4!
5!
6!
7!
sz = 1-
~,
1!
sa = 1 - -
l!
84, .
we have
x
x2
+ -,
x2
x3
1 - - + - - - ....
1!
2!
3!,
2!
is less than e-x, and on the other hand, no member of the sequence
(24)
is greater than e-x.
Let us regard x as a fixed non-negative number for a moment, so
that e-x is fixed. We apply Theorem 14 of 2.4, with e-x playing the
role of c, the sequence (23) in place of the sequence {an}, and the
sequence (24) in place of the sequence {bn} In order to apply Theorem
14 of 2.4, we must also know that lim(an- bn) = 0, in the notation of
that theorem. In the present context the difference an- bn is S2n-1- s,n,
and we see that
x2n-1
B2n-1
-Szn =
(2n-1)!
134
CHAP. 7
sequences (23) and (24) are the partial sums of the sequence (22),
and so we conclude that
(25)
ex=
x2
x3
x4
x5
x6
x?
1!
2!
3!
4!
5!
6!
7!
1 - - + - - - + - - - + - - - + ....
This expansion of e-x into a series has been established only for
non-negative values of x, that is, for all x ;;; 0. If we replace x by
-x in (25) we get the more common form
xx2x3x4x5
(26)
ex = 1 + 1!
+ - + - + - + - + ....
2!
3!
4!
5!
Since (25) was proved for x ;;; 0, we note that (26) has been established
for x ;:;; 0, because x was switched to -x. Formula (26) is a very basic
result which holds in fact for all values of x. To prove this, we must
establish that (26) is correct for positive values of x, and this we
now do.
We begin afresh with the function j(x) defined by
j(x) = 1+xe'-ex.
Here c is any fixed positive number, and the domain of the function is
restricted to 0;:;; x;:;; c. Note that j(O) = 0 and that j'(x) = e'-ex
We apply Theorem 15 of 4.7. Since ex is monotonic increasing, we
see that f '(x) > 0 for 0 < x < c. Hence j(x) is monotonic increasing
for 0 ;:;; x ;:;; c, and it follows that
f(x) ;;; 0,
1 +xe'-ex
;;; 0,
J:
1 dx ;:;;
J: ex dx ;:;; J:
(1 +xe') dx
xz
x+ -ec
2
S
for
~ X ~ C,
I:
x dx
b2
b2
b3
:o; eb- 1 - b :o; - + - e'
2-2
6
for
e') dx,
0 :o b :o c.
--
bxZdX
o2
Ib
(eX-1-x)dX
~Ib
b"
b2
b3
b4
-:oe-1-b--:0-+-e'
62-6
24
(Xz
2
+ XS ec)ax,
for
6
O~b~c.
b2
b3
n! -
2!
3!
-~eb-1-b-----
lim- = 0,
n-HJ)
n!
bn-1
bn
bn+l
... ----:::;;-+
ec,
(n-1)! - n!
(n+ 1)!
bn
bn+l
)
bn
bn+l
lim ( - +
e' = lim- +e'lim--n-oo n!
(n+ 1)!
n!
(n+ 1)!
= O+e' 0 = 0.
Consequently, as n tends to infinity it follows from Theorem 17 of
2.4 that
b2
b3
e - l - b - - - - - ... =0.
2!
3!
Replacing b by x we obtain (26) for any x in the domain 0 ~ x ~ c.
But c is any positive number, and so (26) has been established for all
positive values of x. Since (26) had already been proved for x ~ 0,
we have now completely proved this formula for all values of x.
We are now in a position to compute the value of e, by setting x = 1
in (26). This gives
= 1+
- + - + - + - + - + ...
l!
2!
3!
4!
5!
,
2.71828 ....
136
CHAP.
Problems
l. Check the arithmetic in the above computation of e to five decimal
places.
2. At the opening of this section we found the derivative of y = e-x.
Verify the result by writing the function in the form y ~ ljex, and using
Theorem 6 of 4.3.
3. Presuming that it is correct to differentiate an infinite series term by
term (as it is under certain conditions) differentiate (26) term by term
and verify Theorem 4 of 7.3.
4. Compute the value of ye to three decimal places by substituting the
appropriate value of x in (26). Verify your answer by taking the square
root of 2.71828.
