Elements of Trigonometry ( 200 Pages)

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PHILLIPS'LOOMIS MATHEMATICAL SERIES
ELEMENTS OF TRIGONOMETRY
PLANE AND SPHERICAL
BY
ANDREW
W.
PHILLIPS, Ph.D.
AND
WENDELL
M.
STRONG,
Ph.D.
YALE UNIVERSIXy
NEW YORK
.:
CINCINNATI
CHICAGO
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
Copyright, 1898, by
Harper & BROTHKRa.
All rights reserved.
W.
P.
18
Xibrary
3-51
PREFACE
In this work the trigonometric functions are defined as
but their representation by lines
ratios,
is
also introduced at
the beginning, because certain parts of the subject can be

treated
more simply by the
line
method, or by a combination
of the two methods, than by the ratio
Attention
The
is
method
alone.
book
and directness of the treatment of both the
called to the following features of the
simplicity
Plane and Spherical Trigonometry.
The emphasis given
to the
formulas essential to the solu-
tion of triangles.
The large number of exercises.

The graphical representation of
the trigonometric, inverse
trigonometric, and hyperbolic functions.
The
use of photo-engravings of models in the Spherical
Trigonometry.
The
recognition of the rigorous ideas of
matics in
dealing
with
modern mathe-
fundamental series of
the
trigo-
nometry.
The
natural treatment of
the complex
number and the
hyperbolic functions.
The
Our
graphical solution of spherical triangles.

grateful
acknowledgments are due
to our colleague,
Professor James Pierpont, for valuable suggestions regarding the construction of Chapter VI.
We
are also indebted to Dr. George T. Sellew for
making
the collection of miscellaneous exercises.
Andrew W. Phillips,
Wendell M. Strong.
Yale University, December,
i8gS.
104S2.80
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
CHAPTER
THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

PAGE
Angles
Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions
Signs of the Trigonometric Functions
'
Relations of the Functions
Functions
Functions
Functions
Functions
Functions
Functions
Functions
4
8
10
of an
Acute Angle of a Right Triangle

of Complementary Angles
13
of 0, 90, 180, 270, 360
15
of the Supplement of an
of 45, 30, 60
17
Angle
(i8ox), (180+^), (360 .r)

(90 jv), (90 + ^), (270 j), (270+ _)')
of (;:),
of
14
CHAPTER
16
....
...
18
20
II
THE RIGHT TRIANGLE

Solution of Right Triangles
22
Solution of Oblique Triangles by the Aid of Right Triangles
CHAPTER
28
III
TRIGONOMETRIC ANALYSIS
Proof of Fundamental Formulas (i i)-( 1 4)
of the Sum and Difference of Two Angles
Functions of Twice an Angle
Functions of Half an Angle
Formulas for the Sums and Differences of Functions
The Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Tangent
....
....
32
36
36
36
37
39
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Vi
CHAPTER
IV
THE OBLIQUE TRIANGLE

rAOB
Derivation of Formulas
41
Formulas for the Area of a Triangle

The Ambiguous Case
The Solution of a Triangle
(I.) Given a Side and Two Angles
(2.) Given Two Sides and the Angle Opposite One of
(3.) Given Two Sides and the Included Angle
(4.) Given the Three Sides
44
45
Them
Exercises
46
46
48
49
50
CHAPTER V
CIRCULAR MEASUREGRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
Circular Measure
55
Periodicity of the Trigonometric Functions
57
Graphical Representation
58
CHAPTER
VI
COMPUTATION OF LOGARITHMS AND OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM hyperbolic FUNCTIONS
Fundamental Series
Computation of Logarithms
Computation of Trigonometric Functions
63
64
De Moivre's Theorem
The Roots of Unity
The Hyperbolic Functions
70
CHAPTER
68
72
73
VII
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
Relations of Functions
78
Right Triangles
80
and Regular Polygons

Trigonometric Identities and Equations
Oblique Triangles
84
88
Isosceles Triangles
83
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY
CHAPTER
VIII
RIGHT AND QUADRANTAL TRIANGLES

PAGB
Derivation of Formulas for Right Triangles
93
94
97
98
Napier's Rules
Ambiguous Case
Quadrantal Triangles
CHAPTER IX
OBLIQUE-ANGLED TRIANGLES
Derivation of Formulas
100
Formulas for Logarithmic Computation

The Six Cases and Examples
Ambiguous Cases
Area of the Spherical Triangle
.............
loi
104
106
108
CHAPTER X
APPLICATIONS TO THE CELESTIAL AND TERRESTRIAL SPHERES
Astronomical Problems
no
Geographical Problems
113
CHAPTER XI
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION OF A SPHERICAL TRIANGLE
CHAPTER
IIJ
XII
RECAPITULATION OF FORMULAS
II9
APPENDIX
RELATION OF THE PLANE, SPHERICAL, AND PSEUDO-SPHERICAL
TRIGONOMETRIES
I25
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
129
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
CHAPTER

ANGLES
1, In Trigonometry the size of an angle
the
amount one
position of the other side to reach
Thus,
if
makes
if it
it
and one-half revolutions, the angle
;:!
turns
is
one-half a revolution, the angle
one revolution, the angle
if
its final
from the
position.
the hand of a clock makes one-fourth of a rev-
olution, the angle through which
gles;
measured by
is
side of the angle has revolved
one right angle

is
two
right an-
four right angles;
is
is
if
one
six right angles, etc.
-^B
B
FIG. 2
The amount the side OB has rotated from OA to reach

may or may not be equal to the inclination of the lines. In
to this inclination
Two
I
angles
in Fig.
may have
it is
the
its final
Fig.
position
i it is
equal
not.
same
sides and yet be different.
In Fig. 2
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
and Fig. 4 the positions of the sides of the angles are the same yet in
Fig. 2 the angle is two right angles, in Fig. 4 it is six right angles.
The
;
number
addition of any
the position of
Question.
of complete revolutions to an angle does not change
sides.
its
Through how many right angles does the
of a clock revolve in 6\ hours.' the minute-hand

Question.
If
the fly-wheel of an engine
minute, through
how many
makes 100 revolutions per
right angles does
revolve in
it
Def.
RIGHT ANGLES
The
first
second side
Def.
of the
If
is
second
RIGHT ANGLES
5}
that
the
side of the angle
which the revolution
Initial line
Initial line
\\
hour-hand
.''
is
measured
is.
the side from
initial line; the
is
the terminal line.
the direction of the revolution
hands of a clock, the angle
is
is
opposite to that
positive;
as that of the hands of a clock, the angle
is
if
the same
negative.
Initial line
Initial line
NEGATIVE ANGLE
POSITIVE ANGLE
The
angles
we have employed
by the hands of a clock
are
all
as illustrations
ute
is
degree
is
in
degrees, minutes, and
one-ninetieth of a right angle, a min-
one-sixtieth of a degree, a second
minute.
described
negative angles.
2, Angles are usually measured

seconds.
those
is
one-sixtieth of a

The symbols
indicating degrees, minutes, and seconds are
thus, twenty-six degrees, forty-three minutes,
'
";
and ten seconds
is
written 26 43' 10".
The plane about
5.
four quadrants, as
begins at the
the vertex of an angle
shown
in the figure
the
is
divided into
quadrant
first
initial line.
A
V\
T
II
Initial
m:
IV
III
ANGLE
THE FOUR QUADRANTS
ANGLE
An
line
angle
IN 3D
is
IN 1ST
ANGLE IN 2D QUADRANT
QUADRANT
ANGLE
QUADRANT
Line
IV
IN
4TH QUADRANT
said to be in a certain quadrant
if its
terminal
that quadrant.
is in
EXERCISES
4.
In
(I.)
Express 2^ right angles in degrees, minutes, and seconds.
what quadrant
(2.)
What
lines as
(3.)
the angle
an angle of 745
What
angle of
(4.)
is
In
angle less than 360 has the same
initial
positive angles less than 720 have the
73"
what quadrant
and terminal
is
an angle of
890?
same
sides as an
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
DEFINITIONS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

5,
The
trigonometric functions are numbers, and are de-
fined as the ratios of lines.
Let the angle
AOP
horizontal, and from
PS
/*,
be so placed that the
perpendicular to the
ANGLB
IN
THK ST QUADRANT
ANGLU
IN
THE 3D QDADRAMT
ANOLB IN THE aD QUADRANT
SP
-=r-p
OS
OP
line,
initial line.
Denote the angle
initial line is
any point of the terminal
ANCLB IN THK 4TH QUADKANT
A OP by x.
sine of
cosine of
(written sin x).
(written cos;r).
draw
SP
^r^ = tangent of
-T,=
o/-
r^
the above
= secant
of
may be added
(written
of
(written csc;r).
the versed sine (written versin)
The
x = cos
i
cot;ir).
sec;tr).
sine (written coversin), which are defined as follows
versin
tanx).
cotangent of x (written
-^p= cosecant
To
x (written
x; coversin
values of the sine, cosine,
what point of the terminal
etc.,
line is
and coversed
x = i sin
as.
do not depend upon
taken as P, but upon the
angle.
S'6
s s'
For the
two
of
and OS'P' being
similar, the ratio of
any
equal to the ratio of the corresponding sides
is
OSP.
Def.
The
cosecant of
of
OSP
triangles
sides of OS'P'
sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant,
and
an angle are the trigonometric functions
the angle, and depend for their value on the angle
alone.
number
line
;
may by
its
length and direction represent a
number is expressed by the

number is positive or negative ac-
the magnitude of the
length of the line
the
cording to the direction of the
line.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
6
7. In
5, if
the denominators of
several ratios be
tlie
taken equal to unity, the trigonometric functions will be represented by lines.
St
Thus, sin;ir=-^,=
the
line,
that
is,
SP
SP'Ci\Q
number represented by
the ratio of the line to
its
unit of length.
Hence SP may represent the sine of x.

manner the other trigonometric
In a similar
may be
represented by
lines.
In the following figures a circle of unit radius
about the vertex

noted by X.
of the angle
Then from
5 it
A OP,
is
described
this angle
being de-
follows that
Cot
^^/^ ^^\
'\^ ^
Cos
\
o
FIG. 3
functions
SP represents the sine of x.

OS represents the cosine of x.
A T represents the tangent of x.
BC represents
the cotangent of x
6^7" represents the
OC represents
For the sake
ecant of x.
the cosecant of x.
SP, OS,
of brevity, the lines
etc., of
the preceding figures are
often spoken of as the sine, cosine, etc.
Hence, we
in
may
also define the trigonometric
functions
general terms as follows:
a circle of unit radius
If
is
described about the vertex of
is
represented by the perpendicular
an angle,
(I.)
The sine
upon the
of the angle
initial line
from the intersection of the terminal
line
with
the circumference.
(2.)
The cosine
initial line
(3.)
of the angle
represented by the
is
extending from the vertex to the
The tangent
of the angle
the circle at the beginning of the
represented by a line tangent to
is
first
the point of tangency to the terminal

(4.)
The cotangent
of the angle
quadrant, and extending from
line.
is
represented by a line tangent
to the circle at the beginning of the second quadrant,
from the point of tangency to the terminal

(5.)
The secant
of the angle
is
s^ênt of the
sine.
and extending
line.
represented by the segment of the
terminal line extending from the vertex to the tangent.

(6.)
The cosecant
of the angle
is
represented by the segment of
the terminal line extending from the vertex to the cotangent.
The
definitions in
5 are called the ratio definitions of the trigonometric
litie definitions.
The introduction of two
same thing should not embarrass the student. We have
shown that they are equivalent. In some cases it is convenient to use the
first definition, and in other cases the second, as the student will observe
functions,
and those
in 7 the
definitions for the
in the course of this study.
come
It is therefore
familiar with the use of both.
important that he should be-
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
SIGNS OF
S Lines are regarded as positive or negative according

to their directions.
tive
if
it
negative
Thus,
if it
extends to the
upward from OA, negative

terminal
in
the figures of 5, OS xs, posiO along the initial line,
extends to the right of

left ;
if it
SP h positive
if it
extends doivnivard.
extends
OP, the
line, is dXv^d.ys, positive.
The above determines, from 5, the signs of the trigonometric functions, since it shows the signs of the two terms
of each ratio.
may be determined diThe

and
tangent
are
positive
if measured upsine
rectly.
ward from OAy and fiegative if measured downward.
The cosine and cotangent are positive if measured to the
By
the line definitions the signs
right from
OB, and negative

B
if
measured to the
Cot-
Cot-t-
left.
p>
Cof-\
1
na.
;^
u
na

The
secant and cosecant are positive
same direction as the terminal
line,
0P\
if
measured
negative
if
in
the
measured
the opposite direction.
in
The
signs of the functions of angles in the different quadrants are as follows
II
Ill
IV
Sine and cosecant
Cosine and secant
Tangent and cotangent
Quadrant
9,
It is
evident that the values of the functions of an
angle depend only upon the position of the sides of the

angle.
If
two angles
differ
the position of the sides
by
is
360, or
any multiple
of 360,
the same, hence the values of
the functions are the same.
Thus
in Fig.
the angle
is
Cot
120 in Fig. 2 the angle
is
840 yet
the lines which represent the functions are the same for both angles.
EXERCISE
Determine, by drawing the necessary
cos 810; sin 760; cot
70; cos
figures,
550;
1560; sin 130; cos 260; tan 310.
tan
the sign of tan rooo;
560; sec
300; cot
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
lO
RELATIONS OF THE FUNCTIONS

10, By 5, whatever may be the length of OP, we have
SP
SP
OS
OS
OP
OP
C
Cot
B"
^. y
f"
l/c
X w \\
/<j;\Cos
u
n&s
We have, then,
from Figs. 2 and
SP
OS
OS _
SP
Multiplying (l) by
3,
since
(0
COS a;'
_ cosag
sin as
'
()
(2),
tana? cota;=l,
ta.nx =
or
OP
_
OS
3,
=seca;=
OP _
y/"
From
or
and
Also,
or
tanx
cotjf
Again, from Figs. 2 and
(3)
cot;r =
cos 05 '
(4)
1
sin
(5)
as
OS' + SP' = OP\

sinâ; + cosâ? = 1,
sin'jr= I cos^jr
= i sin'
cos'
Figs. 2
and
3,
OA'ÂT'=Or,
1
1
j:
(6)
jr.
and OB' + BC' = OC\
+ tan' a? = sec' a?
+ cot'x = csc'x.
(7)
(8)

The
angle
has been taken in the
il
quadrant
first
The proof
however, true for any angle.
the
is
the
SP
be-
comes negative in the third and fourth quadrants, and

the second and third.
OS
results are,
same
for angles
other quadrants, except that
in
in
EXERCISES
11,
(I.)
Prove cosjT sec;r=
i.
=
Prove tan x cos x = sin x.
cos" ^ = cos'^r.
Prove sin
Prove tan x + cot x =
'
sin;t:cosjr
(6.) Prove sin*;r cos*x =12 cos'
(2.)
Prove sin^ csc^
l.
(3.)
jr -v/i
(4.)
(5.)
jr.
(7.)
^
Prove
(8.)
Prove tan x
1^, The formulas
cotJT sec
sin
sin;r.
jr
jr
-f cos;r
= sec:r.
(i)-(8) of 10 are algebraic equations
connecting the different functions of the same angle.

the value of one of the functions of an angle
can substitute this value
in
is
given,
If
we
one of the equations and solve
Repeating the process, we
to find another of the functions.

find a third function, etc.
In solving equation
unless something
(6), (7),
or
positive or negative square root,
the functions.
less
a square root
(8)
is
extracted
given which determines whether to choose the
is
The
we
reason for this
get two values for

is
that there are
some
two
of
angles.
than 360 for which a function has a given value.
EXERCISES
13.
(I.)
Given x
less
than 90 and sin^
= ^;
functions of x.
Solution.
cos
Since
x is
less than go'^,
x= v' I i= iv' 3.
we know
that cosjt
is
positive.
find all the other
'
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
12
H^ncc
cos3;=+^"v/3;
cota;
= ij^ = Vi;
sec*
cscap
= j = 2.
^ = 1^3;
(2.)
Given tan^
Solution.
= " i îid
jc
in quadrant
IV ;
find sin a:
and
zoi&x.
sin
a;
^^
cos X
= cos x,
sin^x + cosâ; = i
hence
3 sin a;
10 sin^ x=
hence
sin
X= -
V^= - 1^ VIo
cos X = T^Vio.
(3.)
Given sin( 30)= |
(4.)
Given x
in
find the other functions of 30**.
quadrant III and
sin;c
= ^;
find all the other
functions of x.
(5.)
Given
in quadrant
IV and sin^ =
|;
find
all
the other
functions ofy.
(6.)
= ^ find all the other functions of 60.

