Sun - General Description

3/29/2015
SunWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Sun
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
TheSun[a]isthestaratthecenteroftheSolar
System.Itisbyfarthemostimportantsourceof
energyforlifeonEarth.TheSunisanearlyperfect
sphericalballofhotplasma,[12][13]withinternal
convectivemotionthatgeneratesamagneticfieldvia
adynamoprocess.[14]ThediameteroftheSunis
about109timesthatofEarth,andithasamassabout
330,000timesthatofEarth,accountingforabout
99.86%ofthetotalmassoftheSolarSystem.[15]
Chemically,aboutthreequartersoftheSun'smass
consistsofhydrogen,whereastherestismostly
helium,andmuchsmallerquantitiesofheavier
elements,includingoxygen,carbon,neonandiron.[16]
TheSunisaGtypemainsequencestar(G2V)based
onspectralclassanditisinformallydesignatedasa
yellowdwarf.Itformedapproximately4.567
billion[b][17]yearsagofromthegravitationalcollapse
ofmatterwithinaregionofalargemolecularcloud.
Mostofthismattergatheredinthecenter,whereasthe
restflattenedintoanorbitingdiskthatbecamethe
SolarSystem.Thecentralmassbecameincreasingly
hotanddense,eventuallyinitiatingthermonuclear
fusioninitscore.Itisthoughtthatalmostallstars
formbythisprocess.TheSunisroughlymiddleage
andhasnotchangeddramaticallyforfourbillion[b]
years,andwillremainfairlystableforfourbillion
more.However,afterhydrogenfusioninitscorehas
stopped,theSunwillundergoseverechangesand
becomearedgiant.ItiscalculatedthattheSunwill
becomesufficientlylargetoengulfthecurrentorbits
ofMercury,Venus,andpossiblyEarth.
TheenormouseffectoftheSunontheEarthhasbeen
recognizedsinceprehistorictimes,andtheSunhas
beenregardedbysomeculturesasadeity.Earth's
movementaroundtheSunisthebasisofthesolar
calendar,whichisthepredominantcalendarinuse
today.
Contents
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun
TheSun
PictureoftheSuninextremeultravioletshowingits
turbulentsurface.
Observationdata
Meandistance 1.496 108km
fromEarth
8min19satlightspeed
Visual
26.74[1]
brightness(V)
Absolute
magnitude
4.83[1]
Spectral
classification
G2V
Metallicity
Z=0.0122[2]
Angularsize
31.632.7[3]
Adjectives
Solar
Orbitalcharacteristics
Meandistance 2.7 1017km

fromMilkyWay 27 200lightyears
core
Galactic
period
(2.252.50) 108 a
Velocity
220km/s (orbitaroundthecenterofthe
MilkyWay)
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1Nameandetymology
20km/s (relativetoaveragevelocityof
2Characteristics
otherstarsinstellarneighborhood)
3Sunlight
370km/s[4] (relativetothecosmic
4Composition
microwavebackground)
Physicalcharacteristics
4.1Singlyionizedirongroupelements
4.2Solarandplanetarymass
fractionationrelationship
5Structure
5.1Core
5.2Radiativezone
Equatorial
radius
696 342 65km[5]

109Earth[6]
Equatorial
4.379 106km[6]
circumference
[6]
109Earth
5.3Tachocline
Flattening
9 106
5.4Convectivezone
Surfacearea
6.09 1012km2[6]
5.5Photosphere
5.6Atmosphere
12 000Earth[6]
Volume
5.7Photonsandneutrinos
6Magnetismandactivity
6.1Magneticfield
6.2Variationinactivity
6.3Longtermchange
7Lifephases
7.1Formation
7.2Mainsequence
7.3Aftercorehydrogenexhaustion
7.4Earth'sfate
8Motionandlocation
1 300 000Earth
Mass
9.1Coronalheatingproblem
9.2FaintyoungSunproblem
10Historyofobservation
10.1Earlyunderstanding
Average
density
10.3Solarspacemissions
11Observationandeffects
12Seealso
13Notes
14References
15Furtherreading
1.408g/cm3[1][6][7]
0.255Earth[1][6]
Centerdensity 162.2g/cm3[1]
(modeled)
12.4Earth
Equatorial
surface
gravity
274.0m/s2[1]
27.94g
27 542.29cgs
28Earth[6]
Escape
velocity
617.7km/s[6]
55Earth[6]
(fromthe
surface)
Temperature Center(modeled): 1.57 107K[1]

Photosphere(effective): 5 778K[1]
Corona:5 106K
10.2Developmentofscientific
understanding
(1.988 55 0.000 25) 1030kg[1]

333 000Earth[1]
8.1OrbitinMilkyWay
9Theoreticalproblems
1.41 1018km3[6]
Luminosity
(Lsol)
3.846 1026W[1]
3.75 1028lm
98lm/Wefficacy
Mean
2.009 107Wm2sr1
radiance(Isol)
Age
4.6billionyears[8][9]
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16Externallinks
Rotationcharacteristics
Obliquity
7.25[1]
(totheecliptic)
Nameandetymology
67.23
(tothegalacticplane)
TheEnglishpropernounSundevelopedfromOld
Englishsunneandmayberelatedtosouth.Cognates
toEnglishsunappearinotherGermaniclanguages,
includingOldFrisiansunne,sonne,OldSaxonsunna,
MiddleDutchsonne,modernDutchzon,OldHigh
Germansunna,modernGermanSonne,OldNorse
sunna,andGothicsunn.AllGermanictermsforthe
SunstemfromProtoGermanic*sunnn.[18][19]
TheSunisviewedasagoddessinGermanic
paganism,Sl/Sunna.[19]Scholarstheorizethatthe
Sun,asaGermanicgoddess,mayrepresentan
extensionofanearlierProtoIndoEuropeanSundeity
duetoIndoEuropeanlinguisticconnectionsbetween
OldNorseSl,SanskritSurya,GaulishSulis,
LithuanianSaul,andSlavicSolntse.[19]
TheEnglishweekdaynameSundaystemsfromOld
English(Sunnandg"Sun'sday",frombefore700)
andisultimatelyaresultofaGermanicinterpretation
ofLatindiessolis,itselfatranslationoftheGreek
(hmrahlou).[20]TheLatinnamefor
theSun,Sol,iswidelyknownbutisnotcommonin
generalEnglishlanguageusetheadjectivalformis
therelatedwordsolar.[21][22]Thetermsolisalsoused
byplanetaryastronomerstorefertothedurationofa
solardayonanotherplanet,suchasMars.[23]Amean
Earthsolardayisapproximately24hours,whereasa
meanMartian'sol'is24hours,39minutes,and35.244
seconds.[24]
Characteristics
Right
ascension
286.13
19h4min30s
[10]
ofNorthpole
Declination
+63.87
ofNorthpole
6352'North
Sidereal
rotation
period
25.05days[1]
(atequator)
(at16latitude)
25.38days[1]
25d9h7min12s [10]
(atpoles)
34.4days[1]
Rotation
velocity
7.189 103km/h[6]
(atequator)
Photosphericcomposition(bymass)
Hydrogen
73.46%[11]
Helium
24.85%
Oxygen
0.77%
Carbon
0.29%
Iron
0.16%
Neon
0.12%
Nitrogen
0.09%
Silicon
0.07%
Magnesium
0.05%
Sulfur
0.04%
TheSunisaGtypemainsequencestarthat
comprisesabout99.86%ofthemassoftheSolarSystem.Onceregardedbyastronomersasasmalland
relativelyinsignificantstar,theSunhasanabsolutemagnitudeof+4.83.Thisisnowestimatedtobe
brighterthanabout85%ofthestarsintheMilkyWay,mostofwhicharereddwarfs.[25][26]TheSunisa
PopulationI,orheavyelementrich,[c]star.[27]TheformationoftheSunmayhavebeentriggeredby
shockwavesfromoneormorenearbysupernovae.[28]Thisissuggestedbyahighabundanceofheavy
elementsintheSolarSystem,suchasgoldanduranium,relativetotheabundancesoftheseelementsin
socalledPopulationII,heavyelementpoor,stars.Theseelementscouldmostplausiblyhavebeen
producedbyendothermicnuclearreactionsduringasupernova,orbytransmutationthroughneutron
absorptionwithinamassivesecondgenerationstar.[27]
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ThisvideotakesSolarDynamicsObservatory
imagesandappliesadditionalprocessingtoenhance
thestructuresvisible.Theeventsinthisvideo
represent24hoursofactivityon25September
2011.
TheSunisbyfarthebrightestobjectinthesky,with
anapparentmagnitudeof26.74.[29][30]Thisis
about13billiontimesbrighterthanthenext
brighteststar,Sirius,whichhasanapparent
magnitudeof1.46.ThemeandistanceoftheSunto
Earthisapproximately1astronomicalunit(about
150,000,000km93,000,000mi),thoughthe
distancevariesasEarthmovesfromperihelionin
JanuarytoaphelioninJuly.[31]Atthisaverage
distance,lighttravelsfromtheSuntoEarthinabout
8minutesand19seconds.Theenergyofthis
sunlightsupportsalmostalllife[d]onEarthby
photosynthesis,[32]anddrivesEarth'sclimateand
weather.