*5. What function j(x) has the properties f '(x) ~ j(x) and j(O) ~ 41
6. Presuming that it is correct to multiply two infinite series term by
term, multiply equations (25) and (26), computing all powers up to x5 in
the product.
7.5 The Number e. We now develop a well-known expression
fore as a limit, namely formula (27) below. We start with Theorem 3
of 7.3, which can be written in the form
t:.x->0
Taking x
I
-.
l.
0, we get
1
lim [--log(l + 6.x)]
Llx
t..x->0
We let 6.x tend to zero through the positive values l, !, !, !, ... so that
the above limit becomes the limit of a sequence. Writing lfn for 6.x,
we see that Llx --* 0 implies n -+ eo, and so we have
lim
n->oo
[n log(!+~)]
~ l.
n
n~oo
l.
For convenience at this point, let us write an for log(!+ lfn)n, so that
we have a sequence a 1 , a 2, a3, a4, ... with limit 1.
Now as we noted in our discussion following (18) in 7.3, the function
E(x) or e" is continuous because it is differentiable. Consequently, by
has limit e', or e. But since E(x) and L(x) are inverse functions, we
see that
ea" = E(an) = E(log(l + 1/n)n) = E(L(l + 1/n)n) = (! + 1/n)n,
and
(27)
e = lim(l + 1/n)n.
n~ro
+ })3
(I+ i)4
dollars at the end of the year. In general, if the interest rate is lOO per
cent compounded n times a yea.r, one dollar would increase to
(! + 1/n)n
dollars at the end of the year. But by (27) the limit of this expression
as n tends to infinity is e, and so e can be interpreted as the accumulated
amount at the end of one year when one dollar earns interest at the
rate of lOO per cent compounded continuously. Since ordinary compound interest represents growth in spurts, we see that e is related to
138
CHAP. 8
(a)
(b)
lim ( I+I
2n
n__,ro
Ilim ( 1 + 2n+l
n->oo
r+l
n2
(b)
(c)
)3n
lim I+-
(e)
lim (I+_!_
2n
I
(f) lim ( I+n->oo
2n
n->co
n->co
( lr
r
n
lim (I+_!_
n-"co
3n
r+l
= I
rS
1-rn,
or
S(l-r)
1-rn,
since most of the terms on the right sides cancel. Dividing by 1-r
we get S ~ (1-rn)j(l- r), and so
l-rn
I
rn
I +r+r2+r3+ ... +rn-2+rn-l ~ - - ~ - - - - - .
(28)
1-r
1-r 1-r
This equation is not valid in case r ~ l, because in this case l - r ~ 0
and the division is impossible. But (28) holds for any number r except
r ~ l, and for any natural number n. So also the following variation
on (28) holds for x # l,
l
xn
(29)
- - ~ l+x+x'+x3+ ... +xn-2+xn-1+ - - .
1-x
l-x
We plan to integrate this equation. To begin, we want to find the
integral of l/(1-x). Theorem 3 of 7.3 suggests that we should look
at the derivative of y ~ log(l-x). Using this theorem, and also
Theorem !I of 4.5, we can write
y
logu,
dy
dx
-
dy
du
1-x,
dy du
du dx
= -- =
dx
-1
-- =
--,
d
-{log(l-x)}
dx
(30)
du
I
=-,
-I,
1-x
-1
-.
1-x
b -dxf o 1-x
ol-x
b dx
o l-x
[ -log(l-x)]g
-log(l-b)+logl
-log(l-b),
b2
b3
b4
bn-1
bn
fb xn
b+-+-+-+ ... +--+-+
--dx.
2
3
4
n-1
n o 1-x
140
CHAP. 7
This last integral will not be evaluated, but we will establish that it
tends to zero as n tends to infinity, provided that b is suitably restricted.
For convenience we write
b xn
In~
--dx.
(33)
o 1-x
xn~bn,
1-x~l-b,
xn
- - :<;; - - ,
1-x- 1-b
bn
- - :<;; - - .
1-x- 1-b
xn
bn
bn+l
--.
1-b
(34)
Now lim bn
:0;
In
:0; - - .
- 1-b
0 -1-b
0.
Problems
l. Compute log .9 to 4 decimal places. Suggestion: Set b = .1 in (35).