= o find cos 0 and tan 0.
Given tan 2 = f and z in quadrant I find the other functions
Given cos 60
(7.) Given sin 0
(8.)
of
2.
(9.)
(10.)
Given 00145=
^^^ ^^^ ^^^ other functions of 45.

Given ia.ny^\^$ and cosj^ negative; find all the other
^
functions of y.
= V3 find the other

sinA:= cosj; and x in
(11.)
Given cot 30
(12.)
Given
and
functions of 30.
quadrant II; find
sin^;
cos;c.
(13.)
Given tan x
-\-
cotJf= 3 and x
in
quadrant
find sinjc.
13
FUNCTIONS OF AN ACUTE ANGLE OF A RIGHT TRIANGLE

14i,
The
functions of an acute angle of a right triangle
can be expressed as ratios of the sides of the triangle.
J<
Remark.
letters
Triangles
are usually lettered, as in Fig.
2,
the capital
denoting the angles, the corresponding small letters the sides
opposite.
ABC, by
BC a
In the right triangle

^
5,
AC
AB
AC
^
co8^^ =-r^=-c = sin^;
.
'
eotA=4S,=~=tanB.
BC a
15, From
14, for
an acute angle of a right
sme:
triangle,
side opposite angle.
hypotenuse
side adjacent to angle,
hypotenuse
_
tangent
cotangent
^
side opposite angle
side adjacent to angle'
side adiacent to angle

=
r^
f
side opposite angle
-.
we have
;;
:;
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
14
FUNCTIONS OF COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES

16. From
we have
14,
^ = cos ^=cos(90 ^);

cos ^ = sin ^ = sin (90^);
tan A = QO\. ^ = cot(90 ^);
cot^ = tan^=tan(90-^>
sin
Because of
(9)
and cosine are called co-funcand the tangent and cotangent are called co-
this relation the sine
tions of each other,
functions of each other.
The
results of this article
A fiinctioji
its
may be
of an acute angle
is
stated thus
equal
to the co-function
of
complementary angle.
The
values of the functions of the different angles are given in " Trigo-
nometric Tables."
By
the use of the principle just proved, each function
an angle between 45 and 90 can be found as a function of an angle less

than 45. Consequently, the tables need to be constructed for angles up to
45 only. The tables are so arranged that a number in them can be read
either as a function of an angle less than 45 or as the co- function of the
of
complement of
this angle.
EXERCISES
17,
(i.)
Express as functions of an angle

sin 70
cos 60
(2.)
(3.)
X = sin 2X
tan X = cot ;^x
cos
cot 47
sin 72 39'.
find x.
(6.)
A, B, and
find x.
are the angles of a triangle
cos^^=sini(^+
Hint.
45**
find x.
(5.)
2X
than
tan 63"
= cos ^x find x.
cot(30 x) = tan(30 + ^x)
(4.) sin
less
cos 89 30'
C).
A+B + CîSo".
prove that
..

FUNCTIONS OF'O*,
IS, As
creases and
OA,
Hence
with
When
cos;*: increases.
.S/*
becomes
AND
360**
decreases towards 0 (Fig.
the angle
90, 180**, 270,
o,
OF
comes
15
i),
and (^^ becomes (3^( = i).
sin 0
= o.
cos 0
nG.4
PIO. 3
As
the angle
increases towards 90 (Fig.
When C'/' comes into

S/* becomes 0B{\) and OS becomes o.
and cos^ decreases.
When
increases.
cot:JC
OP comes
2),
sin^ increases
coincidence with
cos 90=.
sin 90 = !,
Hence
As the angle x decreases towards 0 (Fig.
and
sin a: de-
into coincidence
decreases
3), tana;
into coincidence with
^7* becomes o and BC

cot 0 = 00
tan 0 = o,
Hence
As the angle x increases towards 90 (Fig.
OB,
OA,
has increased without limit.
and
AThzs
increased without
Hence
By cot 0=
its
we may
00
OP comes
limit,
tan 90
Remark.
near to 0
tity
When
cot;c decreases.
= 00,
we mean
and
4),
tan a: increases
into coincidence with
BCo.
cot 90=.
that as the angle approaches indefinitely
cotangent increases so as to become greater than any
The symbol co does not denote

number is indefinitely great.
choose.
simply that the
OB,
a definite
finite
quan-
number, but
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
i6
In every case where a trigonometric function becomes indefinitely

great
is
it
a positive sense
in
value from one side,
in
if
the anglg approaches the limiting
a negative sense
decreases to
o,
tive angle to
-j-oo
We
o**.
if
the angle
the angle increases from a nega-
if
shall not often
need to distinguish between
a similar method the functions of i8o, 270, and 360
deduced.
The
results of this article are
Angle
It
-f 00
00
CO
may now
00
i to
00
-\-
1 only,
and
to -^<xi, its secant
except those between
00
an angle
be stated that, as
can take on values from

values from
CO
cot
360
tan
may be
in the following table
270
cos
19,
shown
180
90
sin
/<?
the angle approaches the
00, and shall in general denote either by the symbol w.
and
By
o= oo
but cot
if
Thus coto=-}-oo
limiting value from the other side.
7 and
its
varies, its sine
tangent
and
and cosine
cotangent all
cosecant all values from
00
-f- /
FUNCTIONS OF THE SUPPLEMENT OF AN ANGLE

jUO.
Suppose the triangle
angle (9/"5'(Fig.
angle
(Fig.
AOP'
I).
then
2),
(Fig. 2)
is
OPS (Fig.
equal to the
tri-
SP=S'P' and OS=OS', and
the
equal to the supplement of
Also, in the triangle
= angle^(9/"(Fig.
i)
AOP'
(Fig.
3),
angle
2).
FIG. 3
AOP
AOF

It follows
from
17
and 8 that
sin (10
= sfn a;;
COS (180 x)=.
cos 05
(lO)
= tan x
cot (180 a:) = cot a;.
tan (180
The
results of this article
The sine of an angle
is
a?)
may be
stated thus
equal to the sine of its supplement^
and the cosine, tangent, and cotangent are each equal

the same functions of its supplement.
The
principle just proved
is
to
minus
of great importance in the solution of
tri-
angles which contain an obtuse angle.
FUNCTIONS OF
21, In the right triangle
and OP=i.
45, 30,
OSP
AND
(Fig. 1) angle
6o
= angle P\^*
OS=SP=^ ^^2.
sin45 = cos450=i-/2;
tan45 = cot45=i.
Hence
Therefore
814,16
iVT
ivT
In equilateral triangle
PS bisects
Hence,
angle
OPA,
is
OPA (Fig.
the sides are of unit length,
perpendicular to OA, and bisects
in the right triangle
Therefore
2)
OA.
OPS, 0S=^, SP=^y/i.
= cos 60 = i
cos 30 = sin 60 =-^-\/3
tan 30 = cot 60 = i ^/i
cot 30 = tan 60= Vs-
14
sin 30
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
22, The following values should be remembered

Angle
OP
300
45
60
900
sin
*^/2
i\/3
cos
iVi
W2
EXERCISES
Prove that
if jr
(I.)
sin 2jr=:2
(2.)
cos 3x=:4
(3.)
cos 2x
(4.)
sin
(5.) tan
^"
(7)
rect
The
sinx cos^r;
cos';ir 3 cos^;
= cos* X sin*
yi: = 3 sin;ir cos*;r sin*4r;
jr
2x = -
2 tan
-
I tan*jr
Prove that the equations of exercises
(6.)
rect
r^
= 30,
if
and
Prove that the equations of exercises (2) and

if
3 are cor-
x= 45
(4)
are cor-
;r=i2o.
following three articles, 23-25, are inserted for
They include the functions of (90 x) and

(180 ;t-), which, on account of their great importance, were
treated separately in 16 and 20.
completeness.
FUNCTIONS OF {x), {lSox),

23. The
of
line representing
each of these
ano;les
(l8o + ;ir), (360 4r)
any function
as
sine, cosine, etc.
has the same length as the line repre-
senting the same funciion of x.
Thus
in Figs. 2
and OS=OS'.
and
3,
triangle 05'/''=triangle
OSP, hence
SP=S P',

B
>
L
\
>
^
7^
-N
\y^
1^^^<\
tf^
19
T"\
as
v^ i
T*
FIG. 4
FIG. 3
and
OSP' =triang\e OSP. hence SP'=SP.
In Figs.
In Figs.
I, 2,
and
4, triangle
OA 7"=triangle OA
In Figs.
I, 2,
and
4, triangle
6'^C'=triangle
4, triangle
T, hence
A T'=A T.
OBC, hence BC'=BC.
any function of each of the angles ( ^), (180*),

(180+^)) (360 :c), is equal in numerical value to the same function
TTierefore
Its sign, however, depends
of X.
senting
on the direction of the
line repre-
it.
Putting in the correct sign,

sin
( jt)
= sin JT
cos( j;) =
tan( jt) =
eot ( x)
sin (180
cos (i 80
+
+
tan j:
jt)
jt)
tan(l8o-t-;r)
oot(l8o
obtain the following table
x)=. sin jr
x) = cos JT
tan (180 x) = tan jp
cot (180 x)= cotx
sin (360 jr) = sin x
sin (180
cos (180P
cosj:
= cot
we
jc
= sin X
= - cos A
= tan:t:
+ x) = cotA:
jr) = cos jr
x)=.\Axix
cot (360 jr) = cot*
cos (360
tan (360
>
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
FUNCTIONS OF (90jj/),
24:,
of the
The
(90+jJ/),
(270-/), (270 +jj/)
line representing the sine of
same length
each of these angles
is
as the line representing the cosine of j; the
cosine, tangent, or cotangent, respectively, are of the
same length
as the sine, cotangent, and tangent of ^.
fM
=/
i'
Np; y^
\
Xys'
FICi
y
\
t'
For
Triangle OS' P'
Triangle
Triangle
= triangle
OSP, hence
OA T triangle O^C,
OBC = triangle OA T,
hence
hence
S'
P = OS, and
05'
T'
Therefore any function of each of the angles (90^),
(270^y), (270+^),
is
= 5/'.
= BC.
BC AT.
equal in numerical value
(90-|-_>'),
to the co-function

Its sign, however, depends on the direction
of y.
senting
i\
of the
line repre-
it.
Putting in the correct sign,
we
obtain the following table
cot (90
y) =
sin (go
\xa.y
jv
y)= co&y
y)= sin^
tan (270 y) = cot j
sin (270
sin (270
25, Either
+>')= cos^
+ y) = siny
+ y)= coty
cot (270 +y)= ~ taay
cos (270
cot (270
+ ^) = cos j
cos (90 + jf = sin>'
tan (90 + /):= cot^*
cot (90 + ;')= tan
~ y)=. cos^
cos (go y)z= sin^
tan (90 y)=- cot_y
sin (90
cos (270
tan (270
y) = tany
of the two preceding articles enables us directly to
express the functions of any angle, positive or negative, in terms

of the functions of a positive angle less than 90.
sin 212
Thus,
cos 260
=sin (180 + 32) = sin 32;

= cos (270 loP) = sin loP.
EXERCISES
What
(I.)
angles less than 360 have the sine equal to
tangent equal to-v/3
less
than 720
Find the sine and cosine of
30;
sin^ = -^-^2
is
Find the functions of 405; 600; 1125; 45;
(5.)
Find the functions of
197;
225.
3270.
than 45 the functions of
894.
254)
.96, find sin 196

+ cos (270 sin(i8oo jr)sin(36o
sin(i8o
.
Simplify -T-^
(tan(9o
r
+ sin' (270
sln(27o
Express the functions of {x 90) in terms of functions of x.
Given cos 164 =
(9.)
Simplify cos (90

.
(10.)
,.,
jr)
;r)
jr)
;r).
.r)
.r)
(II.)
90, sin 267;
cos 950"^.
(8.)
less
420;
Express as functions of an angle between 45 and
(7.)
tan
120; 225;
Express as functions of an angle
(6.)
765; 120; 210.
(4.)
233:
the
For what values of
(2.)
(3.)
J -v/i ?
jr)
CHAPTER
II
THE RIGHT TRIANGLE

27* To solve a
triangle
is
triangle can be solved
which
is
a side, are given.
to find the parts not given.
three parts, at least one of
if
right triangle has
the right angle, always given
be solved
if
two
sides, or
one angle,
hence a right triangle can
one side and an acute angle, are
also given.
The
by
parts of the right triangle not given are found
the use of the following formulas:

(I)
sine
_ opposite
(3)
tangent
= opposite
To
(2)
^
cosine
=-r^
hypotenuse
(4)
cotangent
= adjacent
opposite
(6)
B-igd'A).
side
adjacent side
solve, select
adjacent side
side
hypotenuse
side
'
side
16
a formula in which two given parts enter; substituting
in this the given values, a third part

all
14
is
found.
Continue this method
till
the parts are found.
In a given problem there are several ways of solving the triangle
choose
the shortest.
EXAMPLE
The hypotenuse
of a right triangle
is
47.653, a side
21.34; find the remaining parts and the area.