TheSun'sradiuscanbemeasuredfromitscenterto
theedgeofthephotosphere,theapparentvisiblesurfaceoftheSun.[33]TheSunisanearperfectsphere
withanoblatenessestimatedatabout9millionths,[34]whichmeansthatitspolardiameterdiffersfrom
itsequatorialdiameterbyonly10kilometres(6.2mi).[35]Thetidaleffectoftheplanetsisweakanddoes
notsignificantlyaffecttheshapeoftheSun.[36]TheSunrotatesfasteratitsequatorthanatitspoles.
ThisdifferentialrotationiscausedbyconvectivemotionduetoheattransportandtheCoriolisforcedue
totheSun'srotation.Inaframeofreferencedefinedbythestars,therotationalperiodisapproximately
25.6daysattheequatorand33.5daysatthepoles.ViewedfromEarthasitorbitstheSun,theapparent
rotationalperiodoftheSunatitsequatorisabout28days.[37]
TheSundoesnothaveadefiniteboundary,andinitsouterpartsitsdensitydecreasesexponentiallywith
increasingdistancefromitscenter.[38]Thesolarinteriorisnotdirectlyobservable,andtheSunitselfis
opaquetoelectromagneticradiation.However,justasseismologyuseswavesgeneratedbyearthquakes
torevealtheinteriorstructureofEarth,thedisciplineofhelioseismologymakesuseofpressurewaves
(infrasound)traversingtheSun'sinteriortomeasureandvisualizeitsinnerstructure.[39]Computer
modelingoftheSunisalsousedasatheoreticaltooltoinvestigateitsdeeperlayers.
Duringatotalsolareclipse,whenthediskoftheSuniscoveredbythatoftheMoon,theSun's
surroundingatmosphere,thecorona,canbeseen.Asthecoronaexpandsoutwardintospace,creating
thesolarwind,astreamofchargedparticles.Thespatialextentoftheinfluenceofthesolarwinddefines
theheliosphere,a"bubble"intheinterstellarmediumthatisroughly100astronomicalunitsinradius,
thelargestcontinuousstructureintheSolarSystem.[40][41]Theouterboundaryoftheheliosphereisthe
heliopause.
Sunlight
TheSun'scoloriswhite,withaCIEcolorspaceindexnear(0.3,0.3),whenviewedfromspaceorwhen
highintheskywhenlowinthesky,atmosphericscatteringrenderstheSunyellow,red,orange,or
magenta.Despiteitstypicalwhiteness,mostpeoplementallypicturetheSunasyellowthereasonsfor
thisarethesubjectofdebate.[42]TheSunisaG2Vstar,withG2indicatingitssurfacetemperatureof
approximately5,778K(5,505C,9,941F),andVthatit,likemoststars,isamainsequencestar.[43][44]
TheluminanceoftheSunisabout1.88gigacandelapersquaremetre,butasviewedthroughEarth's
atmosphere,thisisloweredtoabout1.44Gcd/m2.[45]
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SunlightisEarth'sprimarysourceofenergy.TheothersignificantsourceofEarth'senergyisthestoreof
fissionablematerialsgeneratedbythecataclysmicdeathofotherstars.Thesefissionablematerials
trappedinEarth'scrustgiverisetogeothermalenergy,whichdrivesthevolcanismonEarthandalso
makesitpossibleforhumanstofuelnuclearreactors.Thesolarconstantistheamountofpowerthatthe
Sundepositsperunitareathatisdirectlyexposedtosunlight.Thesolarconstantisequalto
approximately1,368W/m2(wattspersquaremeter)atadistanceofoneastronomicalunit(AU)fromthe
Sun(thatis,onornearEarth).[46]SunlightonthesurfaceofEarthisattenuatedbyEarth'satmosphereso
thatlesspowerarrivesatthesurfacecloserto1,000W/m2inclearconditionswhentheSunisnearthe
zenith.[47]SunlightatthetopofEarth'satmosphereiscomposed(bytotalenergy)ofabout50%infrared
light,40%visiblelight,and10%ultravioletlight.[48]Theatmosphereinparticularfiltersoutover70%
ofsolarultraviolet,especiallyattheshorterwavelengths.[49]Solarultravioletradiationionizesthe
Earth'sdaysideupperatmosphere,creatingtheelectricallyconductingionosphere.[50]
Solarenergycanbeharnessedbyavarietyofnaturalandsyntheticprocessesphotosynthesisbyplants
capturestheenergyofsunlightandconvertsittochemicalform(oxygenandreducedcarbon
compounds),whereasdirectheatingorelectricalconversionbysolarcellsareusedbysolarpower
equipmenttogenerateelectricityortodootherusefulwork,sometimesemployingconcentratingsolar
power(thatitismeasuredinsuns).Theenergystoredinpetroleumandotherfossilfuelswasoriginally
convertedfromsunlightbyphotosynthesisinthedistantpast.[51]
Contrarytoapopular
misconception,theSunis
whiteratherthanyellow
whenviewedfromspace
orwhensufficientlyhigh
TheSunasitappearsfromthesurface
ofEarthatsunrise.
inthesky.[42]
TheSunasitappearsfromthesurfaceofEarthat
sunset.
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Composition
TheSuniscomposedprimarilyofthechemicalelements
hydrogenandheliumtheyaccountfor74.9%and23.8%ofthe
massoftheSuninthephotosphere,respectively.[52]Allheavier
elements,calledmetalsinastronomy,accountforlessthan2%of
themass.Themostabundantmetalsareoxygen(roughly1%of
theSun'smass),carbon(0.3%),neon(0.2%),andiron(0.2%).[53]
TheSuninheriteditschemicalcompositionfromtheinterstellar
mediumoutofwhichitformed.Thehydrogenandheliuminthe
SunwereproducedbyBigBangnucleosynthesis,andthemetals
wereproducedbystellarnucleosynthesisingenerationsofstars
thatcompletedtheirstellarevolutionandreturnedtheirmaterial
ImagetakenbyNASASTEREO
totheinterstellarmediumbeforetheformationoftheSun.[54]
probeslaunchedin2006utilizing
Thechemicalcompositionofthephotosphereisnormally
twospacecrafttoimagetheSunatthe
consideredrepresentativeofthecompositionoftheprimordial
extremeUVwavelength(171).
SolarSystem.[55]However,sincetheSunformed,someofthe
heliumandheavyelementshavegravitationallysettledfromthe
photosphere.Therefore,intoday'sphotospheretheheliumfractionisreducedandthemetallicityisonly
84%ofthatintheprotostellarphase(beforenuclearfusioninthecorestarted).TheprotostellarSun's
compositionwasreconstructedas71.1%hydrogen,27.4%helium,and1.5%metals.[52]
IntheinnerportionsoftheSun,nuclearfusionhasmodifiedthecompositionbyconvertinghydrogen
intohelium,sotheinnermostportionoftheSunisnowroughly60%helium,withthemetalabundance
unchanged.BecausetheinterioroftheSunisradiative,notconvective(seeRadiativezonebelow),none
ofthefusionproductsfromthecorehaverisentothephotosphere.[56]
Thereactivecorezoneof"hydrogenburning",wherehydrogenisconvertedintohelium,isstartingto
surroundthecoreof"heliumash".ThisdevelopmentwillcontinueandwilleventuallycausetheSunto
leavethemainsequence,tobecomearedgiant[57]
Thesolarheavyelementabundancesdescribedabovearetypicallymeasuredbothusingspectroscopyof
theSun'sphotosphereandbymeasuringabundancesinmeteoritesthathaveneverbeenheatedto
meltingtemperatures.ThesemeteoritesarethoughttoretainthecompositionoftheprotostellarSunand
arethusnotaffectedbysettlingofheavyelements.Thetwomethodsgenerallyagreewell.[16]
Singlyionizedirongroupelements
Inthe1970s,muchresearchfocusedontheabundancesofirongroupelementsintheSun.[58][59]
Althoughsignificantresearchwasdone,theabundancedeterminationofsomeirongroupelements(e.g.