2. Compute log .99 to 4 decimal places.
3. What does (35) give us if we set b = 0?
log~=
2
-log2=
-~-~(~)
-~(~)
-~(~)
-
2 22
32
42
Jog-=
5
log1~ =
1
-1 0
- - .2231,
-. 1054 '
where the symbol ;; stands for "is approximately equal to". Then
we can write
Jog5 = 2log2-log4/5;; 2(.6931)+.2231 = 1.6093,
Jog10 = Jog2+log5;; .6931+1.6094 = 2.3024.
At this stage we have picked up an error in the last decimal place,
which is to be expected because the errors in the approximations are
142
CHAP. 7
logl0+log(9/IO)""
log 3 ~
2.2036~.1054 ~
2.1972,
log10a
for
a > 0.
logea log10e,
Cf.,
10",
eP,
IOY,
(f.~
(IOY)P
IOYP,
10"
IOYP,
yfJ.
In order to use (36) we need the value of logwe, and we can get this by
setting a~ 10:
logwiO
log,IO logwe.
We have already established that log,IO "" 2.3026, and so we find that
logwe
- - ""
_ .4343.
log,IO
2.3026 -
Problems
I. Compute the following to 4 decimal places.
(a)
logw3
(c) log10 6
(b)
logw5
log7
(c) log 11
(b)
log,o7
(d) log,oll
CHAPTER 8
FURTHER APPLICATIONS
dx
Jo 1+x2
143
144
CHAP. 8
arctanb
b3
b5
b'
b9
b - - + - - - + - - ...
Jb
b2n-l
b2n-3
x2n
~I,
~~ :-s;
2 -
l+x
x2n
1,
~~ S x2n.
I+x2 -
We apply Theorem 8 of 5.5 with F(x) and G(x) replaced by xnj(l + x')
and xn respectively, to get
Jb x n dx = [ x2n+l ] b
b-x2n
-dx S
o
2n+I q
Jo l+x
~~
(3)
b2n+l
~~.
2n+l
b2n+1
b2n+l
I,
lim-~- ~ limb2n+llim~~ ~
n-oo
2n+ I
2n+ I
0.
It follows from (3) that the limit of the integral is also zero as n ->- w,
by the usual application of Theorem 9 of 2.3. Thus equation (2)
becomes, as n -:.. oo
(4)
arctanb
b3
b5
b'
b9
bll
b - - + - - - + - - - + ....
3
5
7
9
ll
I
I
I
I
I
I - - + - - - + - - - + ....
3 5 7 9 ll
Sli:c. 2
FURTHER APPLICATIONS
145
This equation, elegant though it is, does not lend itself to computation
because the series converges very slowly, so that a considerable calculation is necessary for accuracy to, say, four or five decimal places.
A better equation for computational purposes can be had by taking
b = v3j3 in (4). From elementary geometry we know that
"
..;3
tan-=-,
6
3
..;3
and so
;
"
arc tan-=-,
3
6
_(
....
(5)
Yet another equation for " can be arrived at by using the trigonometric identity
tan o: +tan f3
(6)
tan(o: + /3) =
.
1-tano: tanf3
If we take o: = arc tan
tan(o:+/3) =
and
1+1
1-l t
= l,
and so
7T
o:+/3 = -.
4
7T
1
1
-=arc tan- +arctan4
1
l
1
1
]
[ 2 - 3.23 + 5.25 - 7.2' + ...
Problems
L Use (5) to compute the value of 7T to four decimal places.
2. Use (7) to compute the value of n to four decimal places.
3. Compute arc tan .l to four decimal places.
146
CHAP. 8
SEC. 3
FURTHER APPLICATIONS
147
using here the basic idea that velocity is distance divided by time. If
we let llt tend to zero we get the velocity v of the object as it passes the
point P, thus
(8)
llx
lim-.
M~O
flf
a~
llv
lim-.
llt
at~o
(10)
k
a=--.
x2
148
CHAP. 8
- .00609
k
(4000)2'
k = 9.74 X 104.
~V
~t
- = lim -
~t
~V
~~
~X
~t
~X
lim- = lim - - -
dv
a
dx - ; -
k
- vx2'
dv
2vdx
~V
dv
~X
dx
and
= lim- = --,
= lim(Ll.tf~x),
~x,
2kx-2,
dV
dv
dx
dv
dx
--=---=
dv
2v-,
dx
(13)
-- =
dx
-2kx-2 .
v2
2k
=-
+c,
(14)
v2
1.95 X 105
-----+c.