B
is

THE RIGHT TRIANGLE
SOLUTION WITHOUT LOGARITHMS
The
in
functions of angles are given
" Natural Functions."
the table of
A
sin/3
=-=
'^
21.34
-
47-653
47.653)21.3400(^4478
23
SOLUTION EMPLOYING LOGARITHMS

It is usually better to
by the use
solve triangles
of logarithms.
The logaritliiiis of the functions are

given in the tables of " Logarithms of
Functions."*
190612
227880
A= c-
sm
190612
log sin
372680
333571
391090
381224
=1.32919
log 47. 653 =1.67809

sub.
no 10
log sin 7^=9.65
9866
^=26
sin ^=.4478
^=26
^ =log alog c
log 21.34
36' 14"
36'
6=c cos A
=47.653 X. 8942
cos
A-=c
47.653
.8942
log b
= log r + log cos A
log 47. 653 =1.67809
95306
190612
428877
381224
log cos 26 36' 14"
=9.95140 10
log ^=1.62949
^=42.608
42.6113126
d=42.6if
^=(90- 26
36) =63 24
^=(90 -26
area=â*
=^X2i. 34x42. 61
21.34
42.61
area
log area
log
2134
12804
4268
8536
36' I4")=63'' 23'
46"
= \ab
= log ^+loga4-log^
i= 9- 69897 10
log 21.34=1.32919
log 42. 608
=1
62949
log area^2. 65765
2 )909.2974
area=454.62
454.6487
area=454.6
* In
this solution the five-place table of the
" Logarithms of Functions"
is
used.
f
No more
accurate
four-place.
decimal places are retained, because the figures in them are not
this is
due to the
fact that the table of
" Natural Functions"
is
only
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
24
CHECK ON THE CORRECTNESS OF THE WORK
= 90.263
X 5.043
90.263
= 90.261
5.045
5 -043
270789
= 1.95550
= 0.70286
log 90.261
361052
log
5.045
2 )2.65836
= 455. 196309
Extracting
21.34,
the
log2i.34=
square
root,
which proves the solution
cor-
= 21.34, which
1.
32918
proves the solu-
tion correct.
rect.
Remark.
The
results obtained in the solution of the preceding
exercise without logarithms are less accurate than those obtained in
:he solution by the use of logarithms
the cause of this
is
that four-
place tables have been used in the former method, five place in the
latter.
EXERCISES
28.
(I.)
The hypotenuse
(2.)
find the
14.81
is
=23
45'; find the
remaining
find the
13' 27"; find
(6.)
A = i$ 22'
B = 7i 34'
(7.)
In a right triangle
(8.)
In a right triangle ^
(9.)
In a right triangle a
The
18.197;
= 747.24,
an acute
= 37.234,
the angle opposite
1.
1293, the angle adjacent
the remaining parts and the area.
In a right triangle
(10.)
is
remaining parts and the area.
Given a side of a right triangle
(5.)
and A.
a side
parts.
Given a side of a right triangle
(4.)
find a
28.453,
remaining parts.
= 54 27'
= 74
= 96.42, c =
of a right triangle
Given the hypotenuse of a right triangle
(3.)
angle
In a right triangle b
11", ^
53",
= .01793;
b = 896.33
= 3729.4, ^ = 2869.1
find
find
A.
= 1247, l>= 1988 find

In a right triangle a = 8.6432, 3 = 4.781$; find
;
d.
find a.
c.
B.
angle of elevation or depression of an object
is
the
angle a line from the point of observation to the object
makes with the
horizontal.
THE RIGHT TRIANGLE
25
Thus angle x
observation
(Fig. i)
angle
is
the angle of elevation oi
(Fig. 2)
is
\i
the angle of depression oi
the point of
is
P\i O
the point
is
of observation.
At a horizontal distance of 253
(i I.)
angle of elevation of the top
From
(12.)
sion of a
ft. from the base of a tower the

60 20'; find the height of the tower.
the top of a vertical
buoy
foot of the
is
243i' 22"
is
clifif
85
ft.
high the angle of depres-
find the distance of the
buoy from the
cliff.
(13.) A vertical pole 31 ft. high casts a horizontal shadow 45

long; find the angle of elevation of the sun above the horizon.
From
(14.)
of an object
44"
the top of a tower 115
on a
level
ft.
rope 324
long
ft.
high the angle of depression
road leading away from the tower
is
be 47 2i' 17"
(16.)
22 13'
attached to the top of a building, and
the inclination of the rope to the horizontal,

to
is
from the top of the tower.
find the distance of the object
(15.)
ft.
when
observed
taut, is
find the height of the building.
light-house
is
150
ft.
How
high.
far
is
an object on the
surface of the water visible from the top?

[Take the radius of the earth
Three buoys are
(17.)
of the triangle
is
17,894
as
3960 miles.]
at the vertices of a right triangle

ft.,
the angle adjacent to
it
is
one side
57 23' 46".
Find the length of a course around the three buoys.

(18.) The angle of elevation of the top of a tower observed from a
point at a horizontal distance of 897.3
ft.
from the base
is
10 27' 42";
find the height of the tower.
(19.)
foot
is
25^
ground
(20.)
ladder 42I- ft. long leans against the side of a building; its
ft. from the building.
What angle does it make with the
Two buildings
are on opposite sides of a street 120
ft.
broad
PLANE TRIGONOMEIRY
26
The height
of the
first is
55
ft.
the angle of elevation of the top of
the second, observed from the edge of the roof of the
first, is
26
37'.
Find the height of the second building.
(21.)
mark on a
This mark
ground.
of elevation
is
of the pole
is
flag-pole
known
is
to be 53
ft.
7 in.
observed from a certain point, and
is
found to be 25
34'.
The angle
above the
its
angle
of elevation of the top
then measured, and found to be 34
17'.
Find the
height of the pole.
The equal sides
(22.)
base
is
in.
Draw
ABC.
triangle.
BD bisects the base, and
BD.
the perpendicular
Hint.
angle
of an isosceles triangle are each 7 in. long; the
Find the angles of the
long.
also the
hence
ABD
can
Given the equal sides of an isosceles triangle each
13.44
in.,
In the right triangle
ABD, AB^
in.,
AD=i^\
in.,
be solved.
Angle
(23.)
C= angle
ABC=2
A, angle
and the equal angles are each 63

and the
(24.)
angle
A BD.
21' 42"; find
the remaining parts
''
area.
The equal
the angle between
sides of an isosceles triangle are each 377.22
them
is
in.,
Find the base and the area
19 55' 32".
of the triangle.
(25.)
If
a chord of a circle
an angle of 45
(26.)
long
31' 10"
The base
of a
is
18
ft.
long,
and
it
subtends at the centre
find the radius of the circle.
wedge
is
3.92
find the angle at its vertex.
in.,
and
its
sides are each 13.25
in.
THE RIGHT TRIANGLE

The angle between the
(27.)
legs are 5
in.
(28.)
triangle
1793.2
ft.
(29.)
64 45', the
is
the form of an isosceles triangle, the base of the

;
the angles adjacent to the base are each 53"
Find the area of the
49".
a pair of dividers
long; find the distance between the points.
field is in
is
legs of
Vj
27'
field.
house has a gable
The width
roof.
the height to the eaves 25^
ft.,
of the house
is
30
the height to the ridge-pole 33^
ft.,
ft.
Find the length of the rafters and the area of an end of the house.
The
(30.)
length of one side of a regular pentagon
is
29.25 in.
find
the radius, the apothem, and the area of the pentagon.
Hint.
^The pentagon
AOB
Let
36o=72.
is
divided into 5 equal isosceles triangle^ by Us radii.
be one of these
triangles.
AB2g.2S
Find, by the methods previously given,
of the triangle
in.
angle
AOB=^
OA, OD, and
of
the area
A OB.
These are the radius of the pentagon, the apothem of the pentagon, and
\ the area of the pentagon
respectively.
(31.)
The apothem
(32.)
A tower is octagonal
of a regular
;
dodecagon
is
2; find the perimeter.
the perimeter of the octagon
is
153.7
ft.
Find the area of the base of the tower.

(33.)
fence extends about a field which
in
is
polygon of 7 sides; the radius of the polygon
is
the form of a regular

6283.4
ft.
Find the
length of the fence.

(34.)
The
is 3.27 ft.
same
length of a side of a regular hexagon inscribed in a circle
find the perimeter of
a regular decagon inscribed in the
circle.
(35.)
is
The
483930
sq.
area of a field in the form of a regular polygon of 9 sides

ft.
find the length of the fence
about
it.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
28
SOLUTION OF OBLIQUE TRIANGLES BY THE AID OF

RIGHT TRIANGLES
29* Oblique
triangles can always be solved
right triangles without the
method
is
later chapter,
tion
use
aid of
formulas
of special
frequently, however, quite
by the
awkward
the
hence,
in
formulas are deduced which render the solu-
more simple.
The
following exercises illustrate the solution by
means
of right triangles
In an oblique triangle a
(I.)
= 3.72. 5 = 47*
52',
C=i09*
10'; find
the remaining parts.
The given parts are a
side
and two
angles.
Draw
the perpendicular
CD.
.Solve the right triangle
BCD.
Having thus found CD,
solve the right triangle
(2.)
In an oblique triangle
A CD.
a = 89.7, czz. 125.3,
^=Z9
remaining parts.
The given parts are two
sides
and the included angle.
= I2.-).3
8'; find
the
THE RIGHT TRIANGLE

Hint.
Draw the perpendicular CD.

CBD.
Solve the right triangle
Having thus found
CD and AD{=cDB), solve the right triangle ACD.
In an oblique triangle
(3.)
29
remaining
01
= 3.67,^=5.81, A = 2722,'
',
find the
parts.
TAe given parts are two
sides
and an angle
opposite one of
them.
Either of the triangles

is
ACB, ACBf contains
the given parts, and
a solution.
There are two solutions when the side opposite the given angle
less
is
than the other given side and greater than the perpendicular,
CD, from the extremity
of that side to the base.*
/î</. Solve the right triangle
Having thus found CD,
The
(4.)
sides of
ACD.
solve the right triangle
an oblique triangle are
CDB (or CDB\
a= 34.3, b a 5&6, c s 55.12
find the angles.
The given parts are the three
sides.
c=S&.12
discussion of this case
of oblique triangles.
is
contained
in
a later chapter on the solution
PLANE TRIGONOMRCRY
30
Let
Hitii.'^
DB=x,
a;'-*=CZ>'=^-(<r-*).
o=^-<+2^.
Hence
A CD and BCD the hypotenuse and a side
In each of the right triangles

are
now known hence
(5.)
Two
distance of
864.4
(6.)
ft.,
trees,
and B, are on
from a point
the angle
To
these triangles can be solved.
C is
ACB is 87" 43'
12".
ft.,
BC, 800
ft.
long,
is
(7.)
A
its
light-house 92
ft.
from
from a point
measured on shore
the distance of the ship from the point
from
C is
Find the distance AB.
and ACB, are found to be 67 43' and 74

is
the distance of
determine the distance of a ship
shore, a line,
The
opjxjsite sides of a pond.
297.6
the angles,
21' 16" respectively.
B on
ABC
What
B?
high stands on top of a
base to a point at the water's edge
is
hill
297.25
from this point the angle of elevation of the top
the distance
ft.
observed
46 33' 15",
is
Find
the length of a line from the top of the light-house to the point.
(8.)
What
(9.)
river,
The
sides of a triangular field are 534
are the angles and the area of the field
certain point
and
is ii ft.
is
679.47
ft.,
ft.,
at a horizontal distance of 117!^
above the
river; observed
474.5
ft.
?
ft.
from a
from this point the angle
ofdepression of the farther bank isi"i2'. Whatisthe width of the river?

(lo.)
In a quadrilateral
rsi.93, angle
A=:7S
A BCD. AB = 1.41, BC=
21'; find
.05,
CD = 1.76, DA
the other angles of the quadrilateraL
THE RIGHT TRIANGLE

Hint.
3I
Draw the diagonal DB.
In the triangle
ABD two sides and an included angle are given, hence the
triangle can be solved.
The
solution of triangle
Having found DB,
ABD gives DB.
there are three sides of the triangle Z'.fiC known, hence
the triangle can be solved.

(II.)
i7
18',
In a quadrilateral
angle
ABCD, AB=i2.i,
B 64 49', angle Z>= 100;
ffittt. Solve triangle
ABD to find D.
AD = 9.7, angle A
find the remaining siaes.
CHAPTER
III
this chapter
30, In
we
shall
prove the following funda-
mental formulas, and shall derive other important formulas

from them
+ y) = 8lnaj coy + cosic siny,

j/) = inc cosy cosic siny,
08(05 + ?/) = cos a; cosy sin a? sini/,
cos(a; y) = cos C cosy + sin ic sin y;
(ii)
8lii(a;
ln(aj
PROOF OF FORMULAS
31, Let angle
The angles x and y are each acute and
In both
CA
figures the circle is
hence SP=%va. {x
+/>
is
+/>
then angle
positive,
and
AOP
in Fig.
greater than 90.
a anit drde, and
<?6'=s co (*
(14)
(ll)-(l4)
AOQ=x, angle QOP=y\
(ar+j') is less than 90, in Fig. 2 {x-\-y')
(12)
(13)
SP
is
perpendicular to
Draw
DP perpendicular to OQ
then
l\
OD=.zo%y,
Z>/*=sinj,
angle SPD-2.x\g\^
AOQ=^x.
(Their sides being perpendicular.)
Draw
DE perpendicular to
OA,
DH perpendicular to SP.
SP^ ED + HP.
ED={^\x\x)y.OD = syc\x cosj.
ED
(For OED being a right triangle,--= sin
Sin {x A-y) =
HP={cosx) X DP= COS X
HPD being a right triangle,
(For
jr.)
sin J.
= cosj:.)
+ 3/) = sin x cos j/ + cos as gin y.

Co%{x-^y)=OS= OE-HD*
OEz={cosx)x OD cos X cos/.
OE
-
Therefore, sin (a;
(For
C^Z>
(ll)
= cosx.)
being a right triangle,
HD = {sin x) X DP sm x sxny.
(For
PHD
being a right triangle,
HD-^ = sinx.)
-
(05 + y) = cos a; cosy -sin x sin j/.

(13)
5^. The preceding formulas have been proved only for
The
the case when x and y are each acute and positive.
Therefore, cos
proof can, however, readily be extended to include

of
X and y.
y be acute, and
Let
lant; then
sin {x +_y)
let
be an angle
= (904-.r') where
= sin (90 + x' +j)
;r
x'
is
in
all
values
the second quad-
acute,
= cos(;r'+j)
= cos x' cosjj' sin sin^j'
= sin(90 + cosjj/ + cos(90 + ;tr')sin_;'
= sin-r cosj-fcos;r sinj.
24
.r'
;ir')
If
(.r
v) is
greater than 90,
05 is
negative.
24
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
34
Thus the formula has been extended

one of the angles
similar
way
obtuse and
is
to the case where
than i8o.
less
the formula for cos(,r4-j)
is
In a
extended to
this
case.
By continuing
be true for
Any
method both formulas
this
positive values of
all
negative angle
some multiple
_;/
is
equal to a positive angle y, minus
The
of 360.
are proved to
x and y.
functions of
are equal to
those of y\ and the functions of {x-\-y) are equal to those

of (::+/).
Therefore, the formulas being true for
A repetition
of this reasoning
{x-\-y'),
are true for
shows that the formulas are
when both angles, x and y, are negative.

33. Substituting the angle y for y in formula (n),
becomes
cos ( y) + cos x sin ( _;/),
sin (xy) = sin
cos( y) = cosj, and sin ( j)= sin_;'.
But
23
Therefore, 8in(ic 2/) = 8lnic cosy -cos a? sinj/.
(12)
true
it
;t:
Substituting {y) for j in formula

cos(;tr--jj')
= cos;r
(13),
cos( j) sin;r
it
becomes
sin (_;/),
r=cos;r cos^ + sin;ir sin^.
Therefore, co8{ic
y) = cos x cos y + sin x
sin y.*
(14)
EXERCISES
34*
(I.)
Prove geometrically where x and y are acute and positive
= sin cos/ cos x sin_y,

= cos;r cos/ + sin sin/.
cos(-r
sin {x
j)
;r
jt
_y)
* Formulas (12) and (14) are proved geometrically in 34. The geometric
are functions of y, while
is complicated by the fact that OD and
DF
proof
the functions of
are what
we
use.
35
Hint. Ang]e AOQx, angle POQ=y, and angle AOP=(xy).

Draw PD perpendicular to OQ.
ThenZ)/'=sin(7)= sinv; but DP is negative, therefore PD taken
as positive
is
equal to sin
C?Z>
Angle IIPD=3iX\ê
= cos j) = cos
(
AOQ=x.
Draw Z>iy perpendicular

From
From
right
right
lO
SP,
DE perpendicular to
OA,
^\n{x-y)=SP=ED-PH.
triangle OED, ED=i{s\nx) x OD=s,\nx cosy.
triangle DIIP, PJ/=(cosx) x PD=cosx siny.
Therefore,
cosj cosjt siny.
{xy)=smx
sin
Cos {x -y) =
From
From
^'.
their sides being perpendicular.
S= OE + DH.
right triangle
OE.D,
OE{co%x) X OD-=co%x
right triangle
DIIP,
DH={smx) x PD = sinx
cosj + sinx sin_;'.
Therefore,
cos
(jr
;!)= cos
cos_y.
sin^.
;>:
Find the sine and cosine of (45+.i-), (30 ;r), (60+ jr),
(2.)
in
terms
of sin;r and cos;r.