cobaltandmanganese)wasstilldifficultatleastasfaras1978becauseoftheirhyperfinestructures.[58]
Thefirstlargelycompletesetofoscillatorstrengthsofsinglyionizedirongroupelementsweremade
availablefirstinthe1960s,[60]andtheseweresubsequentlyimproved.[61]In1978theabundancesof
'singlyIonized'elementsoftheirongroupwerederived.[58]
Solarandplanetarymassfractionationrelationship
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Variousauthorshaveconsideredtheexistenceofamassfractionationrelationshipbetweentheisotopic
compositionsofsolarandplanetarynoblegases,[62]forexamplecorrelationsbetweenisotopic
compositionsofplanetaryandsolarneonandxenon.[63]Nevertheless,thebeliefthatthewholeSunhas
thesamecompositionasthesolaratmospherewasstillwidespread,atleastuntil1983.[64]
In1983,itwasclaimedthatitwasthefractionationintheSunitselfthatcausedthefractionation
relationshipbetweentheisotopiccompositionsofplanetaryandsolarwindimplantednoblegases.[64]
Structure
Core
ThecoreoftheSun
extendsfromthe
centertoabout20
25%ofthesolar
radius.[65]Ithasa
densityofupto
150g/cm3[66][67]
(about150timesthe
densityofwater)and
atemperatureof
closeto15.7million
kelvin(K).[67]By
contrast,theSun's
surfacetemperature
ThestructureoftheSun
isapproximately
5,800K.Recent
analysisofSOHOmissiondatafavorsafasterrotationrateinthecorethanintherestoftheradiative
zone.[65]ThroughmostoftheSun'slife,energyisproducedbynuclearfusionthroughaseriesofsteps
calledthepp(protonproton)chainthisprocessconvertshydrogenintohelium.[68]Only0.8%ofthe
energygeneratedintheSuncomesfromtheCNOcycle.[69]
ThecoreistheonlyregionintheSunthatproducesanappreciableamountofthermalenergythrough
fusion99%ofthepowerisgeneratedwithin24%oftheSun'sradius,andby30%oftheradius,fusion
hasstoppednearlyentirely.TherestoftheSunisheatedbythisenergythatistransferredoutwards,
respectively,throughtheradiativeandconvectionzones.Theenergyproducedbyfusioninthecore
mustthentravelthroughmanysuccessivelayerstothesolarphotospherebeforeitescapesintospaceas
sunlightorthekineticenergyofparticles.[43][70]
Theprotonprotonchainoccursaround9.2 1037timeseachsecondinthecore.Becausethisreaction
usesfourfreeprotons(hydrogennuclei),itconvertsabout3.7 1038protonstoalphaparticles(helium
nuclei)everysecond(outofatotalof~8.9 1056freeprotonsintheSun),orabout6.2 1011kg/s.[43]
Fusinghydrogenintoheliumreleasesaround0.7%ofthefusedmassasenergy,[71]sotheSunreleases
energyatthemassenergyconversionrateof4.26millionmetrictonspersecond,384.6yottawatts
(3.846 1026W),[1]or9.192 1010megatonsofTNTpersecond.TheoreticalmodelsoftheSun's
interiorindicateapowerdensityofapproximately276.5W/m3,[72]avaluethatmorenearly
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approximatesreptilemetabolismthanathermonuclearbomb.[e]PeakpowerproductionintheSunhas
beencomparedtothevolumetricheatgeneratedinanactivecompostheap.Thetremendouspower
outputoftheSunisnotduetoitshighpowerpervolume,butinsteadduetoitslargesize.
Thefusionrateinthecoreisinaselfcorrectingequilibrium:aslightlyhigherrateoffusionwouldcause
thecoretoheatupmoreandexpandslightlyagainsttheweightoftheouterlayers,reducingthefusion
rateandcorrectingtheperturbationandaslightlylowerratewouldcausethecoretocoolandshrink
slightly,increasingthefusionrateandagainrevertingittoitspresentlevel.[73][74]
Radiativezone
Fromthecoreouttoabout0.7solarradii,thermalradiationistheprimarymeansofenergytransfer.[75]
Thiszoneisnotregulatedbythermalconvectionhoweverthetemperaturedropsfromapproximately7
to2millionkelvinwithincreasingdistancefromthecore.[67]Thistemperaturegradientislessthanthe
valueoftheadiabaticlapserateandhencecannotdriveconvection.[67]Energyistransferredbyradiation
ionsofhydrogenandheliumemitphotons,whichtravelonlyabriefdistancebeforebeingreabsorbed
byotherions.[75]Thedensitydropsahundredfold(from20g/cm3toonly0.2g/cm3)from0.25solar
radiitothetopoftheradiativezone.[75]
Tachocline
Theradiativezoneandtheconvectivezoneareseparatedbyatransitionlayer,thetachocline.Thisisa
regionwherethesharpregimechangebetweentheuniformrotationoftheradiativezoneandthe
differentialrotationoftheconvectionzoneresultsinalargeshearaconditionwheresuccessive
horizontallayersslidepastoneanother.[76]Thefluidmotionsfoundintheconvectionzoneabove,
slowlydisappearfromthetopofthislayertoitsbottom,matchingthecalmcharacteristicsofthe
radiativezoneonthebottom.Presently,itishypothesized(seeSolardynamo)thatamagneticdynamo
withinthislayergeneratestheSun'smagneticfield.[67]
Convectivezone
IntheSun'souterlayer,fromitssurfacetoapproximately200,000kmbelow(70%ofthesolarradius
fromthecenter),thetemperatureislowerthanintheradiativezoneandheavieratomsarenotfully
ionized.Asaresult,radiativeheattransportislesseffective.Thedensityoftheplasmaislowenoughto
allowconvectivecurrentstodevelop.Materialheatedatthetachoclinepicksupheatandexpands,
therebyreducingitsdensityandallowingittorise.Asaresult,thermalconvectiondevelopsasthermal
cellscarrythemajorityoftheheatoutwardtotheSun'sphotosphere.Oncethematerialdiffusivelyand
radiativelycoolsjustbeneaththephotosphericsurface,itsdensityincreases,anditsinkstothebaseof
theconvectionzone,whereitpicksupmoreheatfromthetopoftheradiativezoneandtheconvective
cyclecontinues.Atthephotosphere,thetemperaturehasdroppedto5,700Kandthedensitytoonly0.2
g/m3(about1/6,000ththedensityofairatsealevel).[67]
ThethermalcolumnsintheconvectionzoneformanimprintonthesurfaceoftheSunasthesolar
granulationandsupergranulation.Theturbulentconvectionofthisouterpartofthesolarinteriorsustains
"smallscale"dynamoactionoverthenearsurfacevolumeoftheSun.[67]TheSun'sthermalcolumnsare
Bnardcellsandtaketheshapeofhexagonalprisms.[77]
Photosphere
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ThevisiblesurfaceoftheSun,thephotosphere,isthelayer
belowwhichtheSunbecomesopaquetovisiblelight.[78]Above
thephotospherevisiblesunlightisfreetopropagateintospace,
anditsenergyescapestheSunentirely.Thechangeinopacityis
duetothedecreasingamountofHions,whichabsorbvisible
lighteasily.[78]Conversely,thevisiblelightweseeisproduced
aselectronsreactwithhydrogenatomstoproduceHions.[79][80]
Thephotosphereistenstohundredsofkilometersthick,being
slightlylessopaquethanaironEarth.Becausetheupperpartof
Theeffectivetemperature,orblack
thephotosphereiscoolerthanthelowerpart,animageofthe
bodytemperature,oftheSun(5,777
Sunappearsbrighterinthecenterthanontheedgeorlimbofthe
K)isthetemperatureablackbodyof
solardisk,inaphenomenonknownaslimbdarkening.[78]The
thesamesizemusthavetoyieldthe
spectrumofsunlighthasapproximatelythespectrumofablack
sametotalemissivepower.
bodyradiatingatabout6,000K,interspersedwithatomic
absorptionlinesfromthetenuouslayersabovethephotosphere.
Thephotospherehasaparticledensityof~1023m3(about0.37%oftheparticlenumberpervolumeof
Earth'satmosphereatsealevel).Thephotosphereisnotfullyionizedtheextentofionizationisabout
3%,leavingalmostallofthehydrogeninatomicform.[81]
Duringearlystudiesoftheopticalspectrumofthephotosphere,someabsorptionlineswerefoundthat
didnotcorrespondtoanychemicalelementsthenknownonEarth.In1868,NormanLockyer
hypothesizedthattheseabsorptionlineswerecausedbyanewelementthathedubbedhelium,afterthe
GreekSungodHelios.Twentyfiveyearslater,heliumwasisolatedonEarth.[82]
Atmosphere
ThepartsoftheSunabovethephotospherearereferredto
collectivelyasthesolaratmosphere.[78]Theycanbeviewedwith
telescopesoperatingacrosstheelectromagneticspectrum,from
radiothroughvisiblelighttogammarays,andcomprisefive
principalzones:thetemperatureminimum,thechromosphere,
thetransitionregion,thecorona,andtheheliosphere.[78]
ThecoolestlayeroftheSunisatemperatureminimumregion
about500kmabovethephotosphere,withatemperatureof
about4,100K.[78]ThispartoftheSuniscoolenoughtoallow
theexistenceofsimplemoleculessuchascarbonmonoxideand
water,whichcanbedetectedviatheirabsorptionspectra.[83]
Thechromosphere,transitionregion,andcoronaaremuchhotter
thanthesurfaceoftheSun.[78]Thereasonisnotwellunderstood,
butevidencesuggeststhatAlfvnwavesmayhaveenough
energytoheatthecorona.[84]
Duringatotalsolareclipse,thesolar
coronacanbeseenwiththenaked
eye,duringthebriefperiodof
totality.
Abovethetemperatureminimumlayerisalayerabout2,000kmthick,dominatedbyaspectrumof
emissionandabsorptionlines.[78]ItiscalledthechromospherefromtheGreekrootchroma,meaning
color,becausethechromosphereisvisibleasacoloredflashatthebeginningandendoftotalsolar
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eclipses.[75]Thetemperatureinthechromosphereincreasesgraduallywithaltitude,ranginguptoaround
20,000Knearthetop.[78]Intheupperpartofthechromosphereheliumbecomespartiallyionized.[85]
TakenbyHinode'sSolarOpticalTelescopeon12January
2007,thisimageoftheSunrevealsthefilamentarynatureof
theplasmaconnectingregionsofdifferentmagneticpolarity.