X
SEC. 3
FURTHER APPLICATIONS
149
c = 51.3.
1.95 X 105
+51.3.
v2
1.95 X 1Q5
----+32.3.
X
150
CHAP. 8
v2 ~
X-700
lim [
1.95 X
1.95 X
x
J05 ]
+lim[c]
[05
lim [ - - - - - +c
X-'OC!
X
1.95 X
O+c
0,
0.
J05
4000
V ~
6.98.
escape equals
vzgr.
MEAN DENSITY
EARTH
4000
5.5
MooN
llOO
2100
3.3
4.0
MARS
(WATER~
1)
prove that gzfg, ~ .165 and g3 jg, ~ .38, where g,, g,, g3 are the accelerations of gravity on the Earth, the moon, and Mars. Suggestion: Newton's
law of gravitation implies that g is directly proportional to the mass of the
planet, and inversely proportional to the square of the radius.
*3. Use all preceding data to show that the velocities of escape from the
moon and Mars are approximately 1.5 and 3.1 miles per second.
8.4 Radioactive Decay. We now give another example leading to a
differential equation, which is the name for any equation involving
derivatives, like equation (12) of the preceding section. Any radioactive
material disintegrates by giving off radiation, and there remains a
substance of lower atomic weight. If we make the reasonable assumption that the amount of radiation is proportional to the amount of
radioactive material present at any time, it follows that the rate of
decrease of the radioactive substance is proportional to the amount of
radioactive substance remaining at any given time.
FURTHER APPLICATIONS
SEC. 4
151
du
-
dt
1 du
or - u dt
-/,;u
-k.
Combining this with (15) we obtain dyjdt = - k, and this is a differential equation whose solution is readily available, namely
-kt+c.
logu
-kt+c.
u = e-kt+c,
I["
11
'I'I
!52
CHAP.
lie
tli
,I
.I
loguo,
logu 1
logu,
=
kt, + c,
ktr + logu 0 ,
loguo -logu,
t,
log(uofu,)
t,
u = e'.
e-150k
e-50k =
9
1 0
and so we get
Problems
I. By substituting uo for u when t = 0 in (17), prove that (17) can be
re\vritten as u = uoe-kt.
8.5 A Mixing Problem. To keep matters from getting too complicated, we shall examine a very specific mixing problem. Consider
a tank containing 1200 gallons of brine, at a concentration of I pound
of salt per gallon. Suppose that pure water is poured steadily into the
tank at a rate of 20 gallons per minute; that the mixture is kept at a
uniform concentration throughout the tank by vigorous stirring; and
that the mixture flows steadily out of the tank also at a rate of 20 gallons
per minute, so that the total volume under consideration is a constant
1200 gallons. The question is, what is the amount of salt in the tank
at any time t1 We may presume that t is measured in minutes, and that
t = 0 at the time that the pure water started pouring into the tank.
Let there be x pounds of salt in the mixture in the tank at any time t,
so that x = 1200 when t = 0. Then from time t to a later time t + 1\.t
the amount of salt in the tank decreases from x to x + Ll.x, where 1\.t
is positive but 1\.x is negative. At time t the amount of salt per gallon
SEC. 5
FURTHER APPLICATIONS
153
- - 20(/',t)
1200
pounds of salt. The second of these is the smaller because /',xis negative.
But the change in the amonnt of salt in the tank from time t to time
t + /',t is /',x; in other words the amount of salt leaving the tank in this
time interval is - /',x pounds. Hence we conclude that
x
x+/',x
- - 20(/',t) > -/',x > - - 20(/',t).
1200
1200
60
Taking limits as
X
[',t
/',x
+ /',x
> -->--60
/',t
dx
1 dx
60
60
ec-t/60
ec . e-t/60.
1200 e-t/60.
Problems
The reader will find tables of natural logarithms and the exponential
function of considerable use for the following problems.
l. With reference to the problem outlined above, how much salt remains
in the tank after the pure water has been pouring in for l hour'? for 2 hours?
154
CHAP. 8
2. At what time will the concentration of salt in the tank be ! pound per
gallon 1 i pound per gallon?
3. Draw a rough graph of the equation x = 1200e-tl6o from, say, t = 0
to
t =
FIG. 8.2
R (u,-p)
Graph of x2 = 4JY1J.