(3.)
Given sin;ir=f,
sin(;r
sin_)'
= -^, x
and
acute; find sin(x-\-y) and
y).
Find the sine and cosine of 75 from the functions of 30 and
(4.)
(5.)
Find the sine and cosine of 15 from the functions of 30 and
(6.)
Given x and y, each
find sin(;r+j/)
(7.)
(i8o
;r),
of the
(i8o-|-;ir),
(8.)
Prove
(9.)
Given sin45
(10.)
in
the second quadrant, sin
45.
x = ^, sin_y = J
and cos (;r _>/).
By means
45.
75=(45 + 30'=).
Hint.
above formulas express the sine and cosine of
{270 x), (270+ jr),
sin (6o-f 45")-!- cos (60
-|^-v/2,
in
cos45==^-\/2
Prove that sin(6o+
;r)
terms of sin^ and
cos;ir.
+ 45) = 00345.
;
find sin 90
sin(6o = sin-r.
-r)
and cos 900.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
36
TANGENT OF THE SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF TWO ANGLES

55.
s^"(^+-^)
Tan(;ir-f-j/)
sin^ cosj + cos.r
si nj/
^
cos;ir cos_>/ sin;trsin^
cos(;ir4-^)
Dividing each term of both numerator and denominator

of the right-hand side of this equation
remembering that
=
Sin
by
cos;ir
cos/, and
we have
tan,
cos
,
tanc
+ y) =
^
tan(a?
+ tany
^-.
(15)
tan X. tan y
In a similar way, dividing formula (12) by formula (14),

obtain
,
tan oc tan y
^-.
tana? tan 2/
tan(ic-2/) =
.
we
,.
(16)
FUNCTIONS OF TWICE AN ANGLE

56.
(15)
An
is
important special case of formulas (11), (13), and

when y=x\ we then obtain the functions of 2x in
terms of the functions of
From (it),
Hence
From (13),
Since
we
x.
sin(,r+;r)=sin^cos,t'-f cos;rsin^.
sin2ic=2siniccosic.
cos2a!;
cos^;r=
(17)
= cosâ? sin'îc.
sin^:r,
and
(18)
sin^;ir=
i cos^;ir,
derive from equation (18),

cos2;t:=
cos2;r=2 cos^;r
and
T-
From
2sin^;ir,
-\
(15),
(19)
(20)
I.
a?
2 tan
tan2x-=
u.
(21)
tan'îc
FUNCTIONS OF HALF AN ANGLE
57. Equations
19)
and (20) are true for any angle
fore for the angle \x.
From
19),
cosx= 2
i
sin^ )yX
there-
37
= cos;tr
I
sm*;tr
or
therefore,
8lii-Ja5=r
From
cos;tr
(20),
\/
=2
cos'^;ir
= +
I
cos^;i;
therefore,
cos^=\/
(23),
tan
we
(22)
cos;ir
or
Dividing (22) by
-;
(23)
obtain
^=
/ ^??^
(24)
FORMULAS FOR SUMS AND DIFFERENCES OF FUNCTIONS

38, From formulas
(ii)-(i4),
we
obtain
jj')=:2sinjtr cosj;
= 2 cos;r sinj^
cos {x +j/) 4- cos {x y) = 2 cos;r cosjf
cos {x +j) cos {x y) = - 2 sin ;r sin^.
u = {x-{-y) a.nd v = (xy);
+ sin
sin
sin(;jr+7)
(;ir
sin
(;ir
(;ir
jj/)
jj/)
'
Let
then
y=^{u^v).
the above equations, we
x=^{u-\-v),
Substituting in
obtain
slnu + sinv = 2 ainîu + v) cos^(u v)',

sinu sin v = 2 co^(w + v) sln^{u v) ;
cos u + COS V 2 cos|- (11+ v) cos^ {u v) ;
cosw-co8v=-28in^(t* + v) sln^{u v),

Dividing (25) by
(25)
(26)
{2y)
(28)
(26),
8in^+8in7;
tan^(t*+v)
sin * sin V
tan^(* v)
(29)
EXERCISES
39. Express
of this chapter,
in
terms of functions of x, by means of the formulas
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
38
jr);
(I.)
Tan(i8o
(2.)
The
functions of {x
(4.)
+
i8o).
Sin(-r 90) and 003(^ 90).
Sin(^ 270), and 005(^ 270).
sine
(3.)
tan(i8oo
(5.)
The
(6.)
Given tan 45=
T^
^ ,
Provecot
(ic+w) =
and cosine of (45 a:); of (45+Jf).

tan io^
i,
(7.)
4:).
-y/J; find
tan 75; tan
COlW-1
COt.X
(il).
1/
(8.)
(9.)
(31)
*^
-f-
f/tnt.
(I I.)
(30)
Divide formula (13) by formula

cotic cot 4-1
^
Prove cot [oc-y) =
^
COt*/-COtiC
Prove cos (30 j) cos (30 y) = sin_y.
(10.) Prove sin3jr = 3 sin;r 4 sin'jr.
Hint.
15.
Sin 3jr=sin (x+2x).
Prove cos
(12.) If
3^:
X and y
= 4 cos* x
3 cos x.
are acute and
tan;r
^,
tan/ = J, prove
that
(x-\-y)-4S(13.)
^
^
Prove
that tan (x
i-f-tanjr
+ 45)^ = tan X
,
(14.)
Given sinj
(15.)
Given
= | and /acute;
cos;r= I and x
find sin ^y,
cos^y, and tan ^7.
quadrant II;
in
find
sin 2-r
anc
cos 2X.
= ^ -\/2
find the functions of 22^.
(16.)
Given cos 45
(17.)
Given tan x
(18.)
Given
(19.)
Given
(20.)
Find sin^jf
in
terms of sin jr.
(21.)
Find cos5;r
in
terms of cos.r.
(22.)
Prove
sin (x -\-y -{-z)=:s\n
cosy sinz sin

Hint.
= 2 and x acute find tan ^x

cos 30 = ^ -v/3 find the functions of
cos9o = o; find the functions of 45.
jr
15.
x cosy cos ^-f-cos x s'lny cos 5'+cos
s'lny s'mz.
Sin(jr+j+2)=sin(x+^) cos0+cos(jr+>') sins.
(23.)
Given tan 2.r=:3
(24.)
Prove
(25.)
Prove tan jr+cot^
(26.')
Prove
(sin
(27.)
Prnvf
(sin \.x
sin 32
tan;i:; find x.
+ sin 28 = cos 2,
=2
\x + cos \x'^
COS
^r)-'
csc2jr.
=
=
4- sin
sin
x,
;jr.
Jt
(28.)
(29.)
,
(30.)
39
sin*,^.
=
+ x) + tan (45 x) = 2 sec zx.
2 tanx
Prove sin 2X =
+ tan^jf
tan^.y
Prove cos 2 =
+ tan^^c
sin 2^
+
= /tan x + V
Prove
sin 2JC \tan x \J
Prove tani^ =
+ cos X
sin;c
Prove cot 1^^ =
COSJC
Prove cos 2X
cos^;^::
Prove tan (45
_,
(31.)
jc
(32.)
-r,
'
(^11)
(34.)
-*
Express as a product
(35.)
^
COS a: cosy
jj..
cosac+cosy
+ cos J
cos^f
_ 2
2
sin^(a:+>')
COS 5
U+y)
sinK^ y)
COS J (a; y)
= tanKar+y) tan|(ar y).
j^tan:r + tan =^
/..
y
(xdA Express as a product
^
COtJC + COtj
y)
tan tanj' = cos(;t:+-=^(37.) Prove
^^
"^
T)
4.
i.
^^
;c
COS
X cos_y
THE INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

40. i?^.
The
expressions sin"^, cos~'a, tan~',
note respectively an angle

cosine
is
whose
sine
an angle whose tangent
a,
is a,
is
etc.,
de-
an angle whose
a, etc.
They
are
called the inverse sine of a, the inverse cosine of a, the
inverse tangent of
etc.,
and are the inverse trigono-
metric functions.
Sin~â
is
an angle whose sine
is
equal to
notes, not a single definite angle, but each
whose sine
a,
and hence de-
and every angle
is a.
* Since quantities
cannot be added or subtracted by the ordinary operations
with logarithms, an expression must be reduced to a form in which no addition

or subtraction
is
required, to be convenient for logarithmic computation.
^
40
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
Thus,
and
sinx=i, ^=30,
if
Remark.
The sine or cosine
or greater than
a
is
150, (30
+ 360),
sin-i=30, 150, (30+36o),
between
+
i
etc.,
etc.
of an angle cannot be less than
hence sin~'a and cos~'a have no meaning unless
i;
and
In a similar
1.
and csc~'a have no meaning
if
is
manner we
between
and
see that sec-'a
\- 1.
EXERCISES
41,
Find the following angles
in
sin-'^-\/2.
tan-'(
0.
COS~'^,
COS"'
(I.)
If ;r
(3.)
If ;r
(4.)
Find
sin~*( |)l
I,
= cot-4> fi"'^ tan

= sin~'|, find cos.r and
(2.)
degrees:
jr.
tan x.
sin (tan-*^ -y^).
(5.)
Find sin(cos-'l).
(6.)
Find cot (tan-' ^V)-
(7.)
Given sin~'a
(8.)
Given sin-'a
(9.)
Given tan~'l =|^tan-'o, and both angles
= 2 cos-'a, and both angles acute;

= cos~'a find the values of sin-'a
;
less
find a.
less
than
360"^.
than 360; find
the angles.
(10.)
Given sin~'a =cos-'rt and swcâ + cos-'^ =450; find
(II.)
Prove
sin (cos-'a)=:=h
Hint.
V^ ^'-
Let jr=cos~'rt
sin x=-
then a=cc)SJr,
y cos'^jr = y i a*.
I
(12.)
Prove tan(tan-'a-ftan-^) = -^;7-
(13.)
Prove tan (tan-'^
(1 5.)
tan~'^)=: a b
cos-'a) = 2'
Prove cos
Prove sin (2 cos~'rt)= d: 2a \/i a*.
(16.)
Prove tan (2 tan'a)=
(17.)
Prove cos(2tan~'a)=
(14.)
(2
Prove
I.
2a
I a"
l-a^
I
(18.)
-j-a
sin (sin-'a4-cos-'<J)
= ^'v/(i ")(!
sin-'rt.
CHAPTER IV
DERIVATION OF FORMULAS
42, The formulas derived
in this
and the succeeding
reduce the solution of the oblique triangle to
articles
its
simplest form.
ft
KIG.
Draw
the perpendicular
CD.
Let
CD=h,
^=sin^;
Then
(In Fig. 2 T=sin(i8o .<4)=ssini4)
h
a
and
(In Fig. 3
By
division
we
J,
-=sin(i8oO-.ff)=8mA)
a
obtain,
sin^
h
Remark.
This formula
oblique triangle
is
(32)
sin .B
expresses the fact that the ratio of
two
sides of an
equal to the ratio of the sines of the angles opposite, and
does not in any respect depend upon which side has been taken as the base.
Hence
if
the letters are advanced one step, as
as another form of the
same formula,
shown
in the figure,
we
obtain,
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
b _si.nB
sinC
Repeating the process, we obtain
.6
sin
sini4
The same procedure may be
applied to
all
the formulas for the solution of
Henceforth only one expression of each formula
oblique triangles.
will be given.
Formula (32) is used for the solution of triangles iji which

a side and two angles, or two sides and an angle, opposite one
of them are given.
43,
We
obtain from formula (32) by division and compo-
ad__sinA-~'SinB
sition,
a + l>~ sin A
By formula
(29),
+ sin B'
denoting the angles by
and B,
in-
stead of u and v,
sin^-sin^
tan^(^ ^)
sin^-hsin^
tan^{A-\-B)'
ab tan^(^ J5)
Therefore,
(33)
a-{-b~tan^{A + B)'
This formula
is
used for the solution of triangles in which
two sides and the included angle are given.
44, Whether
is
acute or obtuse,
we have
6 Cos
AJ? = 6 co-i A, DB = AB - AD c - d cos A, CD2), ^Z? = ^ cos (180-^) = - 6go% A, )B=A

+ AD=c-l>cosA, CD = 6 &in{iSo - A) = d sin A .)
(If
bsxnA.
is
acute (Fig.
UA
is
i),
obtuse (Fig.

a*={cb
=c*2
cosA)*-\-{b sXnA)*,
be
cosA + l^ (cosM +sinM).
^^
Therefore, a=6*+c*- 26c cos A,
This formula
is
43
(34)
used in deriving formula
(37).
It is also used in the solution tvithout logarithms
and
angles of which two sides
of
tri-
the included angle or three
sides are given,
From formula
4:5,
From formula
cos A
,"
(22), 37,
sm*Â = I cos^ =
Hence
(34),
2sin'jÂ
b^-^-c-'-a*
I
2bc
2bc-â^-b'-c*
2bc
2bc
_ {a^b-\-c\a-\-bc)
"
2bc
Let s=
then {ab-\-c^=2{sb), and (^-|-^ r)=s
2{SC).
Substituting, 2 sin^^
= ?iz:^fcl^.
be
sin^^=.
Hence
/BESSES*
From formula
2
(23),
(35)
be
37,
2be-Vb*-V(^(^
QO^Â = I +cos^ =2be
2s{sa)
""
* In extracting the
sin^^
is
positive.
root the plus sign
is
be
'
chosen because
it
is
known
that
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
44
Hence
cos^^ =*/^fcf).
Dividing (35) by
(36),
we
(36)
obtain
(37)
/{s-d){s-b\s~c)
sav
Let
tan ^
A
s
Formulas
angle
when
(37)
and (38)
(38)
are used to find the angles of a tri
the three sides are given.
FORMULAS FOR THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE

46?.
Denote the area by
S.
(In Fig.
I,
In Figs.
CZ>=osiniS;
I
and
2,
CD-a^\xi{iZo-B)=.a%\nB.)
S=\c.CD.
Sâc%\xkB,
Hence
From formula
in Fig. 2,
(17),
(39)
45
Substituting for sin^^ and zo?>\B the values found in
formulas (35) and
(36),
we
obtain
\h{s d){s bts-^c),

B = ac"
sin
S=k/s{8â'^8h\8'c),
Therefore,
This formula
may
(40)
also be written,
S=sK.
Formula
(39) is
(41)
used to find the area of a triangle when
two sides and the included angle are known; formula (40) or
formula (41), when the three sides are known.
THE AMBIGUOUS CASE

47. The given parts are two
sides,
and an acute angle
opposite one of them.
Let these parts be denoted by
If
(Fig.
less
is
l),
a, b,
A.
than b and greater than the perpendicular
there are the
two
contain the given parts,
triangles yi C'^
or, in
CD
and ACS', which
other words, there are two
solutions.
If
If
a
a
one solution.
is
greater than b (Fig.
is
equal to the perpendicular CD, there
tion, the right triangle
ACD.
2),
there
is
is
one
solu-
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
46
the given value of a
If
is less
than CD, evidently there
can be no triangle containing the given parts.

Since CD-=b%\xiA, there
solution, the right triangle
when a <
4:S.
and
Case
is
no solution when
A CD
when
<i=i^sin/f
a< ^sinyi
there are
there is one
two solutions
> 3 sin ^.
Given a side and two angles,
I.
EXAMPLE
Given
= 36.738. A = 36 55'
54",
B = 72 5'
C=iScP{A + B)z=i8oPiogpi'
To^find
'savB
wa.A
56",
= 7oP 58' IO^

To find
b.
log
5o"
c.
sinC
waA
logo=l.565i2
0=1.56512
1<^ sin 5=9. 97845 10

cologsin^ =0.22123
C=9. 97559--10
log sin
colog sin
log <J= 1. 76480
A =0. 22123
log ^^1.76194
^=57.80
^5=58.184
Check.
Determine b from
c,
C,
B by the formula
b-a_ ta.n\{B-A)
and
b-ira~ia.n\i^B+Ay
This check
is
long, but
is
quite certain to reveal
an
error.
A check which
is
shorter, but less sure, is
_ sin B
^~sinC
Solve the following triangles
(3.)
= 567.25, ^ = 11 15', .5 = 47 12'.