Abovethechromosphere,inathin(about
200km)transitionregion,thetemperature
risesrapidlyfromaround20,000Kinthe
upperchromospheretocoronaltemperatures
closerto1,000,000K.[86]Thetemperature
increaseisfacilitatedbythefullionizationof
heliuminthetransitionregion,which
significantlyreducesradiativecoolingofthe
plasma.[85]Thetransitionregiondoesnot
occuratawelldefinedaltitude.Rather,it
formsakindofnimbusaround
chromosphericfeaturessuchasspiculesand
filaments,andisinconstant,chaotic
motion.[75]Thetransitionregionisnoteasily
visiblefromEarth'ssurface,butisreadily
observablefromspacebyinstruments
sensitivetotheextremeultravioletportionof
thespectrum.[87]
ThecoronaisthenextlayeroftheSun.Thelowcorona,nearthesurfaceoftheSun,hasaparticle
densityaround10151016m3.[85][f]Theaveragetemperatureofthecoronaandsolarwindisabout
1,000,0002,000,000Khowever,inthehottestregionsitis8,000,00020,000,000K.[86]Althoughno
completetheoryyetexiststoaccountforthetemperatureofthecorona,atleastsomeofitsheatisknown
tobefrommagneticreconnection.[86][88]ThecoronaistheextendedatmosphereoftheSun,whichhasa
volumemuchlargerthanthevolumeenclosedbytheSun'sphotosphere.Wavesattheoutersurfaceof
thecoronathatrandomlyblowevenfurtherfromtheSuniscalledthesolarwind,andisoneoftheways
theSuninfluencesthewholeSolarSystem.[88]
Theheliosphere,thetenuousoutermostatmosphereoftheSun,isfilledwiththesolarwindplasma.This
outermostlayeroftheSunisdefinedtobeginatthedistancewheretheflowofthesolarwindbecomes
superalfvnicthatis,wheretheflowbecomesfasterthanthespeedofAlfvnwaves,[89]at
approximately20solarradii(0.1AU).Turbulenceanddynamicforcesintheheliospherecannotaffect
theshapeofthesolarcoronawithin,becausetheinformationcanonlytravelatthespeedofAlfvn
waves.Thesolarwindtravelsoutwardcontinuouslythroughtheheliosphere,formingthesolarmagnetic
fieldintoaspiralshape,[88]untilitimpactstheheliopausemorethan50AUfromtheSun.InDecember
2004,theVoyager1probepassedthroughashockfrontthatisthoughttobepartoftheheliopause.Both
oftheVoyagerprobeshaverecordedhigherlevelsofenergeticparticlesastheyapproachthe
boundary.[90]
TheheliosphereextendstotheouterfringeoftheSolarSystem,fartherthantheorbitofPluto,isdefined
toendattheheliopause,whichistheendofinfluencefromtheSun,andistheboundarywiththe
interstellarmedium.
Photonsandneutrinos
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Highenergygammarayphotonsinitiallyreleasedwithfusionreactionsinthecorearealmost
immediatelyabsorbedbythesolarplasmaoftheradiativezone,usuallyaftertravelingonlyafew
millimeters.Reemissionhappensinarandomdirectionandusuallyataslightlylowerenergy.Withthis
sequenceofemissionsandabsorptions,ittakesalongtimeforradiationtoreachtheSun'ssurface.
Estimatesofthephotontraveltimerangebetween10,000and170,000years.[91]Incontrast,ittakesonly
2.3secondsfortheneutrinos,whichaccountforabout2%ofthetotalenergyproductionoftheSun,to
reachthesurface.BecauseenergytransportintheSunisaprocessthatinvolvesphotonsin
thermodynamicequilibriumwithmatter,thetimescaleofenergytransportintheSunislonger,onthe
orderof30,000,000years.ThisisthetimeitwouldtaketheSuntoreturntoastablestate,iftherateof
energygenerationinitscoreweresuddenlychanged.[92]
Neutrinosarealsoreleasedbythefusionreactionsinthecore,but,unlikephotons,theyrarelyinteract
withmatter,soalmostallareabletoescapetheSunimmediately.Formanyyearsmeasurementsofthe
numberofneutrinosproducedintheSunwerelowerthantheoriespredictedbyafactorof3.This
discrepancywasresolvedin2001throughthediscoveryoftheeffectsofneutrinooscillation:theSun
emitsthenumberofneutrinospredictedbythetheory,butneutrinodetectorsweremissing23ofthem
becausetheneutrinoshadchangedflavorbythetimetheyweredetected.[93]
Magnetismandactivity
Magneticfield
TheSunhasamagneticfieldthatvariesacrossawiderangeof
timescales.Themostprominentofsuchvariationisrelatedtothe
quasiperiodic11yearsolarcyclewaxingandwaninginthe
numberandsizeofsunspots.[14][95]Sunspotsarevisibleasdark
patchesontheSun'sphotosphereandcorrespondto
concentrationsofmagneticfieldwheretheconvectivetransport
ofheatisinhibitedfromthesolarinteriortothesurface.Asa
result,sunspotsareslightlycoolerthanthesurrounding
photosphere,and,so,theyappeardark.Atatypicalsolar
minimum,fewsunspotsarevisible,andoccasionallynonecanbe
seenatall.Thosethatdoappearareathighsolarlatitudes.Asthe
solarcycleprogressestowardsitsmaximum,sunspotstendform
closertothesolarequator,aphenomenonknownasSprer'slaw.
Thelargestsunspotscanbetensofthousandsofkilometers
across.[96]
Fulldiskvisiblelightimageofthe
Sunshowingprominentsunspot
groups.
An11yearsunspotcycleishalfofa22yearBabcockLeighton
dynamocycle,whichcorrespondstoanoscillatoryexchangeofenergybetweentoroidalandpoloidal
solarmagneticfields.Atsolarcyclemaximum,theexternalpoloidaldipolarmagneticfieldisnearits
dynamocycleminimumstrength,butaninternaltoroidalquadrupolarfield,generatedthrough
differentialrotationwithinthetachocline,isnearitsmaximumstrength.Atthispointinthedynamo
cycle,buoyantupwellingwithintheconvectivezoneforcesemergenceoftoroidalmagneticfield
throughthephotosphere,givingrisetopairsofsunspots,roughlyalignedeastwestandhaving
footprintswithoppositemagneticpolarities.Themagneticpolarityofsunspotpairsalternatesevery
solarcycle,aphenomenonknownastheHalecycle.[97][98]
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Duringthesolarcyclesdecliningphase,
energyshiftsfromtheinternaltoroidal
magneticfieldtotheexternalpoloidalfield,
andsunspotsdiminishinnumber.Atsolar
cycleminimum,thetoroidalfieldis,
correspondingly,atminimumstrength,
sunspotsarerelativelyrare,andthepoloidal
fieldisatitsmaximumstrength.Withthe
riseofthenext11yearsunspotcycle,
differentialrotationshiftsmagneticenergy
backfromthepoloidaltothetoroidalfield,
butwithapolaritythatisoppositetothe
Butterflydiagramshowingpairedsunspotpattern.Graphis
previouscycle.Theprocesscarrieson
sunspotWolfnumber.
continuously,andinanidealized,simplified
scenario,each11yearsunspotcycle
correspondstoachange,then,intheoverallpolarityoftheSun's
largescalemagneticfield.[99][100]
ThesolarmagneticfieldextendswellbeyondtheSunitself.The
electricallyconductingsolarwindplasmacarriestheSun's
magneticfieldintospace,formingwhatiscalledthe
interplanetarymagneticfield.[88]Inanapproximationknownas
idealmagnetohydrodynamics,plasmaparticlesonlymovealong
themagneticfieldlines.Asaresult,theoutwardflowingsolar
windstretchestheinterplanetarymagneticfieldoutward,forcing
itintoaroughlyradialstructure.Forasimpledipolarsolar
magneticfield,withoppositehemisphericalpolaritiesoneither
sideofthesolarmagneticequator,athincurrentsheetisformed
inthesolarwind.[88]Atgreatdistances,therotationoftheSun
twiststhedipolarmagneticfieldandcorrespondingcurrentsheet
intoanArchimedeanspiralstructurecalledtheParkerspiral.[88]
Theinterplanetarymagneticfieldismuchstrongerthanthe
dipolecomponentofthesolarmagneticfield.TheSun'sdipole
magneticfieldof50400T(atthephotosphere)reduceswith
theinversecubeofthedistancetoabout0.1nTatthedistanceof
Earth.However,accordingtospacecraftobservationsthe
interplanetaryfieldatEarth'slocationisaround5nT,abouta
hundredtimesgreater.[101]Thedifferenceisduetomagnetic
fieldsgeneratedbyelectricalcurrentsintheplasmasurrounding
theSun.
Inthisfalsecolorultravioletimage,
theSunshowsaC3classsolarflare
(whiteareaonupperleft),asolar
tsunami(wavelikestructure,upper
right)andmultiplefilamentsof
plasmafollowingamagneticfield,
risingfromthestellarsurface.