S'Ec. 6
FURTHER APPLICATIONS
155
!56
CHAP. 8
y = -x2
4p
to get
dy
dx
4p
2p
-- = -(2x) = -.
Hence the slope of the line PB is uj(2p), since u is the x coordinate of P.
But the slope of PB is also PCjBC, and consequently
u
PC
PS+SC
PS+ OB
v+OB
os
-=-=~---=
2p
BC
BC
Multiplying by u we get
u2
-
2p
v+OB,
OB
,.z
= -
2p
4pv
= -
2p
= 2v- v =
v.
SEC. 7
FURTHER
2x 2 1 of
(18)
-b yb2 -4ac
2a
f(-1) = -10,
f(2)
= - 10,
f(O) = -12,
f(3)
j(1) = -14,
= 6.
The pair of functional values f(2) = -10 and f(3) = 6 suggests that
as x varies continuously from x = 2 to x = 3, f(x) varies continuously
from - 10 to 6, and so there is some intermediate value of x where
f(x) = 0. This is so, and although it is perhaps intuitively obvious,
it is not easy to give a rigorous mathematical proof. We give no proof
here, but simply take it as axiomatic that if a continuous function
f(x) has functional values f(a) and f(b) with opposite signs, then there
is at least one value of x between a and b for which f(x) = 0. Thus
equation (18) has a root between x = 2 and x = 3, and we can take
either of these as a first approximation to the root. The approximation x = 3 is preferable, because 6 is closer to 0 than - lO is.
In general, suppose we have a first approximation x = a to a root
of an equation f(x) = 0. The idea is that we will use a tangent line to
158
CHAP. 8
b-a =
f(a)
b =a---
( 19)
f'(a)'
j'(x) = 3x2-3,
a= 3,
f(a)
11
J'(a)
24
= 6, j'(a) = 24, b = a - - = 3 - - = -.
SEC. 7
FURTHER APPLICATIONS
159
c=
f(b)
b-~-
f'(b)
= 2.75-
.55
2.72,
19.7 -
~-"'
b =
f(a)
a-~-=
f'(a)
We appear to be losing ground, but 3.1 is actually a better approximation than 2 is. A repetition of the process would lead from 3.1 back
toward the root.
FIG. 8.6
The use of (19) will not always give a succession of values a, b, c, ...
which converge to the actual root. For example, in Figure 8.6 there is
an example of a function such that the approximation a leads to b,
but iteration of the process leads back to a again. The mathematical
theory giving conditions under which success of the procedure is assured
is beyond the scope of this book. We shall confine our attention to
cases where the successive approximations do lead to the root with
increasing accuracy. To minimize the amount of calculation required,
we shall require accuracy to two decimal places only. When two successive approximations are identical to two decimal places, we shall
regard this as assurance of accuracy. For example, in the case of the
equation (18), we obtain 2.72 as an approximation to the root after two
applications of (19). Another iteration of the process leads from 2.72
to the same number, 2.72, to two decimal places of accuracy. Hence
we conclude that 2. 72 is a root of x3- 3x- 12 = 0, accurate to two decimal places.
Newton's method is not restricted to the solution of polynomial
equations, but can also be applied to such equations as sin x = xj2
160
CHAP. 8
~~~~~~-
Problems
I. By drawing a rough sketch of the graph of y ~ x'-3x-l2, establish
that equation (18) has only one real root. Suggestion: The derivative of
j(x) ~ "'"-3x-12 isj'(x) ~ 3x'-3. and so by the theory of 4.7 the curve
has a local maximum point at ( -1, -10) and a local minllmun point at
(1, -14). Furthermore, as x increases, j(x) is increasing for x < -1 and
x > I. but j(x) is decreasing for - I < x < I.
2. Establish that x3 + x- 5 = 0 has only one real root, and that this root lies
between x = I and x = 2. Find the root to two decimal places of accuracy.
3. Find all real roots of x3+x2-7 = 0.
4. Establish that the equation x'+ 12x2+36x-4 ~ 0 has only one real
root, and that this root lies between x = 0 and x = I. Find this root to
two decimal places of accuracy.
5. Find all real roots of x3 + 3x2 + x- 6 = 0 to two decimal places of
accuracy.
6. Find all real roots of x3-3x2-x+4 = 0 to hvo decimal places.
7. Find the value of
to two decimal places by solving the equation
x'- 3 ~ 0 by Newton's method.