Given a = 783.29, A = 81 52', ^ = 42 27'.
Given r= 125.2, A =79 15', -^ = 55 n'.
(4.)
Given ^=15.346,
(5.)
Given a
(6.)
Given ^=;
(I.)
(2.)
Given a
49* Case
opposite one
= 5301.
5,
1002.1,
II.
5=15 51', C=58o

A=6g /^', C=4io
^ =48 59', = 76
10'.
18'.
3'.
Given two sides of a triangle and the angle
of them.
..

EXAMPLE
Given a
= 23.203. b = 35.121, A = 36 8'
10".
<''
v/
To find
\^
'
^.^^
._J
To find
and B'
%\nB
%\viA
//
<j~sin.<4
=9. 77064 10
log sin
10
sin y9=9. 95065 10
^=63
log
= 0. 22936
f= 1. 58912
^=38.825
12'
ff'=i800-i5=ii60
C=9.9g42i--10
colog sin ^
colog rt=8.63445
log
and ^
log 0=1.36555
log '5=i.5.j556
log sin
sin (7
48'
log a
= 1.36555
log sin C" =9. 65800--lO
To find C and C
C =l8o-(/f +^)=8o 39 50"
C' = i8o-(^ + Z?')=270 3- 50"
colog sin /4 =0.22936

log
r'
= 1.25291
^'
= 17.902
Check.
Determine b from
and
C,
c,
B by
the formula
b~a_ isLVi\{B-A)
d-\-a~i2Ln\{B-\-Ay
This check
is
long, but
shorter, but less sure,
is
quite certain to reveal an error.
check whicli
is
b_s.\nB
sin
(I.)
How many solutions are

(I.)
(2.)
(3.)
(4.)
there in each of the following?
^==30,
<z
= 15,
(5zr2o;
A = 30, a = 10, ^ = 20;

B = 30 a = 8, = 20
B = 2>7 23'. a = g.i, b 7.^.
(5
is
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
48
Solve the following triangles, finding

(2.)
Given
(3.)
Given
(4.)
Given
(5.)
Given
(6.)
A=
A=
A=
A=
Given C-
SO, Case
I)
I.
147
12',
24 31'
21 21'
61 16'
2232'
possible solutions
all
= 0.63735, ^ = 0.34312.
= 1.7424, = 0.96245.
a = 45.693, b^ 56-723= 9.5124, b= 12.752.
= 0.78727, ^ = 0.47311.
d:
(^
d!
d!
Givei
Given two sides and the included angle.
EXAMPLE
Given
<z
= 41.003, ^ = 48.718, C= 68 33' 58";
find the remain-
ing parts and the area.
and B.
ta.n\{B-A)
tan^(J5+^)
b-a
To find
To find
a
b-\-a
log a
b-a=
log sin
7.715
7 11' 20"
log
sinC
B=
z^
V
J-9495I
<
Iogc
r.
colog b
8.31231
log sin
50.938
log i
log sin
Chi'Xk.
log sin
1.70704
the area.
5 = ai sin C
= 9.6989710
log a = 1. 61 281
hiB+A) = 55 43' i"

5 = 62 54' 2l"
4 =48 31' 41"
sin
logs
^(B .4) =9.10083 10
281
c=
To find
UB-A)
1. 61
C = 9.96888 ic
logc
log (b-a) = 0.88734

cIog (b+a) =8.0471010
tan ^ {B+A = 0.16639
log tan
sin
colog sin^ =0.12535
b+a = 89.721
i(5+J)=5543'i".
log
c.
sinC
-10
70704
lO
C = 9.0688610
.68769
C = 9.96888 10
5=
2.96835
S=
929.72
49
Solve the following triangles, and also find their areas

(I.)
Given
A=
(2.)
Given
C=
(3,)
Given B-=. 49
A=
41
15',
/5=o.i4726, c=.o.\o^T\.
58 47', /J= 11.726,
^=16.147.
= 103.74,
^=99.975.
50',
(4.)
Given
(5.)
Given C=I28
33 31', ^=0.32041, ^=0.9203.

7',
51, Case IV.
(J= 17.738,
a=6o.57l.
Given the three
sides,
EXAMPLE
Given a = 32.456, ^ = 41.724, ^ = 53.987
find the angles
= 64.084
(j a) = 31.628
and
area.
To find B.
b)-= 22.360
{s c) 10.097
Xaca\B=
{s
-.'
sb
log A'= 1. 02349

log (j-/5) =1.34947
sub.
10
log tan 1^5=9.67402

log (j'-rt) =1.50007
16'
16"
^=50 32'
32"
\B=2'i
log (j-^) =1.34947

log (j r)=i.oo4i9
colog j^=8. 19325
10
2) 2.04698
log
A'= 1.02349
To find C*
To find A.
tan*/J=
tanAC=
*
sa
sc
log A'= 1.02349
log A'= 1.02349

log (j a)=i.5ooo7
sub.
Ic^ tan^./?^9. 52342 10
i^ = i8
27' 23"
^=36
54 46"
log (jf)=i. 00419

sub.
log tan^C=o.oi930
iC=46
C=9a*
16'
22"
32'
44"
Chfck.
(^+v9 + 0=18000'
2".
Find the angles and areas of the following triangles:
is
(I.)
Given = 38.5i6, (^=44.873, ^=14.517.
(2.)
Given a = 2.ii$2>,
could be found from {A
1>=2,-S^SA,
worked out independently.

4
^=Z-S^79-
+ j9)=(i8o C), but for
the sake of the check
it
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
50
(3.)
Given ^=82.818, <J=99.87i, ^=36.363.
(4.)
Given ^=36.789, <5=i
(5.)
Given ^=113.08, (^=131.17, ^=114.29.
(6.)
Given
a=
1.698, <r=33.328.
,9763, /J= 1.2489, ^=1,6543.
EXERCISES
52.
(I.)
tree,
^,
observed from two points,
is
The angle
apart on a straight road.
CBA
is
B and
C, 1863
ft.
36 43', and the angle
Find the distance of the tree from the nearer
21'.
57
is
BCA
point.
Two
(2.)
houses,
house, C, from A,
respectively
(3.)
A and B, are 3876 yards apart. How far is a third

the angles ABC and BAC are 49 17' and 58" 18'
if
triangular lot has one side 285.4
cent to this side are 41 22' and 31
around
and
it,
its
Two
(5.)
mountains,
ACB
is
ft.
long.
The angles
adja-
Find the length of a fence
area.
The two diagonals

angle between them is 53
(4.)
the angle
19'.
of a parallelogram are 8
8'
and
and the
10,
find the sides of the parallelogram.
and B, are 9 and 13 miles from a town, C;

Find the distance between the moun-
71 36' 37".
tains.
Two
(6.)
buoys are 2789
nearer buoy.
boat
apart,
13'.
How
far is the
and a boat
is
4325
ft.
from the
the lines from the buoys to the
boat from the farther buoy?
Are
two solutions ?
there
Given a
(7.)
ence
16
is
ft.
The angle between
in
(8.)
= 64.256,
<:= 19.278,
C=i6
19'
u";
find
the differ-
the areas of the two triangles which have these parts.
prop 13
ft.
long
ment, and reaches 8
ft.
is
up
placed 6
its
face
from the base of an embank-
ft.
find the slope of the
embank-
ment.
(9.)
The bounding
lines of a
township form a triangle of which the
sides are 8.943 miles, 7.2415 miles,
and
10.817 miles; find the area
of the township.
(10.)
triangle
Prove that the diameter of a

is
circle circumscribed
about a
equal to any side of the triangle divided by the sine of the
angle opposite.
51
By Geometry,
angle ^4 0^=2 C.
OD perpendicular to AB,
Angle DOB=\AO=C.
DB=r sin DOB=rwa.C.
Hint.
Draw
Hence
f=2rsinC,
c
9r=-rp,.
or
The distances AB, BC, and AC, between three cities, A, B,

and Care 12 miles, 14 miles, and 17 miles respectively. Straight railroads run from A to B and C. What angle do they make ?
(II.)
(12.)
balloon
apart,
ft.
and between two
directly over a straight road,
is
points on the road from which
The
observed.
it is
points are 15847
and the angles of elevation are found to be 49
12'
and
Find the distance of the balloon from each of
53 29' respectively.
the points.
(13.)
To
from a point
find the distance
to a point
AC, and the angles
posite side of a river, a line,
measured and found to be 315.32
ft.,
58 43',
B on
the op-
CAB and ACB
and 57
were
13' respectively.

(14.)
building 50
a point 200
ft.
high
is
situated on the slope of a
away the building subtends an angle
ft.
hill.
of 12
13'.
From
Find
the distance from this point to the top of the building.

(15.)
Prove that the area of a quadrilateral
is
equal to one-half
the product of the diagonals by the sine of the angle between
them.
(16.)
tively,
and
From
points
the foremast,
are 300
ft.
and B,
C, of
apart
at the
bow and
another ship
the angles
is
ABC
stern of a ship respec-
observed.
and
BAC
The
points
are found to be
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
52
What
65 31' and 110 46' respectively.
points
and
Two
(17.)
C of
the two ships
the distance between the
is
steamers leave the same port at the same time
directly northwest, 12 miles an hour; the other 17 miles
How
a direction 67 south of west.
hours
of three
Two
(18.)
is
.(4
from
ft.
3'
5" and 61
rope connecting
and
To
{19.)
What
is
the angles
same
height,
The
an,!j;le
CDA
is 63'' 8',
ACB
and
How
20" respectively.
of practically the
CAB
long
are
is
the angle
CDB
is
two
64
points,
and D, are
found to be 88
is
27',
the angle
the
34',
DCB is 87" 9'.
the distance?
Two
(20.)
18'
between two inaccessible mountain-tops,
find the distance
DCA
in
they be at the end
B}
taken one mile apart.

angle
sails,
and B,a.rt on opposite sides of a stream; a
set 62
found to be 50
and B,
one
stakes,
third stake, C,
far apart will
an hour,
islands,
from a light-house,
B and
C, are distant 5
and the angle
.(4,
BAC
and
3 miles respectively
33 11'; find the dis^
is
tance between the islands.

(21.)
Two
points,
and B, are
visible
from a third point
not from each other; the distances AC, BC, and the angle
measured, and found to be 1321
ft.,
1287
ft.,
and 61
but
C,
ACB were
22' respectively.

(22.)
miles,
(23.)
198.25
Of three mountains. A, B, and C,

is 8 miles from C and 1
from B.
1
From
ft.
a position 215.75
ft.
is
directly north of
How
far
is
A south oi B?
from one end of a building and
from the other end, the buildmg subtends an angle of
53 37' 28"; find its length.

If
(24.)
the sides of a triangle are 372.15, 427.82, and 404.17
find
the cosine of the smallest angle.
From
(25.)
a point 3 miles from one end of an island and 7 miles
from the other end, the island subtends an angle of 33
55' 15"; find
the length of the island.
(26.)
10025
this
'"
point
is
13581
in.
from one end of a wall 12342
from the other end.
What
in.
long,
and
angle does the wall subtend at
point?
(27.)
straight road ascends a hill a distance of 213.2
ft.,
and
is
in-

clined 12"
to the horizontal
2'
53
a tree at the bottom oX the
subtends at the top an angle of 10
16".
5'
hill
Find the height of the
tree.
Two
(28.)
straight roads cross at an angle of 37 50' at the point
on one road
3 miles distant
other
is
(29.)
the town C.
How
Two
stations,
is
To
(30.)
enemy's
gles
far are
ACB = $(^ 31'.
B and C apart?
a point, C,
ACB and CAB are

What
respectively.
(31.)
^C= 11.5
miles,^C=94
miles,
A to B.
Find the distance from
obtain the distance of a battery, A, from a point, B, of the
lines,
town, C,
and B, on opposite sides of a mountain, are
both visible from a third station, C;
and the angle
the town B, and 5 miles distant on the
town, B,
is
2i7^-7
the distance
is
taken
53'
and
the an-
and 74
35*
AB}
A third
14 miles due west of another town, A.
is
19 miles from
is
yards distant from
measured and found to be 7gP
17 miles
How far
from B.
is
Cwest
of^?
Two
(32.)
towns,
and B, are on opposite sides of a
18 miles from a third town, C,
ACB is
13
At
(33.)
of a
hill is
and
is
Find the distance between the towns
17'.
39
and
51',
at a point in the
same
is
ble points,
hill
required to find the distance between
and B.
Two
BDA=id>
17',
and
C and D,
stations,
;
ADC=S^
hill,
Find
53'.
2547
two
ft.
inaccessi-
apart, are
they are ACB=^2'j

23'.
21',
BCD
to^.
(35.)
Two
trains leave the
same
tracks inclined to each other 21
and 50 miles an hour, how

fifteen
(36.)
minutes
ship,
BCA
and
CBA
station at the
12',
If
same time on
straight
their average speeds are 40
far apart will they
be at the end of the
first
A,
is
tance a point, C, 300
is
is
from the
26
above the plane.
chosen and the angles are measured

14',
A and B.
direct line
but 217.2 feet farther away, the angle of elevation
=33
is
a point in a level plane the angle of elevation of the top
the height of the

(34.) It
lake.
13 miles from C; the angle
seen from a light-house, B; to determine

ft.
from the light-house
measured.
If
is
its dis-
taken and the angles
BCA = 108 34' and CBA =65 27', what
the distance of the ship from the light-house
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
54
(37.)
Prove that the radius of the inscribed
circle of a triangle is
equal to a sin^^ sin |^Csec \A.
Hint.
OB
Draw OR,
and
OC bisect
OC, and the perpendicular OD.

B and C respectively, and
OD=r.
the angles
= BD-\-DC=r{coi\B + co\.\ C).

coi\B + cot i C= ^'"Kcosj^ + cosiCsin^jg^
a
sin ^
_
sin 4
cosi^
^ sin ^ C
^ sin A C a sin ^ sin C sec
J
sin I
Hence
B sin \ C
sin^(Z?+C)
B sin C
_
sin 5
.]
A.
CHAPTER V
CIRCULAR MEASURE GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
CIRCULAR MEASURE
53, The length
of the semicircumference of a circle
is
7r^(7r = 3.i4i59+); the angle the semicircumference sub-
tends at the centre of the circle
whose length
is
i8o.
is
Hence an arc
equal to the radius will subtend the angle
jOqO
',
and
is
this
angle
the
is
unit
angle of circular measure,
called a radian.
nR
If the radius of the circle is unity,
subtends a radian
hence in the unit
an arc of unit length
circle the length of
arc represents the circular measure of the angle

Thus,
if
the length of an arc
Since one radian
is
-,
it
it
subtends the angle - radians.
we have
90 =
radians,
180=
TT
radians,
TT
an
subtends.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
56
270=
radians,
360 = 27r radians, etc.
The value
of a radian in degrees and of a degree in radians are

I
radian
= 57.29578,
= 57 17' 45"i=.0174533
In the use of the circular measure
thus
we
write
it
is
radian.
customary to omit the word radian
v, etc., denoting - radians,

*
2
hand, the symbols o
" are
'
minutes, and seconds
always printed
hence there
is
if
ir
On
radians, etc.
an angle
is
the other
measured in degrees,
no confusion between the systems.
EXERCISES
(I.)
Express in circular measure

(Take
(2.)
Express
(3.)
What
is
of length 2.7
in degrees,
7r
30,
45 60, 120 135, 720, 990.
= 3.i4i6.)
minutes, and seconds the angles ^,
,- ,-.
the circular measure of the angle subtended by an arc

in., if
the radius of the circle
is
in..?
if
the radius
is
5 in.?
54:*
The
circular
following important relations exist between the
measure
of an angle
and the sine and tangent of
the angle.
(i.)
Draw
If X
is less
than
sinx<x <tanx.
,
a circle of unit radius.
By Geometry,
Hence
SP <z.xc AP <AT.
sin;ir<jir< tan;tr.
CIRCULAR MEASURE
57
X and
siti
(2.)
As X
the limit
approaches the limit o,
tttfi
X
approach
i.
Dividing sin ;r < ;r
< tan x
\<-.
I n verting,
As X approaches
of the radius, that
sin
Therefore,
Dividing
sinjf
cos;p
> ^ > "y-
cos X
tan
Therefore,
approaches the length
o, cos;r
as a limit.
> cosjr
As X approaches the
obtain
Qosx
COs;r
hence
<
approaches the limit
>
we
sin x,
sin;r
the limit
is, i,
by
by
cos;r,
i.
we
obtain
tan;r
7->I.
>
X
limit o, cos;ir
approaches
the limit
^^
I.
i.
PERIODICITY OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
SS* The
(;r
sine of
an angle
4-360), {x-^720), etc.
any
is
is,
the same as the sine of

of {x+2n'jr), where
is
integer.
The
sine
is
therefore said to be a periodic* function, hav-
ing the period 360, or
The same
*
that
is
27r.
true of the cosine, secant,
and cosecant.
If a function, denoted by/(jr), of a variable x, is such that
for every value of x, k being a constant, the function f{x)
the least constant which possesses this property, k
is
is
/{x+k)^/{x)
periodic
the period of f{x).
if
ii
is
PLANE TRIGONOMETR V
58
The tangent
{x-\-
of an angle
80), (;r4-36o), etc.
is
that
the same as the tangent of
is,
of {x-\-nir\ where n
is
any
integer.
The tangent
is
80, or
tt.
period
The same
is
therefore a periodic function, having the
true of the cotangent.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
5Q, On the Hne
OX lay
off tlie
distance OAi^x) to rep-
At the
resent the circular measure of the angle x.

erect a perpendicular equal to sin x.
If
point
perpendiculars are
thus erected for each value of x, the curve passing through

their extremities
If sin X
is
called the sine curve.
negative, the perpendicular
is
is
drawn downward.
In a similar manner the cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant,
and cosecant curves can be constructed.