Variationinactivity
TheSun'smagneticfieldleadstomanyeffectsthatare
collectivelycalledsolaractivity.Solarflaresandcoronalmass
ejectionstendtooccuratsunspotgroups.Slowlychanginghigh
speedstreamsofsolarwindareemittedfromcoronalholesatthe
photosphericsurface.Bothcoronalmassejectionsandhigh
speedstreamsofsolarwindcarryplasmaandinterplanetary
magneticfieldoutwardintotheSolarSystem.[102]Theeffectsof
Theheliosphericcurrentsheetextends
totheouterreachesoftheSolar
System,andresultsfromthe
influenceoftheSun'srotating
magneticfieldontheplasmainthe
interplanetarymedium. [94]
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solaractivityonEarthincludeaurorasatmoderatetohigh
latitudesandthedisruptionofradiocommunicationsandelectric
power.Solaractivityisthoughttohaveplayedalargeroleinthe
formationandevolutionoftheSolarSystem.
Withsolarcyclemodulationofsunspotnumbercomesa
correspondingmodulationofspaceweatherconditions,including
thosesurroundingEarthwheretechnologicalsystemscanbe
affected.
Longtermchange
Measurementsofsolarcyclevariation
duringthelast30years
Longtermsecularchangeinsunspotnumberisthought,bysomescientists,tobecorrelatedwithlong
termchangeinsolarirradiance,[103]which,inturn,mightinfluenceEarth'slongtermclimate.[104]For
example,inthe17thcentury,thesolarcycleappearedtohavestoppedentirelyforseveraldecadesfew
sunspotswereobservedduringaperiodknownastheMaunderminimum.Thiscoincidedintimewith
theeraoftheLittleIceAge,whenEuropeexperiencedunusuallycoldtemperatures.[105]Earlier
extendedminimahavebeendiscoveredthroughanalysisoftreeringsandappeartohavecoincidedwith
lowerthanaverageglobaltemperatures.[106]
ArecenttheoryclaimsthattherearemagneticinstabilitiesinthecoreoftheSunthatcausefluctuations
withperiodsofeither41,000or100,000years.Thesecouldprovideabetterexplanationoftheiceages
thantheMilankovitchcycles.[107][108]
Lifephases
TheSuntodayisroughlyhalfwaythroughthemoststablepartofitslife.Ithasnotchangeddramatically
forfourbillion[b]years,andwillremainfairlystableforfourbillionmore.Howeverafterhydrogen
fusioninitscorehasstopped,theSunwillundergoseverechanges,bothinternallyandexternally.
Formation
TheSunwasformedabout4.57billionyearsagofromthecollapseofpartofagiantmolecularcloud
thatconsistedmostlyofhydrogenandheliumandthatprobablygavebirthtomanyotherstars.[109]This
ageisestimatedusingcomputermodelsofstellarevolutionandthroughnucleocosmochronology.[8]The
resultisconsistentwiththeradiometricdateoftheoldestSolarSystemmaterial,at4.567billionyears
ago.[110][111]Studiesofancientmeteoritesrevealtracesofstabledaughternucleiofshortlivedisotopes,
suchasiron60,thatformonlyinexploding,shortlivedstars.Thisindicatesthatoneormore
supernovaemusthaveoccurrednearthelocationwheretheSunformed.Ashockwavefromanearby
supernovawouldhavetriggeredtheformationoftheSunbycompressingthematterwithinthe
molecularcloudandcausingcertainregionstocollapseundertheirowngravity.[112]Asonefragmentof
thecloudcollapseditalsobegantorotateduetoconservationofangularmomentumandheatupwith
theincreasingpressure.Muchofthemassbecameconcentratedinthecenter,whereastherestflattened
outintoadiskthatwouldbecometheplanetsandotherSolarSystembodies.Gravityandpressure
withinthecoreofthecloudgeneratedalotofheatasitaccretedmorematterfromthesurroundingdisk,
eventuallytriggeringnuclearfusion.Thus,theSunwasborn.
Mainsequence
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TheSunisabouthalfwaythroughitsmain
sequencestage,duringwhichnuclearfusion
reactionsinitscorefusehydrogenintohelium.
Eachsecond,morethanfourmilliontonnesof
matterareconvertedintoenergywithintheSun's
core,producingneutrinosandsolarradiation.At
thisrate,theSunhassofarconvertedaround
100Mofmatterintoenergy.TheSunwill
spendatotalofapproximately10billionyearsas
amainsequencestar.[114]
Aftercorehydrogenexhaustion
TheSundoesnothaveenoughmasstoexplode
asasupernova.Insteaditwillexitthemain
sequenceinapproximately5.4billionyearsand
EvolutionoftheSun'sluminosity,radiusandeffective
temperaturecomparedtothepresentSun.AfterRibas
(2010)[113]
starttoturnintoaredgiant.Itiscalculatedthatthe
Sunwillbecomesufficientlylargetoengulfthe
currentorbitsoftheSolarSystem'sinnerplanets,
possiblyincludingEarth.[115][116]
ThesizeofthecurrentSun(nowinthemain
sequence)comparedtoitsestimatedsizeduringits
redgiantphaseinthefuture
Evenbeforeitbecomesaredgiant,theluminosityof
theSunwillhavenearlydoubled,andEarthwillbe
hotterthanVenusistoday.Oncethecorehydrogen
isexhaustedin5.4billionyears,theSunwillexpand
intoasubgiantphaseandslowlydoubleinsizeover
abouthalfabillionyears.Itwillthenexpandmore
rapidlyoverabouthalfabillionyearsuntilitisover
twohundredtimeslargerthantodayandacoupleof
thousandtimesmoreluminous.Thisthenstartsthe
redgiantbranch(RGB)phasewheretheSunwill
spendaroundabillionyearsandlosearoundathird
ofitsmass.[116]
AfterRGBtheSunnowhasonlyabout120million
yearsofactivelifeleft,buttheyarehighlyeventful.Firstthecoreignitesviolentlyintheheliumflash,
andtheSunshrinksbacktoaround10timesitscurrentsizewith50timestheluminosity,witha
temperaturealittlelowerthantoday.Itwillthenhavereachedtheredclumporhorizontalbranch(HB),
butastaroftheSun'smassdoesnotevolvebluewardalongtheHB.Insteaditjustbecomesmildlylarger
andmoreluminousoverabout100millionyearsasitcontinuestoburnheliuminthecore.[116]
Whentheheliumisexhausted,theSunwillrepeattheexpansionitfollowedwhenthehydrogeninthe
corewasexhausted,exceptthatthistimeitallhappensfaster,andtheSunbecomeslargerandmore
luminous.Thisistheasymptoticgiantbranch(AGB)phase,andtheSunisalternatelyburninghydrogen
inashellorheliuminadeepershell.Afterabout20millionyearsontheearlyAGB,theSunbecomes
increasinglyunstable,withrapidmasslossandthermalpulsesthatincreasethesizeandluminosityfora
fewhundredyearsevery100,000yearsorso.Thethermalpulsesbecomelargereachtime,withthelater
pulsespushingtheluminositytoasmuchas5,000timesthecurrentlevelandtheradiustoover1
AU.[117]Modelsvarydependingontherateandtimingofmassloss.Modelsthathavehighermassloss
ontheRGBproducesmaller,lessluminousstarsatthetipoftheAGB,perhapsonly2,000timesthe
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luminosityandlessthan200timestheradius.[116]
FortheSun,fourthermalpulsesarepredictedbefore
itcompletelylosesitsouterenvelopeandstartsto
makeaplanetarynebula.Bytheendofthatphase
lastingapproximately500,000yearstheSunwill
onlyhaveabouthalfofitscurrentmass.
ThepostAGBevolutionisevenfaster.The
luminositystaysapproximatelyconstantasthe
temperatureincreases,withtheejectedhalfofthe
Sun'smassbecomingionisedintoaplanetarynebula
astheexposedcorereaches30,000K.Thefinal
nakedcoretemperaturewillbeover100,000K,after
whichtheremnantwillcooltowardsawhitedwarf.
Theplanetarynebulawilldisperseinabout10,000
years,butthewhitedwarfwillsurvivefortrillionsof
yearsbeforefadingtoblack.[118][119]
Earth'sfate
EvolutionofaSunlikestar.Thetrackofaone
solarmassstarontheHertzsprungRusselldiagram
isshownfromthemainsequencetothepostAGB
stage.
DuringtheSun'slifeinthemainsequence,theSun
isbecomingmoreluminous(about10%every1billionyears,atthe
presenttime).ThesurfacetemperatureoftheSunisalmostconstant.The
increaseofluminosityisessentiallyduetoaslowincreaseinthesolar
radius.Theincreaseinsolarluminosityissuchthatinaboutanother
billionyearsEarth'swaterwillevaporateandescapeintospace,rendering
itinhospitabletoallknownterrestriallife.[120][121]Earthisnotexpectedto
survivetheSun'stransitionintoaredgiant.Atitslargest,theSunwill
haveamaximumradiusbeyondEarth'scurrentorbit,1AU(1.5 1011m),
Anartist'sdepictionofthe
Sunenteringitsredgiant
250timesthepresentradiusoftheSun.[120]BythetimetheSunhas
phaseviewedfromEarth.
enteredtheasymptoticredgiantbranch,theorbitsoftheplanetswillhave
AlllifeonEarthisextinct
driftedoutwardsduetoalossofroughly30%oftheSun'spresentmass.
atthisphase.