8. Evaluate -{7'36 to two decimal places.
*9. (a) Let k and a be positive numbers such that a is an approximation
to Vk. Prove that Newton's method applied to the equation x2-k ~ 0
gives ~(a+kja) as the next approximation.
(b) Prove that the approximation i(a-+kfa) is larger than Vk, whether
or not a is larger than
Suggestion: The inequality }(a+kja) > Vk is
equivalent to a+kfa > 2Vk, a-2Vk+kfa > 0. (Va- Vkja) 2 > 0.
(c) Suppose that the approximation a is too large, i.e., a > Vk. Prove
that ~(a+kfa) is a better approximo.tion in the sense that it is closer to Vk;
that is, prove that
v3
vk.
- - - - - - - - < 0.
a
*10. Let a be an approximation to .v'k. Prove that Newton's method
applied to x3-k = 0 gives ~(2.a+lcja 2 ) as the next approximation.
APPENDIX A
J>(x)
dx,
-.
1 V
We now establish that L(x) really exists, and so we will have a proper
foundation for the logarithmic and exponential functions.
The proof is given for a monotonic increasing function f(x). For a
monotonic decreasing function the proof is analogous with all
inequalities reversed.
In the course of the proof we shall use a fundamental proposition
about real numbers, which we now explain. It will be labeled an
"axiom", although in any thorough study of the real number system
161
162
APPENDIX A
I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ... ,
(3)
(4)
1234567
1234567
27' ....
The sequence (2) is non-decreasing, but is not bounded above, although it is bounded below. (The sequence (2) is actually increasing,
but "non-decreasing" is a more useful concept in this Appendix.)
The sequence (3) is non-decreasing and is bounded above and below.
The sequence (4) is non-increasing and is bounded above and below.
AxroM ON BoUNDED SEQUENCES. A non-decreasing sequence that
is bounded above has a limit. A non-increasing sequence that is bounded
below has a limit.
This axiom has nothing to say about the sequence (2) above, but it
applies to the sequences (3) and (4) and assures us that these sequences
have limits. The limits are 1 and 0 respectively, but the axiom only
assures us of the existence of a limit, not that we can find the actual
limit in all cases.
We shall use this axiom later in the proof, but first we prove a result
about limits.
THEOREM l. If the terms of the sequences {an), {bn) and {en) satisfy
the inequalities bn ;<; an ;<; Cn for all positive integers n, and if an -+ k
and Cn- bn -+ 0 as n -> oo, then bn -+ k and Cn -+ k.
PROOF. Noting that
0 ~ an-bn ~ Cn-bn
APPENDIX
163
Hence Theorem 2 of 5.2 can be reformulated thus: If j(x) is a monotonic function. then
(6)
n~ro
G : a,
(7)
ZJ,
where
a
Zo
~ Zl ~ Z2 ~ za ~ ... ~ Zr-1 ~ Zr
= b,
s(C)
164
APPENDIX A
Zf+l, .. Zr-b
b,
with ZJ ;'; u ;'; ZJ+l Then s(C') is the same as s(C) except that the
term (ZJ+l -ZJ)f(z;) is replaced by
(u- ZJ)f(z;) + (ZJ+r-u)f(u).
Thus to prove that s(C) ;'; s(C') we must establish that
(10)
Bringing the terms involvingf(zj) together on the left, we see that (10)
amounts to
( 11)
B
u
FIG. A.l
165
Next consider once again the definition (5) of the integral. For each
positive integer n, the set On consists of n + l points a, xr, x2, ... , Xn-b b.
Define On* as the union of all sets 0 1 , 0 2 , ... , On, thus
(12)
In other words, On* consists of all numbers in all the sets Or, 02, ... , On.
It follows at once that
f(b)[zn- zo]
f(b)[b-a].
Now f(b) and b-a are fixed, and so the terms of (13) are bounded
above. Hence s(On*) tends to a limit, say k, as n tends to infinity.