+1
1
1
-1
+1
\\
/2
7r
^TT
\
3
Sine Curve
^\
7^
1
V^
y/Vi^
27r
g^'rX
3^
1
Cosine Curve
GRA PHICAL REP RESEN TA TION
Cotangent Curve
59
PLANE TRIGONOMETRV
6o
SBCANT CURVE
If the distances
O,
we
on
OX are
measured from Cy instead of
obtain from the secant curve the cosecant curve.
In the construction of the inverse curves the

represented by the distance to the right or
left
number is
from O;
the circular measure of the angle by the length of the perpendicular erected.
All of the preceding curves, except the tangent and co-
tangent curves, have a period of

is,
27r
along the line
the curve extended in either direction
form
in
o, etc.,
each case between
as
between o and
27r
277,
and
47r, 477
is
and
OX;
of the
&ir,
that
same
27r
and
while the corresponding inverse
curves repeat along the vertical line in the same period.
The
period of the tangent and cotangent curves
is tt.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
-1
-1
+1
INVBRSB SINE CURVB
-2
61
+,
INVERSE COSINE CURVB
-1
+1
INVERSE TANGENT CURVE
+2
+3
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
62
a^JT
-3
-2
+i
-I
I.NVSKbS
SECANT
+2
+3
CHAPTER VI
COMPUTATION OF LOGARITHMS AND OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS -DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
St*
A convenient
method
the trigonometric functions
of calculating logarithms
to use infinite
is
works on the Differential Calculus

iogr,(l+a5) =
jp2
it is
/j8
/]j4
COia5=l-2-j + 4j-^j +
Another development which we
where ^=2.7182818 ...
is
(a)
a5
a;*
a;2
(I)
rgtt
rpf>
iliia5=a5-^+^j-yj+...*
,
In
shown that
a5-^+^-^+...
/y3
and
series.
...
(3)
shall use later is
the base of the Naperian system
of logarithms.
58, The
inequality
series (i)
converges only for values of
i<xî.
The
series
(2), (3),
and
x which
(4)
satisfy the
converge for
all
finite values of x.
It is to
angle
be noted that the logarithm
in (2)
and
3!
(3) is
denotes
in (i) is
the Naperian, and the
expressed in circular measure.
1x2x3;
41 denotes
1x2x3x4, etc.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
64
COMPUTATION OF LOGARITHMS
59*
We
first recall
theorems of logarithms.
of the principal
The logarithm
which
satisfies
This
is
from Algebra the definition and some
number
is
two numbers
is
equal to the
to the base a of the
number x
the
the equation.
x = log^ m.
written
The logarithm
of the product of
sum
of the logarithms of the numbers.
Thus
The logarithm
log^
mn = log^ w + log^ n.
of the quotient of
two numbers
is
equal to the log-
arithm of the dividend minus the logarithm of the divisor.
loga- = logtfW log^.

n
the power of a number is equal to the logarithm
Thus
The logarithm of
number multiplied by the exponent.
log^ m^=p log^ m.
Thus
To obtain the logarithm of a number to any base a from
perian logarithm, we have
of the
log* f^
its
Na-
= log^ m = M^ log, m,
log*
where
M- =
60
The
log, a
We
. is
called the
modulus of the system.
proceed now to the computation of logarithms.
series (i) enables us to
compute
directly the Naperian
logarithms of positive numbers not greater than
2.
To compute log^-2 to five places of decimals.

J
Example.
Substitute - for
jr
in (i):
3,
If the result is to
/,i\iii,ii
be correct to
five places of
terms so that the remainder shall not affect the
II,
decimals,
fifth
we must
take enough
decimal place.
Now we
know by Algebra
that in a series of
which the terms are each
65
nnmerical
less in
value than the preceding, and are also alternately positive and negative, the re-
mainder
is less
enough terms
in numerical value than
to
know
that the
first
its first
Hence we need
term.
term neglected would not
to take
affect the fifth
place.
Negative terms
Positive terms
I
I
>.
-j
55-
.0156250
.0416667
.0062500
I
.OOIII6I
7
I
.0002170
'2~
I
28
.0026042
.0004883
.0000977
10
9
II
2~
5
I
=0.1250000
3
I
5000000
.0000444
"2""
?2~
12
.0000044
.0000094
13
.0000203
14
1438399
.5493036
Subtracting the
sum
of the negative from the
sum
of the positive terms,
we
obtain
log^|
= 4054637-
Denote the sum of the remaining terms of the
series
by R.
Then, by Alge-
bra,
15
2>*
< .0000021.
The
error caused
by retaining no more decimal places
than .0000006.
less
the result
is
Hence
the total error
is less
series (i)
calculate directly the logarithms of

it
computation
is
Therefore
correct to five decimal places.
SI, As remarked, the

but
in the
than .0000027.
does not enable us to
numbers greater than
2,
can be readily transformed into a series- which gives
us the logarithm of any positive number.

Replacing x\>y
5
in (i),
we obtain
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
66
log, (i
X*
This series converges for
i^j;<i.
Subtracting this from
we obtain
(i-x) = log,
log, (i-f ;r)-log,
which converges for

Putting _y=
passes from
(5),
we get a
<^<
i
we
1,
to
(i),
+1
X*
X*
234
x)= x
(j^)
see that
hence,
if
passes from o to
we make
as
00
:;
this substitution in
series
which converges for
positive values oi y,
all
and therefore enables
us to compute the Naperian logarithm of any number.
From
(5)
27 -f
we can
then, as
which converges for
log,(,+
.)
get
another series which
1+^ y-{=
ix
y
all
1
,
is
useful
put
....gives us
equation
(5)
positive values oi y.
Hence,
= log,,+ .(j^ + i.^.j^.+l.jj^+...).<7)
This series gives us
log,(_>'-f-i),
verges more rapidly than
(6),
when log^j
when y
is
is
known.
greater than
2,
It con-
and hence
should be used under these circumstances.
62, To construct a table we need to compute directly

only the logarithms of prime numbers, since the others can
be obtained by the relation

log ,ry = log x-\-\og y.
67
Thus, to obtain the logarithms of the integers up to
we need
to
numbers
2, 3, 5,
compute by
(For 4=2'',
and
6=2.
series
7.
8=2*, 9=3', ro=2
3,
10,
only the logarithms of the
and log 1=0.)
5,
In this case we are computing the logarithms of successive integers, and
should therefore use
G3, Example.
(7).
Compute the Naperian logarithms of

11,11,1
+ -.-.+ - +
/I
log. 2 = 2( -
\3
3'
3*
.3333333
3'
and
2, 3, 4,
5.
.\
/
Denote the sum
of the remaining
terms of this series by R.
I.I I
- + -.-1+
0123457
Then, by Algebra,
3
I
3^~ .0008230
I
^<IT-3^-I^'
or
.0000653
The
7
I
i?<
.ooo(xx)573.
error caused by not retaining
more places of decimals in the preceding column is less than .0000005.

Hence, the total error is less than
.0000056
9
.3465729
.00000165.
log^2=. 6931458
Remark.
We should get the same
series if
10& 3^ = log.2 + 2(l + ^-i +

^
V5
we were
to use (6).
i.l+i.i+...V
5
5*
5'
-=.2000000
5
= .0026667
R<'^
5'
-^=.0000640
= .0000018
5'
or
>*?< .00000006.
Noting the errors
in the
ceding column and in log*
.2027325
see that the total error
.000002x7.
.4054650
Add log* 2 =
logt
6931458
3=1.0986108
pre-
2,
is less
we
than
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
68
Remark.
If
we were
to use
(6)
to
compute
we should have
log^3,
.o.3=.[i+i'+K0'+K^y-]This series converges much more slowly than the above, since
terms are multiples of powers of
the same multiples of powers of
\.
its
while the terms of the above are
Thus, we should be obliged to
\.
use eight instead of four terms to have the result correct to five
places.
4=2
log*
Iog.5
1.
3862916.
= log.4+2Q + i.^+i.^.+
...),
= 1.60944.
or log* 5
G4:,
log* 2
Proceeding
in like
manner, we
may
any number of
calculate
logarithms.
The following
table gives the Naperian logarithms of the
log^
.00000
log,
2=
.69315
= 1.79176
= 1-94591
log, 8 = 2.07944
log, 9 =
19722
log, 10 = 2.30259
log, 6
log, 7
= 1.09861
= 1-38629
log, 5 = 1-60944
log, 3
log 4
2.
The common logarithm

ing
its
ten
first
integers
of
any number may be found by multiply-
Naperian logarithm by M,o=: .43429448.
Thus
log.o 5
59
= log, 5 X .43429448 = .69897.
60. Remark. \i a table
of logarithms
were to be computed, the
theory of interpolation and other special devices would be employed.
COMPUTATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
sin f
cos 'T
cos,i'
sin;tr
as. Since tan,r=-^
-, cot ;r
tion of all the trigonometric functions
-,
etc.,
the computa-
depends upon that of
the sine and cosine; thus the developments (2) and (3) suffice for all
the trigonometric functions.
Further, since the
COMPUTATION OF SINES AND COSINES

sine or cosine of
any angle
a sine or cosine of an angle
is
never necessary to take
;:; , it is
<^4
69
greater than
in
the
series (2)
and
16
(3),
Since - =0.785398
<^_, these
= .000003
series
converge rapidly;
in fact,
10
does not affect the
fifth
decimal place, and
the
11!
9!
seventh.
67. Remark.
In the systematic computation of tables we should
not calculate the functions of each angle from the series independent-
We
ly.
should rather
make
use of the formulas (25) and
(27) of 38,
thus obtaining
smnx = 2 cosx
sin {n
cosnx-=:2 cos.r cos(

If
i)x sin {n 2)x,

i)x cos( 2)x.
i', we should calculate the
The above expressions then enand cosine of 2', 3', 4', etc., till we
our tables are to be at intervals of
sine arid cosine of
i'
by the
series.
able us to find successively the sine
have the sine and cosine of
all
angles up to 30 at intervals of
To obtain the sine and cosine of

make use of these results by means
sin
(30+
J/)
cos (30+^)
angles from 30 to 45
i'.
we should
of the formulas
:=cos,y
sin (30
y),
= cos (30 s\ny.

J/)
68* To employ series (2) and (3) in computing the sine

and cosine we must first convert the angle into circular
measure.
To do
1
this
we
recall that
= .017453293,
Example.
I '
= .0002908882,
"
= .000004848
To compute the sine and cosine of 12^

12= .209439516
15'
39"
12
15'
39"
=.004363323
= .000189076
= .213991915 in circular
37.
15' 39".
measure.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
70
sinjr
=x
-H
-!
cosjr=i
2
3!
5!
jr=.2I399I9
= .0000037
I
five
.0000874
1.0000874
^=.0016332
subtract
j= .0228963
cosjr= .9771911
sin jr=. 2123624
Correct to
4!
4!
.3139956
subtract
= 1.0000000
decimal places.
Correct to
five
decimal places.
DE MOIVRE'S theorem
69. In Algebra we learn that the complex number
a=a+/3\/^=o+/3/
may be
(8)
represented graphically thus
Take two lines, OX and OV, at right angles to each other.

To the number a will correspond the point A, whose distances from the two lines of reference are yS and a respectively.
This geometrical representation shows at once that we

can also write a in the form
a=r (cos5 + i
70, From Algebra we
is
3).
recall the definition of the
complex numbers a = a + tj3 and

Subtraction
sin
d=y + iS\
(9)
sum
namely
defined as the inverse of addition, so that
a d=ay -f/(/3 3).
of the
DE MOIVRE-S THEOREM
Multiplication
is
most conveniently defined when a and b are
written in form (9).
a~r
their product
If
(cos ^
is
71
+ / sin
^)
and b=s (cos^+Zsin^),
defined by the equation
^^rj [cos(&+^)-|-/sin(^4-0)].
(10)
Division is defined as the inverse of multiplication, so that
-=we
Finally,
[cos(^~<p) + i sin {^(f)].
recall that in
we have
an equation between complex numbers,
a=y
71* Consider the
different
/3=5.
(11)
powers of the complex number
ic=cos.&4- sin^.
By
we have
(10)
;:''= (cos
^+/ sin S)
(cos
^+/ sin ^),
=cos2^-j-/sin 2^.
x'^x"* :t=(cos
.
2^+/ sin
2^) (cos ^-\-i sin ^),
=cos35-f-^ sin3^.
And,
AT"
From
is
any integer
in general, for
n,
(cos B-\-t sin ^)'*=cos
this equation
&+/ sin n^.
we have De Moivre's Theorem, which
expressed by the formula
(co8^+isin^)"=(coi^+i8lnn^).
72,
is
An
the expansion of sin
cos;r.
De
interesting application of
Expanding the
;ir
and cos;r
cos ;<:+/ sin nx=cos''x-^n cos""'

..
sin
xY H
for
terms of
sin;ir
by the
and
bino-
we have
{i sin x")
n.{n i)(n2)
^
^^
S-,
Theorem
Moivre's
left-hand side of (12)
mial theorem, and substituting
(t
in
(12)
-\-
^ cos"""* ;
,,
^_, ...
^xCtsmx)*
cos"
-{-
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
72
or
s\Xinx=\c.o^^
cosji:-|-/
^^
3
real
Example.
'xsin;*:
n =
cos
5;r
sin 5;r
73,
We find
.1
...
x-i^
A.
_,^
x sm
cos"
J
parts, as in (li),
( 1)( 2)
^^
we have
(13)
cos''~3;t;sinVx-f-. .. (14)
5.
= cos' X 10 cos^jr sin';r+5 cosx sin*;r.