Mostofthismasswillbelostasthesolarwindincreases.Also,tidal
accelerationwillhelpboostEarthtoahigherorbit(similartowhatEarth
doestotheMoon).Ifitwereonlyforthis,EarthwouldprobablyremainoutsidetheSun.However,
currentresearchsuggeststhataftertheSunbecomesaredgiant,Earthwillbepulledinowingtotidal
deceleration.[120]
Motionandlocation
OrbitinMilkyWay
TheSunliesclosetotheinnerrimoftheMilkyWay'sOrionArm,intheLocalInterstellarCloudorthe
GouldBelt,atahypothesizeddistanceof7.58.5kpc(25,00028,000lightyears)fromtheGalactic
Center,[122][123][124][125][126][127]containedwithintheLocalBubble,aspaceofrarefiedhotgas,possibly
producedbythesupernovaremnantGeminga.[128]Thedistancebetweenthelocalarmandthenextarm
out,thePerseusArm,isabout6,500lightyears.[129]TheSun,andthustheSolarSystem,isfoundin
whatscientistscallthegalactichabitablezone.TheApexoftheSun'sWay,orthesolarapex,isthe
directionthattheSuntravelsthroughspaceintheMilkyWay,relativetoothernearbystars.Thegeneral
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directionoftheSun'sgalacticmotionistowardsthestarVegaintheconstellationofLyraatanangleof
roughly60skydegreestothedirectionoftheGalacticCenter.Ofthe50neareststellarsystemswithin
17lightyearsfromEarth(theclosestbeingthereddwarfProximaCentauriatapproximately4.2light
years),theSunranksfourthinmass.[130]
TheSun'sorbitaroundtheMilkyWayisexpectedtoberoughlyellipticalwiththeadditionof
perturbationsduetothegalacticspiralarmsandnonuniformmassdistributions.InadditiontheSun
oscillatesupanddownrelativetothegalacticplane
approximately2.7timesperorbit.Ithasbeenarguedthatthe
Sun'spassagethroughthehigherdensityspiralarmsoften
coincideswithmassextinctionsonEarth,perhapsdueto
increasedimpactevents.[131]IttakestheSolarSystemabout
225250millionyearstocompleteoneorbitthroughtheMilky
Way(agalacticyear),[132]soitisthoughttohavecompleted20
25orbitsduringthelifetimeoftheSun.Theorbitalspeedofthe
SolarSystemaboutthecenteroftheMilkyWayisapproximately
251km/s(156mi/s).[133]Atthisspeed,ittakesaround1,190
yearsfortheSolarSystemtotraveladistanceof1lightyear,or
7daystotravel1AU.[134]
TheSun'smotionaboutthecenterofmassoftheSolarSystemis
complicatedbyperturbationsfromtheplanets.Thebarycenteris
justoutsidethevolumeoftheSunwhenJupiterandSaturn(the
twoplanetswiththegreatestmasses)areroughlyinthesame
direction,asseenfromtheSun.Whentheyareinopposite
directions,andtheotherplanetsarealignedappropriately,the
barycentercanbeveryclosetothecenteroftheSun.Everyfew
hundredyearsthismotionswitchesbetweenprogradeand
retrograde.[135]
IllustrationoftheMilkyWay,
showingthelocationoftheSun(click
toenlarge)
Theoreticalproblems
Coronalheatingproblem
Thetemperatureofthephotosphereisapproximately6,000K,
whereasthetemperatureofthecoronareaches1,000,000
2,000,000K.[86]Thehightemperatureofthecoronashowsthatit
isheatedbysomethingotherthandirectheatconductionfromthe
photosphere.[88]
Itisthoughtthattheenergynecessarytoheatthecoronais
providedbyturbulentmotionintheconvectionzonebelowthe
photosphere,andtwomainmechanismshavebeenproposedto
explaincoronalheating.[86]Thefirstiswaveheating,inwhich
sound,gravitationalormagnetohydrodynamicwavesare
producedbyturbulenceintheconvectionzone.[86]Thesewaves
travelupwardanddissipateinthecorona,depositingtheirenergy
MotionofthebarycenteroftheSolar
SystemrelativetotheSun
MapofthefullSunbySTEREOand
SDOspacecraft
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intheambientmatterintheformofheat.[136]Theotherismagneticheating,inwhichmagneticenergyis
continuouslybuiltupbyphotosphericmotionandreleasedthroughmagneticreconnectionintheformof
largesolarflaresandmyriadsimilarbutsmallereventsnanoflares.[137]
Currently,itisunclearwhetherwavesareanefficientheatingmechanism.AllwavesexceptAlfvn
waveshavebeenfoundtodissipateorrefractbeforereachingthecorona.[138]Inaddition,Alfvnwaves
donoteasilydissipateinthecorona.Currentresearchfocushasthereforeshiftedtowardsflareheating
mechanisms.[86]
FaintyoungSunproblem
TheoreticalmodelsoftheSun'sdevelopmentsuggestthat3.8to2.5billionyearsago,duringthe
Archeanperiod,theSunwasonlyabout75%asbrightasitistoday.Suchaweakstarwouldnothave
beenabletosustainliquidwateronEarth'ssurface,andthuslifeshouldnothavebeenabletodevelop.
However,thegeologicalrecorddemonstratesthatEarthhasremainedatafairlyconstanttemperature
throughoutitshistory,andthattheyoungEarthwassomewhatwarmerthanitistoday.Theconsensus
amongscientistsisthattheatmosphereoftheyoungEarthcontainedmuchlargerquantitiesof
greenhousegases(suchascarbondioxide,methaneand/orammonia)thanarepresenttoday,which
trappedenoughheattocompensateforthesmalleramountofsolarenergyreachingit.[139]
Historyofobservation
TheenormouseffectoftheSunontheEarthhasbeenrecognizedsinceprehistorictimes,andtheSun
hasbeenregardedbysomeculturesasadeity.
Earlyunderstanding
Likeothernaturalphenomena,theSunhasbeenanobjectof
venerationinmanyculturesthroughouthumanhistory.
Humanity'smostfundamentalunderstandingoftheSunisasthe
luminousdiskinthesky,whosepresenceabovethehorizon
createsdayandwhoseabsencecausesnight.Inmanyprehistoric
andancientcultures,theSunwasthoughttobeasolardeityor
othersupernaturalphenomenon.WorshipoftheSunwascentral
tocivilizationssuchastheancientEgyptians,theIncaofSouth
AmericaandtheAztecsofwhatisnowMexico.Inreligionssuch
TheTrundholmsunchariotpulledby
asHinduism,theSunisstillconsideredaGod.Manyancient
ahorseisasculpturebelievedtobe
monumentswereconstructedwithsolarphenomenainmindfor
illustratinganimportantpartof
example,stonemegalithsaccuratelymarkthesummerorwinter
NordicBronzeAgemythology.The
solstice(someofthemostprominentmegalithsarelocatedin
sculptureisprobablyfromaround
NabtaPlaya,EgyptMnajdra,MaltaandatStonehenge,
1350BC.Itisdisplayedatthe
England)Newgrange,aprehistorichumanbuiltmountin
NationalMuseumofDenmark.
Ireland,wasdesignedtodetectthewintersolsticethepyramid
ofElCastilloatChichnItzinMexicoisdesignedtocast
shadowsintheshapeofserpentsclimbingthepyramidatthevernalandautumnequinoxes.
TheEgyptiansportrayedthegodRaasbeingcarriedacrosstheskyinasolarbarque,accompaniedby
lessergods,andtotheGreeks,hewasHelios,carriedbyachariotdrawnbyfieryhorses.Fromthereign
ofElagabalusinthelateRomanEmpiretheSun'sbirthdaywasaholidaycelebratedasSolInvictus
(literally"UnconqueredSun")soonafterthewintersolstice,whichmayhavebeenanantecedentto
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Christmas.Regardingthefixedstars,theSunappearsfromEarthtorevolveonceayearalongthe
eclipticthroughthezodiac,andsoGreekastronomersconsideredittobeoneofthesevenplanets(Greek
planetes,wanderer),afterwhichthesevendaysoftheweekarenamedinsomelanguages.[140][141][142]
Developmentofscientificunderstanding
IntheearlyfirstmillenniumBC,Babylonianastronomers
observedthattheSun'smotionalongtheeclipticwasnot
uniform,thoughtheywereunawareofwhythiswasitistoday
knownthatthisisduetothemovementofEarthinanelliptic
orbitaroundtheSun,withEarthmovingfasterwhenitisnearer
totheSunatperihelionandmovingslowerwhenitisfarther
awayataphelion.[143]
Sincetheobservationofsunspotsby
Oneofthefirstpeopletoofferascientificorphilosophical
Galileoin1609,scientistshave
explanationfortheSunwastheGreekphilosopherAnaxagoras,
continuedtostudytheSun.
whoreasonedthatitwasagiantflamingballofmetalevenlarger
thanthePeloponnesusratherthanthechariotofHelios,andthat
theMoonreflectedthelightoftheSun.[144]Forteachingthisheresy,hewasimprisonedbythe
authoritiesandsentencedtodeath,thoughhewaslaterreleasedthroughtheinterventionofPericles.