Next we observe that
s(On) ;;; s(On*) ;;; S(On*) ;;; S(On)
The first and last of these follow from (12) and Theorem 2. The middle
inequality can be seen at once from (8) and (9), since j(x) is monotonic
increasing. Applying equation (6) and Theorem 1 with bn, an, and Cn
replaced by s(On), s(On*) and S(On), we conclude that as n -> oo,
s(On) -+ k,
S(On) -> k.
an
2 (xj-Xj-l)j(gl)
j~l
Section 1.1
2. (a) t (b) -%
(c) (b-2)/(a-1)
3. 7/2
6. 15
8. -3
11. (-4, -ll)
14. (b-d)f(a-c)
15. dfc
Section 1.2
Section 1.3
l. 12
3. 2
x-y ~ e;
y-x ~ e;
E ~ x-y f;; -e;
e ~ y-x f; -e.
8. (a) -6<x<6
(c) -7 < x-3 < 7
or -4 < x < lO
9. (a) lxl < 9
(c) lx-221 < 8
- e
- e
Section 1.4
These are incorrect: 2, 6, 11, 13
Section 1.5
l. 500,500
3. 297,925
7. }n3- --n2+ifn
10. n(n +I )(n + 2)
12. tn 2 (n +I )2
Section 2.3
Section 1.6
l.
3. -i
5. ~
8. T
Section 2.4
~
Section 2.1
42 and T ~ 82
ANSWERS
Section 2.5
1. (a) 0 < x < oo
(b) 0 ;;; X < 00
2. (a) Domain-2 ;;; x;;; 2,
range 0 ;;; f(x) ;;; 2
(b) Domain
-v2;;; x;;; v2,
range 0 ;;; f(x) ;;; 2
(d) Domain
-CO < X < eo,
range 0 < f(x) < oo
3. /(1) = 3,/(2) = 6,/(4) = 24
Section 4.1
1. (a) dyjdx = 2x +I
(c)
(e) 1
(g) v3/2
dy
dx
3. -
9. (a) -1
(d)
(e) -2
Section 3.1
7. 1
Section 3.3
1.
t' lf-'\
42
1. (a)
(e)
(g)
5. (a)
3. lo
Section 3.4
1. (a) 'J- (c)
~l
1. (a)
~.~
(c)
2. (a) 1 (c)
(c)
(e) - \~
Section 3.5
. sin(x+6.x)-sinx
hm -'-----'--
Ax~o
6.x
Section 4.3
(c)
5. 0
= 6x2
Section 4.2
Section 2.8
1. 1
3. 1 and 3
dyjdx
3. dyfdx = 4x 3
5. (a) (0, 0) and(},,',)
(b) (0, 0) and (3, 27)
7. Yes,atthepoint(-4, -64)
Section 2.6
2. (a) 0
167
______::_::_:
(e)
dy
= 14x
dx
dy
= 14x-4
dx
dy
= -3x-4
dx
dy
-= 4
dx
3
dy
-=-dx
(3 + x) 2
dy
6x-x4
(x3+ 3)2
dx
3-x
dy
2yx(x+ 3)2
dx
l,
Section 3.6
1. (a) (2- v3)/2 (c) 2
3. (a) 2 (c) (2- v2)/2
Section 4.4
1. (a) y' = -cosecx cotx
(c) y'
(e) y'
(g) y'
2 sinx cosx
y'
-2sinxcosx
x cosx-sinx
Section 3.7
2. 1"(2~''- 3r2k +k3)
3. !prr2h
(i)
-cosec2x
x"
168
(c)
2. (a) sec2x
3. (a) y'
(c) y'
-sinv
2.
3.
5.
7.
Section 4.5
1. (a) y' ~ - 7 sin 7x
y is a minimum if
X ~ -v'9j2
(a) x ~ k1
(c) x = -}(k1 +k2+ks)
pj4 by p/4
cj2 and c/2
(a) x = 1.l-, y = l 3Q.
(b) X ~ l['-, y ~ j}
(i)
sinx+x cosx
x cosx-sinx
ANSWERS
(c)
y' ~ 2v'x+ 1
Section 4.9
(e) y'
18x2(2+x")'
(g) y'
-2 cosx sinx
y'
(i)
1. r ~ 5j-v":;;, h ~ 1oj-v';;
5. 6 inches by 8 inches
7. r ~ V2/3, h ~ v' 4/3
9. v11
---,-------,--,(a2 + x2)1
5.~==
1.