= 5 cos* ^ sin 10 cos" x sin' x + sin* x.
;r
THE ROOTS OF UNITY

another appHcation of De Moivre's Theorem
The
jn obtaining the roots of unity.
by
*xs\nx-{-...
sinj;zi:cos*'
cos""':*: sin' j;4-
and imaginary
-cos"
cos^=cos''a:
2)
n{n i)ln
-^
[_,
n cos" ^xsmx
Equating
n^^
roots of unity are
definition the roots of the equation
;r*=i.
Every equation has n roots and no more
can find n distinct numbers which satisfy this

shall
have
all
the
n*^
we
equation we
hence,
if
roots of unity.
Consider the n numbers

27rr
j:^=cos
r=.o,
\-t
1,
2,
sm
27rr
ni.
Geometrically these numbers are represented by the n

vertices of a regular polygon.
ferent.
We
shall see
now
They
are, therefore, all dif-
that they are precisely the
roots of unity.
In
fact,
we have by
(12),
2wr
,-{cos
\-t
sin
2Tr\
:V.
,
n j
n^
THE ROOTS OF UNITY
=cos 25rr+/sin
=:i+i. 0=1.
Therefore x^
is
and
angle
unity.
roots of unity are represented
of the following figure.
= 120
2?rr,
one of the roots of
Thus the cube
73
In the figure
AOQ = = 2^0;
that
by the points A, P,
0A =
angle
i,
the circumference
is,
Then
vided into three equal parts by the points A, P, and Q.
and
DP = DQ = ^-\/-i.
ing a complex
Hence we
see from the
method
number given above that ^ represents
i+' i\^3. Q
represents
AOP =
is
di-
OD = i,
of represent-
-|-i,/'
represents
^ ^k^/'i
EXERCISES
74,
^ and
terms of sin jr and cosr.
(I.)
Express sin
(2.)
Express sin 6x and cos 6x in terms of sin ^ and cos^r.
(3.)
Find the six 6* roots of unity.
(4.)
Find the
five
cos/jj*:
in
5* roots of unity.
THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

75* The hyperbolic functions are defined by the equations
sinb X =
cosh C =
in
which
sinh;ir
(15)
'
(16)
and cosh;r denote the hyperboh'c sine and
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
74
hyperbolic cosine of
These functions are
respectively.
called the hyperbolic sine
and cosine on account of
their
relation to the hyperbola analogous to the relation of the
sine
way
and cosine
the circle.
to
properties
and
by using complex numbers
is
The
manner.
cos X, and
e'^
and convenient
natural,
to arrive at the hyperbolic functions
to study their
in the
following
and (4) give the value of sin x,

for every real value of x.
These series also
series (2), (3),
serve to define sin x, cos x, and
t-^
for
complex values of x.
In the more advanced parts of Algebra
it
the following fundamental formulas which
shown
is
that
we have proved
only for a real variable,

sin
cos
{^x -\- y)
(a:
= sin x
co?>
y -\-
cos
a:
sin_y,
(17)
J') = cos X cos 7 sin x sin_y,

e^+y =
(18)
-f-
e''ey,
hold unchanged when the variable
is
This fact enables us to calculate with ease sin

e^ for
any complex value
(19)
complex.
x^
cosXy and
of the variable.
In so doing we are led directly to the hyperbolic functions.
At
the same time a relation between the trigonometric and
hyperbolic functions
is
estabhshed by means of which the
formulas of Chapter III. can be converted into corresponding formulas for the hyperbolic functions.
Taking x and y
iy,
real
in (17), (18),
and
(19)
by
we get
sin
(^x
cos (x
Thus
is
and replacing y
is
t'y
t'y)
t'y
the calculation of these functions
complex
able
+ iy^ = sin x cos + cos x sin ty,

+ = cos X cos sin x sin iy,
is
made
to
when
the variable
depend upon the case where the
a pure imaginary.
vari-

If
we
replace
^tr
x by
ix in series (4)
_ ^^^ ^ \A
I
_j. \
2!
A comparison
series are cos;tr
3!
-I-
and
7!
55
hence the important
sin;r respectively;
a pure imaginary
find sim'x
>
= cos cc + i sin x,
This enables us to calculate e^ from
To
with series (2) and (3) shows that these two
is
6!"*"
formula due to Euler
tx
obtain
3!
^"^^!
'I'
we
7S
and cos
t'x
that
when x
is,
replace
:r
in (20)
(20)
sin;ir
and
by
t'x;
we obtain
tf~* = cos ix + / sin tx.
Again replacing
by
;*:
t'x
in (20),
(21)
we obtain
^ = cos ix i sin ix.

The sum and
If
COS IX =
sin ix=
= cosh X,
the value of
a succession of values of x,
(as)
and (22) give
difference of (21)
we compute
when
cos;ir
is real.
we
(23)
sinh x,
by the aid of
(24)
series (4) for
find that sinh;tr
and
cosh;i:
are represented by the curves on page ^6.
The system
tions
is
of formulas belonging to the hyperbolic func-
obtained from those of the trigonometric functions
by using (23) and

in
(24).
This shows that for every formula
analytic trigonometry there exists a corresponding
mula
in hyperbolic
trigonometry which we
get by
for-
this sub-
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
76
stitution.
In the examples which follow, this
used to obtain important formulas
in
method
try.
Replacing
xhy ix
in (23)
008 07 =
sin 07 =
and
(24),
we
get
(25)
(26)
3i
'
rhich are formulas frequently used.

Example.
sinh {x -f /) = / sin i{x
\-y\
= [sin ix cos // cos ix sin ty\,

= / [/ sinh X cosh j-f- / cosh x sinh/],
= sinh cosh cosher sinh_y.
sinh^ = /(sin ix sin
= / 2 sin ^ i{x-\-y) cos ^ i{x y\
= 2 sinh i (x-^y) cosh ^ ixy).
z
-|-
jr
Example.
sinh
sinh oc
jr-f-
_y-l-
-}-
is
hyperbolic trigonome-
iy),
cosh
.f
77
EXERCISES
cosho=i.
76. (i.)'Prove sinho=o,

(2 .)
î =
Prove sinh7r/ = o,
Prove
(3.)
si n h
cosh
/,
^/ =o.
cosh7r/=
i.
Prove that
(4.)
(5 .)
(6.)
(7.)
Remark.
sin ix.
= cos zx.
cos
sinh( x) = sinhjr.
cosh (x) = cosh
sin (
z'x)
t'x)
;r.
The hyperbolic tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant
are defined by
^
tanh;r
= sinh;jr
coth;tr
coshjr
sech
X=
csch
cosh;r
= cosh;ir
sinh^
x=
sinh;ir
Prove hat
(10.)
= / tanh x.
= coth X.
sech {x) = sech x.
(II.)
cosh*;ir
(12.)
sech'^4-tanh'jr=
(1 3.)
coth"^
(8.)
tan {ix)
(9.)
coth {x)
(14.)
(15.)
csch*;i: =
I.
I
y) = sinh coshj cosh x shih,^.

cosh(;r j) = cosh;r cosh^ sinh;r sinh^.
sinh {x
;r
coshi;r=y/iî5.
(16.)
(17.)
sinh'jr=:l.
sinh
sinhz/ = 2 cosh ^(-|-t/) sinh ^(
(18.)
cosh -j- cosh 2/ =
(19.)
cosh u
v).
2 cosh ^(?^-f-^) cosh ^(z/).
cosh v = 2 smh.^{u-{-v) sinh ^ (
/),
CHAPTER VII
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES,
RELATION OF FUNCTIONS
77' Prove the following:
= sinjr
(I.)
cos;r
(2.)
cscjr tan
cot x) sin.r cos^ =

tan {^secy lainy)=l.
col 2) =
{cscz col z) {CSC z
cos''j + (tan/ cot/) sinj/ cosy = sin'j/.
cos*.r sin*.i--f =2 cos^x.
= 2 s'lny cosy.
(sin J cos
sin.r cosx).
sin^r-f-cos'.r = (sin.r-}-cosx)
(tan
(3.)
(4.)
cot^.
= seer.
;r
;ir
I.
-1-
(sec^
-\-
J/)
-{-
(5.)
(6.)
(7.)
)')'
(8.)
(i
(9.)
(10.)
cot
.r
(15.)
cot.r tan
y.
sin^/ = 2
tan* r = 2
x sec*;r.
cos X
;Tr- = tan.r.
sin.r cot
sec^j csc^j' = tan-j-|-cot''/-4-2.
2 sin^j/) = tanj'.
cot J cscy sec_y
cos
-cot.-)" =
cos" J/
(12.)
(14.)
^=:
tan ^4- col)'
(II.)
(13.)
"^
4- tan v
cos''_y
I.
sec'-
-:
.r
(i
5'
(16.)
.'
(
\sin2-
/
tan r
sec J/
(17.)
(18.)
i+cos/
I
(IQ.)
'
^COS^"
s\ny
s\xvy
X =
^^-^
(sinx4-cos;jr)'.
sec
sinî=(cos-r
sec
Î
sin;r)
(i -)-sin
cos;r).
.r
(20.) (sin-r
cos/-f"Cos;r sin ^)*-)- (cos
x cosy sin x
sin /)"
!.
(21.) [a
co%x b
sin;ir)'
+ ( %\nx-^b cos;ir)' = a'+^.
sin'^')"
(cos'/
79
(I
tan"/)'
Find an angle not greater than 90 which
satisfies
each of the
fol-
lowing equations
= 3 sec ^.
= CSC/ f.
(25.) \/2 sinjr tan;i;=0.
(26.) 2 cos^ Vs cot;ir=0.
(27.) tan/+ cot/ 2 = o.
(28.) 2 sin";' 2 = V2 cos/.
= 4 sin* ^.
(29.) 3 tan"
(23.)
4 cos jr
(24.)
sin/
jir
= 0.
(30.) COS''jr-|-2 sin'';tr f sin:r
= f tanjr.
sec jr-l- tan x =
(31.) csc;jr
(32.)
(33.) tan;r-|-2
(34.) 3sin;ir
^3
-.
^3.
cos;i;
=a
2cos'';f=o.
Express the following in terms of the functions of angles less
than 45:
(35.) sin
(36.)
92
cos 127.
(37.)
tan 330.
(38.)
cot 350.
(39.) sin 265.

(40.)
tan 171.
{41.)
Given sin;r=^ and
quadrant II; find
in
all
the other
functions of x.
(42.)
Given cos-r =
and x
in
quadrant III; find
all
the other
functions of x.
C43.)
Given tanjr
:i
and
in
quadrant III; find
all
the other
functions of x.
(44.)
Given cotx
functions of x.
= --|
and x
in
quadrant IV; find
all
the other
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
80
In what quadrants must the angles
lie
which
satisfy
each of the
following equations
= \'\pisec X tan = 2 -y/3.

tan_>'4- -y/20 cos>' = a
cos X cot ^ = f
(45.) sin
cos ;r
jr
(46.)
{47.)
(48.)
Find
the values of
all
than 360 which
less
will satisfy
tne
fol-
lowing equations
(49.)
tanj-f-2 sinj
(50.) (I
tan x)
-f-
(51.) sinjT
(I
= o.
2 sin x) =0.
cos-r)=a
cos;r (i-f-2
Prove the following:
(54.)
=
sin 4850 = iV^.
cos255o = ^-/3-
(55.)
sin( 3000) = cos
(56.)
cos 300= cos 40*^.
(52.)
(53.)
cos 780
-J,
30P.
(57.)
Find the value of a sin 90 -f^ tan cP-â cos
(58.)
Find the value of a sin 30
(59.)
Find the value of
{a
(60.)
Find the value of
(a sin
b)
(5
180P.
tan 45 -f cos 60 -f-*^ tan 135.
tan 225 -f'^ cos 180
45+ cos 45) (a sin

<J
a sin 270.
+ iJsin 225).
i35
RIGHT TRIANGLES
'TIS.
In the following problems the planes on which distances are measured
are understood to be horizontal unless otlierwise stated.
The angle
(I.)
1
121
ft.
from
its
of elevation of the top of the tower from a point
base
is
observed to be 15
17'; find
the height of
the tower.
(2.)
tree,
'J^ ft.
high, stands
on the bank
of a river; at a point
on
the other bank just opposite the tree the angle of elevation of the
top of the tree

river.
is
found to be
5 17' 37".
Find the breadth of the
55
(3.)
foot
What
angle will a ladder 42
25
from the base of the building against which
is
ft.
When
(4.)
8l
tne altitude of the sun
make with
long
ft.
is
which casts a shadow 75 ft.?

(5.) Two towns are 3 miles apart.
33
what
22',
the ground
is
it is
if its
placed
the height of a
tree
The angle
How
high
(6.)
is
From
the balloon
a point 197
ft.
15'.
from the base of a tower the angle of
ele-
vation was found to be 46 45' 54"

(7.)
A man
10
ft.
of depression of one,
observed to be 8
from a balloon directly above the other,
is
find the height of the tower.
high stands at a distance of 4
in.
a lamp-pq^t, and casts a shadow 18
ft.
ft.
7 in.
from
long; find the height of the
lamp- post.
(8.)
ft.
The shadow
of a building 101.3
high
ft.
is
found to be
131.
long; find the elevation of the sun at that time.

(9.)
rope 112
ft.
long
attached to the top of a building and
is
reaches the ground, making an angle of ^^ 20' with the ground;

find the height of the building.
(10.)
house
is
130
ft.
above the water, on the banks of a river;
from a point just opposite on the other bank the angle of elevation
of the house
(II.)
14 30' 21".
is
From
Find the width of the
the top of a headland, 1217.8
121. 5
(13.)
level of the
9' 13"
from the foot of the headland to the dock.
find the distance

(12.)
river.
above the
a dock was observed to be 10
sea, the angle of depression of
from the base of a tower
ft.
found to be 11
ft.
3'
One bank
its
angle of elevation
is
5"; find the height of the tower.

of a river
subtends an angle of 10
54'
is
94.73
ft.
vertically
above the water, and
13" from a point directly opposite at the
water's edge; find the width of the river.

(14.)
The shadow
on the sea 93
(15.)
ft.
of a vertical cliff 113
from
rope, 38
ft.
the top of a tree 29
ground
(16.)
ft.
its
ft.
ft.
high.
high just reaches a boat
find the altitude of the sun.
ground when fastened to
long, just reached the
What
angle does
it
make with
the
A tree
is
broken by the wind.
from the foot of the
ground.
base
tree,
Its
top strikes the ground
and makes an angle of 42
Find the height of the tree before
it
28' with the
was broken.
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
83
(17.)
The
ing from
pole of a circular tent
is
18
high,
ft.
and the ropes reach-
top to stakes in the ground are 37
its
ft.
long; find the
distance from the foot of the pole to one of the stakes,
and the angle
between the ground and the ropes.

(18.)
At what
(19.)
ship
rate
moving south
building
is
121
ft.
street its angle of elevation
(20.)
From
8 miles an hour.
sailing southwest at the rate of
is
is it
From
high.
is
65
the top of a building 52
of another building 112
ft.
high
is
a point directly across the
Find the width of the
3'.
30
street.
high the angle of elevation
ft.
How far are the
12'.
buildings
kpart?
(21.)
window
in a house
is
inclination of a ladder placed 8
reaching the window

(22.)
miles,
ft.
its
(24.)
apparent semidiameter
is
2"
16'
Given that the radius of the earth
3963
is
moon;
find
is
its
the
92,000,000
diameter.
miles,
and
that
it
find the distance of the
the earth.
Given that when the moon's distance from the earth
miles, its apparent semidiameter

(25.)
is
subtends an angle of 57' 2" at the
moon from
What
from the ground.
from the side of the building and
Given that the sun's distance from the earth
and
(23.)
24
ft.
is 15'
34"
find
Given that the radius of the earth
is
its
is
diameter
238885
in miles.
3963 miles, and that
it
subtends an angle of 9" at the sun; find the distance of the sun
from the earth.