EratosthenesestimatedthedistancebetweenEarthandtheSuninthe3rdcenturyBCas"ofstadia
myriads400and80000",thetranslationofwhichisambiguous,implyingeither4,080,000stadia
(755,000km)or804,000,000stadia(148to153millionkilometersor0.99to1.02AU)thelattervalue
iscorrecttowithinafewpercent.Inthe1stcenturyAD,Ptolemyestimatedthedistanceas1,210times
theradiusofEarth,approximately7.71millionkilometers(0.0515AU).[145]
ThetheorythattheSunisthecenteraroundwhichtheplanetsmovewasfirstproposedbytheancient
GreekAristarchusofSamosinthe3rdcenturyBC,andlateradoptedbySeleucusofSeleucia(see
Heliocentrism).Thislargelyphilosophicalviewwasdevelopedintofullypredictivemathematicalmodel
ofaheliocentricsysteminthe16thcenturybyNicolausCopernicus.Intheearly17thcentury,the
inventionofthetelescopepermitteddetailedobservationsofsunspotsbyThomasHarriot,Galileo
Galileiandotherastronomers.Galileomadesomeofthefirstknowntelescopicobservationsofsunspots
andpositedthattheywereonthesurfaceoftheSunratherthansmallobjectspassingbetweenEarthand
theSun.[146]SunspotswerealsoobservedduringtheHanDynasty(206BCAD220)byChinese
astronomerswhomaintainedrecordsoftheseobservationsforcenturies.Averroesalsoprovideda
descriptionofsunspotsinthe12thcentury.[147]
ArabicastronomicalcontributionsincludeAlbatenius'discoverythatthedirectionoftheSun'sapogee
(theplaceintheSun'sorbitagainstthefixedstarswhereitseemstobemovingslowest)ischanging.[148]
(Inmodernheliocentricterms,thisiscausedbyagradualmotionoftheaphelionoftheEarth'sorbit).
IbnYunusobservedmorethan10,000entriesfortheSun'spositionformanyyearsusingalarge
astrolabe.[149]
ThetransitofVenuswasfirstobservedin1032byPersianastronomerandpolymathAvicenna,who
concludedthatVenusisclosertoEarththantheSun.[150]In1672GiovanniCassiniandJeanRicher
determinedthedistancetoMarsandweretherebyabletocalculatethedistancetotheSun.
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In1666,IsaacNewtonobservedtheSun'slightusingaprism,andshowedthatitwasmadeupoflightof
manycolors.[151]In1800,WilliamHerscheldiscoveredinfraredradiationbeyondtheredpartofthe
solarspectrum.[152]The19thcenturysawadvancementinspectroscopicstudiesoftheSunJosephvon
Fraunhoferrecordedmorethan600absorptionlinesinthespectrum,thestrongestofwhicharestill
oftenreferredtoasFraunhoferlines.Intheearlyyearsofthemodernscientificera,thesourceofthe
Sun'senergywasasignificantpuzzle.LordKelvinsuggestedthattheSunwasagraduallycoolingliquid
bodythatwasradiatinganinternalstoreofheat.[153]Kelvinand
HermannvonHelmholtzthenproposedagravitational
contractionmechanismtoexplaintheenergyoutput,butthe
resultingageestimatewasonly20millionyears,wellshortof
thetimespanofatleast300millionyearssuggestedbysome
geologicaldiscoveriesofthattime.[153]In1890JosephLockyer,
whodiscoveredheliuminthesolarspectrum,proposeda
meteoritichypothesisfortheformationandevolutionofthe
Sun.[154]
Sol,theSun,froma1550editionof
Notuntil1904wasadocumentedsolutionoffered.Ernest
GuidoBonatti'sLiberastronomiae.
RutherfordsuggestedthattheSun'soutputcouldbemaintained
byaninternalsourceofheat,andsuggestedradioactivedecayas
thesource.[155]However,itwouldbeAlbertEinsteinwhowouldprovidetheessentialcluetothesource
oftheSun'senergyoutputwithhismassenergyequivalencerelationE=mc2.[156]In1920,SirArthur
EddingtonproposedthatthepressuresandtemperaturesatthecoreoftheSuncouldproduceanuclear
fusionreactionthatmergedhydrogen(protons)intoheliumnuclei,resultinginaproductionofenergy
fromthenetchangeinmass.[157]ThepreponderanceofhydrogenintheSunwasconfirmedin1925by
CeciliaPayneusingtheionizationtheorydevelopedbyMeghnadSaha,anIndianphysicist.The
theoreticalconceptoffusionwasdevelopedinthe1930sbytheastrophysicistsSubrahmanyan
ChandrasekharandHansBethe.HansBethecalculatedthedetailsofthetwomainenergyproducing
nuclearreactionsthatpowertheSun.[158][159]In1957,MargaretBurbidge,GeoffreyBurbidge,William
FowlerandFredHoyleshowedthatmostoftheelementsintheuniversehavebeensynthesizedby
nuclearreactionsinsidestars,someliketheSun.[160]
Solarspacemissions
ThefirstsatellitesdesignedtoobservetheSunwereNASA'sPioneers5,6,7,8and9,whichwere
launchedbetween1959and1968.TheseprobesorbitedtheSunatadistancesimilartothatofEarth,and
madethefirstdetailedmeasurementsofthesolarwindandthesolarmagneticfield.Pioneer9operated
foraparticularlylongtime,transmittingdatauntilMay1983.[162][163]
Inthe1970s,twoHeliosspacecraftandtheSkylabApolloTelescopeMountprovidedscientistswith
significantnewdataonsolarwindandthesolarcorona.TheHelios1and2probeswereU.S.German
collaborationsthatstudiedthesolarwindfromanorbitcarryingthespacecraftinsideMercury'sorbitat
perihelion.[164]TheSkylabspacestation,launchedbyNASAin1973,includedasolarobservatory
modulecalledtheApolloTelescopeMountthatwasoperatedbyastronautsresidentonthestation.[87]
Skylabmadethefirsttimeresolvedobservationsofthesolartransitionregionandofultraviolet
emissionsfromthesolarcorona.[87]Discoveriesincludedthefirstobservationsofcoronalmass
ejections,thencalled"coronaltransients",andofcoronalholes,nowknowntobeintimatelyassociated
withthesolarwind.[164]
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In1980,theSolar
MaximumMissionwas
launchedbyNASA.This
spacecraftwasdesigned
toobservegammarays,
XraysandUVradiation
fromsolarflaresduringa
timeofhighsolaractivity
andsolarluminosity.Just
afewmonthsafter
AlunartransitoftheSuncaptured
launch,however,an
duringcalibrationofSTEREOB's
electronicsfailurecaused
ultravioletimagingcameras[161]
theprobetogointo
TheSungivingoutalarge
standbymode,andit
geomagneticstormon1:29pm,EST,
spentthenextthreeyearsinthisinactivestate.In1984Space
13March2012
ShuttleChallengermissionSTS41Cretrievedthesatelliteand
repaireditselectronicsbeforerereleasingitintoorbit.TheSolar
MaximumMissionsubsequentlyacquiredthousandsofimagesofthesolarcoronabeforereentering
Earth'satmosphereinJune1989.[165]
Launchedin1991,Japan'sYohkoh(Sunbeam)satelliteobservedsolarflaresatXraywavelengths.
Missiondataallowedscientiststoidentifyseveraldifferenttypesofflares,anddemonstratedthatthe
coronaawayfromregionsofpeakactivitywasmuchmoredynamicandactivethanhadpreviouslybeen
supposed.Yohkohobservedanentiresolarcyclebutwentintostandbymodewhenanannulareclipsein
2001causedittoloseitslockontheSun.Itwasdestroyedbyatmosphericreentryin2005.[166]
OneofthemostimportantsolarmissionstodatehasbeentheSolarandHeliosphericObservatory,
jointlybuiltbytheEuropeanSpaceAgencyandNASAandlaunchedon2December1995.[87]
Originallyintendedtoserveatwoyearmission,amissionextensionthrough2012wasapprovedin
October2009.[167]Ithasprovensousefulthatafollowonmission,theSolarDynamicsObservatory
(SDO),waslaunchedinFebruary2010.[168]SituatedattheLagrangianpointbetweenEarthandtheSun
(atwhichthegravitationalpullfrombothisequal),SOHOhasprovidedaconstantviewoftheSunat
manywavelengthssinceitslaunch.[87]Besidesitsdirectsolarobservation,SOHOhasenabledthe
discoveryofalargenumberofcomets,mostlytinysungrazingcometsthatincinerateastheypassthe
Sun.[169]
AllthesesatelliteshaveobservedtheSunfromthe
planeoftheecliptic,andsohaveonlyobservedits
equatorialregionsindetail.TheUlyssesprobewas
launchedin1990tostudytheSun'spolarregions.It
firsttravelledtoJupiter,to"slingshot"intoanorbit
thatwouldtakeitfarabovetheplaneoftheecliptic.