2v'x+ 3
F(b)-F(a) ~ 1
3. Sn ~ .95, Sn ~ 1.05,
F(b)-F(a) ~ 1
5. Sn = .855, Sn ~ 1.155,
F(b)-F(a) ~ 1
Section 4.6
3. None
2
y'
2 arc tanx
1 +x2
1 (iii) c
Section 5.3
3. (a) 80 (c) 2 (e) CL3"
(g) 1 (i) t (k) 1
Section 4.7
1. (i) c
(v) c
Sn ~
Section 5.2
.8,' Sn ~ 1.2,
(m)
~ -~
Section 4.8
~ 2
(c) y is a maximum if
x = -3, a minimum if
1. (a) y is a minimum if x
Section 5.4
1. !x +c
3. 2x2-2x3+c
2
-1
5. -+c
2x2
x~2
(e) None
(g) y is a maximum if
x = - 2, a minimum if
X~ 0
"'/6
7. arctanx+c.
9. -cosx+c
11.
-I cos2x+c
ANSWERS
Section 5.5
4. (a) b-a ~ I, m~"},
M~
(c)
Section 7.5
2. (a) e (c) e
3. (a) e (c) v'e (e) ~e
b-a~2,m~,~,
M~
l:
(e) b-a
M~
7Tj6,
m~
lt
VS/2
Section 6.1
2. (a) 0
(b) I
Section 8.2
3. .0997
5. 1.1071
3 .. 99863
Section 8.4
Section 7.1
1. L(5)-L(2),
9.
(dxfx)
s:
or
3. I5.5 milligrams
L(5/2)
1. e, e2, e3.
3. (a) y' ~ 1fx
(c) y' ~ 1/(x+ I)
5. y' ~ 3/x
7. y is a minimum if x
Section 7.4
~
4ex
Section 8.5
1. 441.5 lb., 162.4 lb.
Section 7.3
5. f(x)
Section 7.7
1. (a) .4771 (c) .7782
2. (a) 1.9459 (c) 2.3979
(e) 0
Section 6.2
1. .I9867
Section 7.6
1. -.I054
Section 8.6
2. (0, !), (0, f), (f, 0)
Section 8.7
~
3. 1.63
5. 1.09
7. 1.73
I69
INDEX
absolute value, 21
acceleration, 147
angle measure, 35
antiderivative, 107
approximation notation 1 117
arc tan x, 88, 89, 143
area, 12, 15, 16
under parabola, 12
axiom on bounded sequences, 162
derivative, 68 ff.
chain rule for, 82
definition of, 71
notation for, 72
of a sum, 75
of a product, 75
of a quotient, 76
of arc tan x, 89
of cos x, 80
of em, 131
of log x, 130
of sin x, 79
'of tan x, 81
of X 11 , 76, 87
differentiable, 71
differential equation, 151
graph, of y = x2 , 5
of cos B, 41
of f(x) ~ [x[, 72
of y ~ x, 75
of y ~ c, 75
of y ~ VX,78
of y ~ x', 85
of y = tan x, 88
of y = arc tan x, 89
171
~17~2~--------------------~INDEX
graph (cont.)
of 11 ~ 1/v, 122
of y = log x, 127
of y = e"', 128
gravitation, 146
interpretation as an area, 58
of sin x, 62
of tan x, 64, 131
inverse function, 84
inverse square law, 147
inverse trignonometric function, 88
law of gravitation, 146
limit, 6, 25
fore, 137
of a function, 36, 39
of a sequence, 25
of a sum, 48
of (sin e)le, 36-39
of cn!n!, 113
of rn, 112
of (1 + 1/n)n, 137
theorems on, 27, 29, 42, 112
logarithm, 121 ff.
common, 130
computation of, 141
natural, 130
properties of, 125
series expansion of, 140
7T,
radian measure, 35
radioactive decay, 150
range of a function, 34
real number, 17
refraction of light, 97
sequence, 24
bounded, 162
limit of, 25
series, convergence of, 119
partial sums of, 119
series expansion, 114
for arc tan x, 144
for cos x, 116
for ex, 134
for log(!- x), 140
for sin x, 116
sine (sin x), 79, 116
slope, 1, 2
of a muve, 2, 5, 69
Snell's law, 97
sphere, volume of, 65
subsequences, 114
snm of squares, 10
symbols, J f(x)dx, 51, 104, 105
dy!dx,69
y', 72
f'(x),72
11!' 113
"',117
see also notation
tan x, 81
trigonometric functions, 79, 88, 114, 143
computation of, 117
velocity of escape, 146
volume of a sphere, 65
I
'