Serendipitously,itwaswellplacedtoobservethe
collisionofCometShoemakerLevy9withJupiter
in1994.OnceUlysseswasinitsscheduledorbit,it
beganobservingthesolarwindandmagneticfield
AsolarprominenceeruptsinAugust2012,as
strengthathighsolarlatitudes,findingthatthesolar
capturedbySDO
windfromhighlatitudeswasmovingatabout
750km/s,whichwasslowerthanexpected,andthat
therewerelargemagneticwavesemergingfromhighlatitudesthatscatteredgalacticcosmicrays.[170]
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Elementalabundancesinthephotospherearewellknownfromspectroscopicstudies,butthe
compositionoftheinterioroftheSunismorepoorlyunderstood.Asolarwindsamplereturnmission,
Genesis,wasdesignedtoallowastronomerstodirectlymeasurethecompositionofsolarmaterial.
GenesisreturnedtoEarthin2004butwasdamagedbyacrashlandingafteritsparachutefailedto
deployonreentryintoEarth'satmosphere.Despiteseveredamage,someusablesampleshavebeen
recoveredfromthespacecraft'ssamplereturnmoduleandareundergoinganalysis.[171]
TheSolarTerrestrialRelationsObservatory(STEREO)missionwaslaunchedinOctober2006.Two
identicalspacecraftwerelaunchedintoorbitsthatcausethemto(respectively)pullfurtheraheadofand
fallgraduallybehindEarth.ThisenablesstereoscopicimagingoftheSunandsolarphenomena,suchas
coronalmassejections.[172][173]
TheIndianSpaceResearchOrganisationhasscheduledthelaunchofa100kgsatellitenamedAdityafor
201516.ItsmaininstrumentwillbeacoronagraphforstudyingthedynamicsoftheSolarcorona.[174]
Observationandeffects
ThebrightnessoftheSuncancausepainfromlookingatitwith
thenakedeyehowever,doingsoforbriefperiodsisnot
hazardousfornormalnondilatedeyes.[175][176]Lookingdirectly
attheSuncausesphosphenevisualartifactsandtemporary
partialblindness.Italsodeliversabout4milliwattsofsunlightto
theretina,slightlyheatingitandpotentiallycausingdamagein
eyesthatcannotrespondproperlytothebrightness.[177][178]UV
exposuregraduallyyellowsthelensoftheeyeoveraperiodof
years,andisthoughttocontributetotheformationofcataracts,
TheSun,asseenfromlowEarth
butthisdependsongeneralexposuretosolarUV,andnot
orbitoverlookingtheInternational
[179]
SpaceStation.Thissunlightisnot
whetheronelooksdirectlyattheSun.
Longdurationviewing
filteredbytheloweratmosphere,
ofthedirectSunwiththenakedeyecanbegintocauseUV
whichblocksmuchofthesolar
induced,sunburnlikelesionsontheretinaafterabout100
spectrum
seconds,particularlyunderconditionswheretheUVlightfrom
theSunisintenseandwellfocused[180][181]conditionsare
worsenedbyyoungeyesornewlensimplants(whichadmitmoreUVthanagingnaturaleyes),Sun
anglesnearthezenith,andobservinglocationsathighaltitude.
ViewingtheSunthroughlightconcentratingopticssuchasbinocularsmayresultinpermanentdamage
totheretinawithoutanappropriatefilterthatblocksUVandsubstantiallydimsthesunlight.Whenusing
anattenuatingfiltertoviewtheSun,thevieweriscautionedtouseafilterspecificallydesignedforthat
use.SomeimprovisedfiltersthatpassUVorIRrays,canactuallyharmtheeyeathighbrightness
levels.[182]Herschelwedges,alsocalledSolarDiagonals,areeffectiveandinexpensiveforsmall
telescopes.Thesunlightthatisdestinedfortheeyepieceisreflectedfromanunsilveredsurfaceofa
pieceofglass.Onlyaverysmallfractionoftheincidentlightisreflected.Therestpassesthroughthe
glassandleavestheinstrument.Iftheglassbreaksbecauseoftheheat,nolightatallisreflected,making
thedevicefailsafe.Simplefiltersmadeofdarkenedglassallowthefullintensityofsunlighttopass
throughiftheybreak,endangeringtheobserver'seyesight.Unfilteredbinocularscandeliverhundredsof
timesasmuchenergyasusingthenakedeye,possiblycausingimmediatedamage.Itisclaimedthat
evenbriefglancesatthemiddaySunthroughanunfilteredtelescopecancausepermanentdamage.[183]
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Partialsolareclipsesarehazardoustoviewbecausetheeye'spupilisnotadaptedtotheunusuallyhigh
visualcontrast:thepupildilatesaccordingtothetotalamountof
lightinthefieldofview,notbythebrightestobjectinthefield.
DuringpartialeclipsesmostsunlightisblockedbytheMoon
passinginfrontoftheSun,buttheuncoveredpartsofthe
photospherehavethesamesurfacebrightnessasduringanormal
day.Intheoverallgloom,thepupilexpandsfrom~2mmto
~6mm,andeachretinalcellexposedtothesolarimagereceives
uptotentimesmorelightthanitwouldlookingatthenon
eclipsedSun.Thiscandamageorkillthosecells,resultingin
smallpermanentblindspotsfortheviewer.[184]Thehazardis
Halowithsundogs
insidiousforinexperiencedobserversandforchildren,because
thereisnoperceptionofpain:itisnotimmediatelyobviousthat
one'svisionisbeingdestroyed.
Duringsunriseandsunset,sunlightisattenuatedduetoRayleighscatteringandMiescatteringfroma
particularlylongpassagethroughEarth'satmosphere,[185]andtheSunissometimesfaintenoughtobe
viewedcomfortablywiththenakedeyeorsafelywithoptics(providedthereisnoriskofbrightsunlight
suddenlyappearingthroughabreakbetweenclouds).Hazyconditions,atmosphericdust,andhigh
humiditycontributetothisatmosphericattenuation.[186]
Arareopticalphenomenonmayoccurshortlyaftersunsetorbeforesunrise,knownasagreenflash.The
flashiscausedbylightfromtheSunjustbelowthehorizonbeingbent(usuallythroughatemperature
inversion)towardstheobserver.Lightofshorterwavelengths(violet,blue,green)isbentmorethanthat
oflongerwavelengths(yellow,orange,red)butthevioletandbluelightisscatteredmore,leavinglight
thatisperceivedasgreen.[187]
UltravioletlightfromtheSunhasantisepticpropertiesandcanbeusedtosanitizetoolsandwater.It
alsocausessunburn,andhasothermedicaleffectssuchastheproductionofvitaminD.Ultravioletlight
isstronglyattenuatedbyEarth'sozonelayer,sothattheamountofUVvariesgreatlywithlatitudeand
hasbeenpartiallyresponsibleformanybiologicaladaptations,includingvariationsinhumanskincolor
indifferentregionsoftheglobe.[188]
Seealso
AdvancedCompositionExplorer
Antisolarpoint
Listofbrighteststars
Solarastronomy
Solarenergy
Sundog
Sunpath
SunEarthDay
Sungazing
Notes
22/36
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a. Itissometimessaidthat"Sol"isanalternativenamefortheSun.Itisthewordfor"Sun"inLatinandsome
modernEuropeanlanguagesandistherootofsomeEnglishwords,suchas"solar".However,itisnot
included,onitsownandinthissense,inEnglishdictionaries,soitisnotconsideredcorrectEnglish.
Nevertheless,itissometimesfoundinsciencefiction.
b. Allnumbersinthisarticleareshortscale.Onebillionis109,or1,000,000,000.
c. Inastronomicalsciences,thetermheavyelements(ormetals)referstoallelementsexcepthydrogenand
helium.
d. Hydrothermalventcommunitieslivesodeepundertheseathattheyhavenoaccesstosunlight.Bacteria
insteadusesulfurcompoundsasanenergysource,viachemosynthesis.
e. A50kgadulthumanhasavolumeofabout0.05m3,whichcorrespondsto13.8watts,atthevolumetric
powerofthesolarcenter.Thisis285kcal/day,about10%oftheactualaveragecaloricintakeandoutputfor
humansinnonstressfulconditions.
f. Earth'satmospherenearsealevelhasaparticledensityofabout2 1025m3.
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Externallinks
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NationalSolarObservatory(http://www.nso.edu/)
AstronomyCast:TheSun(http://www.astronomycast.com/astronomy/episode30thesunspots
andall/)
AcollectionofspectacularimagesoftheSunfromvariousinstitutions
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Satelliteobservationsofsolarluminosity(http://www.acrim.com/)
Sun|Trek,aneducationalwebsiteabouttheSun(http://www.suntrek.org/)
TheSwedish1meterSolarTelescope,SST(http://www.solarphysics.kva.se/)
AnanimatedexplanationofthestructureoftheSun
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AnimationTheFutureoftheSun(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qpMRtvFD8ek&hl=fr)
SolarConveyorBeltSpeedsUp
(http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2010/12mar_conveyorbelt.htm)NASAimages,linkto
reportonScience
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sun&oldid=653981502"
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Meandistance 2.7 1017km

696 342 65km[5]

Temperature Center(modeled): 1.57 107K[1]

(1.988 55 0.000 25) 1030kg[1]

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