(26.)
light-house
and bottom of
it,
the distance of
is
as seen
its
57 ft. high the angles of elevation of the top

from a ship, are 5 3' 20" and 4 28' 8". Find
;
base above the sea-level.
At a certain point the angle of elevation of a tower was observed to be 53 51' 16", and at a point 302 ft. farther away in the
(27.)
same
straight line
(28.)
make an
of 45
17'.
(29.)
was 9 52' 10"; find the height of the tower.
tree stands at a distance from a straight road
two mile-stones.
to
it
At one mile-stone the
and between
line to the tree is
observed
angle of 25 15' with the road, and at the other an angle
Find the distance of the tree from the road.
From
the top of a light-house, 225
sea, the angles of
depression of two ships are
ft.
above the
7 2
i'
level of the
50" and 13 50' 22",
MISCELLANEO US EXERCISES
and the
beneath the light-house :
line joining the ships passes directly
between the two
find the distance
83
ships.
ISOSCELES TRIANGLES AND REGULAR POLYGONS

79,
The area
(I.)
of a regular dodecagon
37.52
is
ft.
find
its
apothem.
The perimeter
(2.)
of a regular polygon of
the radius of the circumscribing
(3.)
is
3.147
regular decagon
ft.
23.47
ft.
find
circumscribed about a circle whose radius
side of a regular decagon
the inscribed
is
23.41
ft.
find the radius of
circle.
The perimeter
(5.)
is
find its perimeter.
The
(4.)
is
sides
1 1
circle.
of an equilateral triangle
is 17.2 ft.;
find the
area of the inscribed circle.
The
(6.)
area of a regular octagon
is
2478 sq.
in.
find its pe-
rimeter.
The
(7.)
area of a regular pentagon
is
32.57 sq.
ft.
find the radius
of the inscribed circle.
The angle between the
(8.)
legs are 7
(9.)
legs of a pair of dividers
is
43 and the
long; find the distance between the points.
in.
building
is
37.54
ft.
wide, and the slope of the roof
is
43" 36';
find the length of the rafters.
The
(10.)
18321
radius of a circle
find the angle the
(II.) If
the radius of a circle
is
taken as unity, what
of a chord which subtends an angle of

(12.)
What
(13.)
What
(i^.;
Two
52"
is
17'
is
the length
40"?
is
the radius of a circle
is
50'
a chord 11223
if
ft.
subtends an
light-houses at the
from the wharf.

lines to
']']'^
angle at the centre of a circle does a chord which
of the radius subtend
angle of 50
and the length of a chord
12732,
is
chord subtends at the centre.
mouth
of a harbor are each 2 miles
person on the wharf finds the angle between the
the light-houses to be 17
33'.
Find the distance between the
two light-houses.
(15.)
The
side of a regular pentagon
inscribed circle.
is
2; find the radius of the
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
84
The perimeter
(1 6.)
12
of a regular heptagon inscribed in a circle
is
find the radius of the circle.
The
(17.)
radius of a circle inscribed in an octagon
is
3; find the
perimeter of the octagon.
(18.)
regular polygon of 9 sides
inscribed in a circle of unit
is
radius; find the radius of the inscribed circle.
Find the perimeter of a regular decagon circumscribed about
(19.)
a unit circle.
Find the area of a regular hexagon circumscribed about
(20.)
unit circle.
Find the perimeter of a polygon of
(21.)
11
sides inscribed in a
unit circle.
The perimeter
The area of a
(22.)
(23.)
dodecagon
of a
30; find
is
regular polygon of
1 1
its
sides
is
area.
18; find its pe-
rimeter.
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES AND EQUATIONS

80. Prove the following:
(I.)
,
(2.)
(3.)
sin
cos x
sin
-^
4-
^ = tan
cos- J tan'^j'
cos'^
-f-
cos
(9.)
^^
x cos_y
sec;t- =
seer
cot;r
(II.)
.x
X (cos''sihxl).
s
2x
cos 2X
cos 2y^
=
I
tanV
-^
cot
2
4 cos^ 48
-[-
X tan
cos 2y
.r
=2
sin
(10.)
^
= I.
= cot X cot y cot z cot x cot y cot z.

sm s
(.r y) sin'' {x-\-y) = cos 2x cos 2_y.
.
ô^ cos.r
(8.)
y).
-^
2,x.
sin^y col^y
sin,r 4- sin y
(x 4- y -\- s)
sin.r ?,\ny
)
^ {x
-^
sin^r
-}-_y)
^^
+ cos/
2x
CO?,
itsin/.
cos y = tan ,,,.

(x
tan
cos 2x -\- cos ^x
^/cos |/ = -\/i
cos X
cot 2x.
85
-j- 2 sin' ^ ;r cot x = sin jr.

X tan y
= sin X sec jr tan v.
(13
cot X cot^
(H sin X 2 sin' = sin ;r cos 2x.
(12
tan ^
-tr
tan
-^
;tr
sin J/ sin (60
(15
(16
sin y
"
I -f-
(18,
sin
(19
sin^
2-r
+ tan
\
)
cosj-f-sin//
= sm 2
.
y.
"^
^ j =rsec/.
x cos' x 4
sin
cos x sin' jr.

2
+ = tan X
tan 50+ cot 50 = 2 sec 10.
cos
+ 45) + sin 45) = o.
sec
xcosj
tan/ tan
4^ = 4
s^j'.
sec' J/
(17.
= sin
y) sin (60 -^-y)
(I tan' y)/
2;tr
(20.
(21.
(Jf
(;r
tanjr
(22.
I
(23.
(24.
(I
cot 2;r tan x :=Sin 2X.
tan'
sin
x')
x cos x = cos 2x \J
cos y -I- sin V

^-^ =tan
sinj
cos_y
(25.
sin {x-\-y) cos-r
cos (x
(28.
cos X
2 sin'
(30-
sin
tan
I
(33
cos 2" cos-r
cos 2X = cot A X.
2;ir
4- cos
5.
(^ /) + tan/
tan (x.y) tany tan X.

2
(32
sinj^.
sin {x
X sin'/+ 2 cos' x cos'/ =

60+ sin 30 = 2 sin 45 cos
(29
(3^
cos(^-j-/) sinx
-|-
cos/ cos 2"
cos-r cos J/
sin,r4-sin
"^
-^
y) cosj = sin x.
s\n{y z)
sin {z~x)
_
(xy)
sin
(27.
y) sin_y
sin/ tan
i+cot'^/.
^/
= 2 sin ^x cos
+ sin/ _cosjf + cos/
sin/ sinjr
cos-r cos/
sin 4.r-(-sin 2-r
jr.
sinjr
(34
(35.
sin75=
7^
2-v/
(36.
2;r
2y+sec2y.
(26.
C06
2 tan 2/
= tan(45+/) tan(45/).
2x cos
2jl^
=y
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
86
(37
tan 2 ;r 4- tan ^
sin3Jr
2^; tan j:
sin;r
tan
3 tan
y tan'
^
5-^.
(38.
tan3j = -2
(39.
sin 60 4- sin 20
(40.
sin40
(41.
cos 24:
(42.
(43.
(44
(45.
13
tan*/
=2
cos4-r =
tan 150
sin 40 cos2oP.
sin io = 2 00325 sin 15".

2 sin3;r sinjr.
= Vs2
+ sinx
sin^)* = 4 sin'^jr.
(-/i +sin^-f
sin = 4 cos'^X
sin_y
sin(2^ + y)
~ 2 cos(;r4-j) = -r-^'
sinjr
sm^
(y/i
-v/i
jr)''
-\/i
^^^
sin4;r
(46
= 2 cos
2;r.
sin2;ir
(47.
sin 50
(48,
COS
I
=
32
TT
,^-7^
4- tan" (4 5
si
3in75
(50.
TT
cos -
tan'^(450
-1
(49
sin 70 -f sin 10" = 0.

.
,r)
12
12
= sm2r.
^)
sin 15 _
~~
5
cos 11^;os 7 5 4-fuus
COS/i"
(51.
tan4;r(i
(52-
tan 75
(53.
sin
(54
cos
(55-
sin
/f
VV ^
+ cot' I ^)' -^T-
= 2 4- V^.
yc 4- sin 5^ = 2
5 jr
5^
^
sin
2 sin
4- cos 9jr
sin 4-r
=2
cos jr.
cos 7-ir COS XT.
15= '^-~-'
2V2
(59.
sinjT = tan X.
cos 3x + cos X
= 5 sinj/ 20 sin'j/-|- 16 sin^.
sin
cos 5/ = 5 cos/ 20 cos'/ 4- 16 cos^.
4 tan Xj
sin4f=
j--^
(60
cos(45<5-|-.r)-}-cos(45
(61
cos yc 4- cos
sin3.r
(56.
(57.
(58
5_y
(I
tan'^jr)
(1+ tan.IT
5-r
4- cos
;t)=: v/2 cos^f.
^x + cos
5-f
= 4 cos \x
cos
cosSx".
(62.) sin''^;r(cot^;r
,,
(630
3sin^
= i
i)*
sin3;r
^-
cos 3-^4-3 cos X

i
sin;r.
= tan^.
(66.)
tan x) -^ cos ^ + cot x) = esc x \- sec

sin'jr =
24-sin2;ir
n
cos^ sin^
2
cosj/
cos 20 y)
cos 20 \-y) = o.
,^
sin3jr
(64,) sin ;r ( I -f,-
(65.)
87
(i
j:.
cos'^
-j-
(67.)
-\-
(1
=2 COS2X+
(1
I.
sin^r
(cosj cos 3/)(sin

(sin
,,
sin;ir
\^
(7I-)
cos3;r
sinj:
cos^r
I -I-
sin
;r
^=
4-
sinrr
-^-^
i-}-cosjr
-f-cos;r/
(70.)
8j-|- sin 2y)
y sin^)(cos4y cos 6/)
2.
cos
F^
=cot4x
\-\-%\\\x
sin(4,r 2y)-|-sin(4v 2X)
^^ cos-^ '.=xjaxi{x-\'y).
cos (4^
cos;ir
(72.)
^-^
2j)
(73.)
"*^
If
sin
(4,^
-f-
x + sin 3jr + sin
cos ;r
5jr
4- sin 7Jr
7^-T cos
T4- cos 7
+ cos 3-1:454:
A, B, and
C are
2jr)
=tan4T.
JT
the angles of a triangle, prove the following-;
(76.)
2^ 4- sin 2i5 -|- sin 2C = 4 sin ^ sin 5 sin C.

sin 2A 4- sin 2;9 sin 2C = 4 cos^ cos^ sinC
sin''/i + sin-i>' + sin''C= 2 + 2 cos^ cos 5 cosC
{^"j^
tan
(74.) sin
(75.)
\-
tan
B 4- tan C = tan A
tan
B tan C.
Solve the following equations for values of

(78.)
(79.)
(80.)
(81.)
(82.)
(83.)
(84.)
(85.)
cos 2^ -f cos .r
sin.r4-sin7.r
I.
= sin4-r.
sin2jr cos3Jr = o.
cos^ sin3;r cos2-ir = o.
sin4;r 2 sin 2 1=0.
sin 2^ COS2X sinA-4-cos4r = o.
n (60 -\-x) = -\-^ y
sin (60
cos (60 -\-x) = ^^^^

sin (30 + x)
cos.r
jt
;r)
si
3^
less
than 360.
PLANE TRIGOJSIUMETRY
8S
(86.)
csc;r=
(87.)
cos2jr
4-cot;ir.
= cos'4r.
sin^=sin2y.
(88.) 2
+ sin2y-|-sinj/ = a
cosV =
(89.)
sin3/
(90.)
sin^r
(91.)
tan(45 x)-|-cot(45*-r)s=4.
-|-
3.
OBLIQUE TRIANGLES
81, (I.) It is required to find the distance between two points, A
and B, on opposite sides of a river. A line, /4C and the angles BAC
and ACB are measured and found to be 2483 ft., 61 25', and 52 \^'
respectively.
(2.)
distant
a town
/4 to
town
straight road leads from a
another road, making an angle of
miles distant.
C, 7
.^
'J^
How far are
to a town B, 12 miles
with the
the towns
first,
goes from
B and C apart ?
In order to determine the distance of a fort. A, from a battery,
(3.)
B, a
line,
and
ACB
BC, one-half mile long,
is
measured, and the angles
ABC
are observed to be 75 18' and 78 21' respectively.
Find
the distance /^^.
Two houses,^ and
(4.)
a third house,
a plane, a
in
also the angles
the distance
Two
(6.)
The
20
if
B, are 1728
ft.
Find the distance of
apart.
BACM 51' and ABC=S7 23'.
In order to determine the distance of a bluff, A, from a house,
(5.)
B,
from
C,
line,
BC, was measured and found to be 1281 yards,
ABC and BCA
65 31' and 70
2'
towns, 3 miles apart, are on opposite sides of a balloon.
angles of elevation of the balloon are found to be 13
19'
and
Find the distance of the balloon from the nearer town.
3'.
It is
(7.)
required to find the distance between two posts,
which are separated by a swamp.

2012.4
(8.)
Find
respectively.
AB.
ft.
The angle ^C^
from B.
Two
stakes,
third point, C,
is
A
is
point
41
C is
1272.5
ft.
y?
and B,
from A, and
9' 11".
and B, are on opposite sides of a stream
so situated that the distances
AC
and
BC
can be
found, and are 431.27 yards and 601.72 yards respectively.
The angle
ACB
is
39 53' 13".
Find the distance between the stakes
and B.
Two
(9.)
light-houses,
and B, are
1 1
observed from them to make the angles
=21
Two
islands,
too. ship, C,
A
if
and B, are 6103

the angle
In ascending a
(II.)
55
is
58
up
farther
high,
ft.
(12.)
The
ship, C, is
31' and
13'
ft.
ABC is
ABC
Find the distance
apart.
BAC is 40 32'.
37 25' and
towards a light-house at
cliff
light-house subtends at one point an angle of 21

ft.
miles apart.
BAC='^\
Find the distance of the ship from A.
46' 8".
(10.)
from
89
subtends an angle of 40P
it
how
far
is
this last point
distances of
The
respectively.
two
from
27'.
its
its
If
summit, the
At a point
22'.
the light-house
foot?
buoy are 3 and 4 miles

are 2 miles apart. Find the angle sub-
islands
islands from a
tended by the islands at the buoy.

(13.)
The
sides of a triangle are 151.45, 191.32,
and
250.91.
Find
the length of the perpendicular from the largest angle upon the
opposite side.
(14.)
hill
A tree stands on
and the tree
is
hill,
At a point
tree subtends an angle of 22

(15.)
and the angle between the slope of the
110^23'.
light-house 54
ft.
high
85.6
ft.
down
22'.
is
built
upon a rock.
of the light-house the angle of depression of a boat
from
its
base the angle of depression of the boat
is
the
From
is
the
hill
tree.
19
12 22'.
the top
10',
and
Find the
height of the rock on which the light-house stands.

(16.)
ABîit
Three towns. A, B, and

miles,
BC-= 5
miles,
C, are
and AC=^^
connected by straight roads.

miles.
Find the angle made
AB and BC.
Find the dis(17.) Two buoys, A and B, are one-half mile apart.
tance from ^ to a point C on the shore
the angles ABC and BAC
by the roads
if
are
^^'^ 7'
(18.)
its
and 67
The top
17' respectively.
of a tower
is
175
ft.
above the
level of
a bay.
top the angles of depression of the shores of the bay
direction are 57 16' and 15
2'.
in
From
a certain
Find the distance across the bay.
The lengths of two sides of a triangle are y/T. and y/'^. The
Find the remaining side.
angle between them is 45.
(20.) The sides of a parallelogram are 172.43 and 101.31, and the
angle included by them is 61 16'. Find the two diagonals.
(19.)
(21.)
tree 41
ft.
high stands at the top of a
hill
which slopes
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
At a certain point down the hill the tree

Find the distance from this point to
io 12' to the horizontal.
subtends an angle of 28
29'.
the foot of the tree.

(22.) A plane is inclined to the horizontal at an angle of 7 33'.
At a certain point on the plane a flag-pole subtends an angle 20 3',
and at a point 50 ft. nearer the pole an angle of 40 35'. Find the
height of the pole.

(23.)
a plane,
The angle
is
53
angle of elevation
an inaccessible tower, situated in

At a point 227 ft. farther from the tower the
22 41'.
Find the height of the tower.
of elevation of
19'.
is
(24.)
(25.)
From one bank
house stands on a hill which slopes 12 18' to the horizontal.

75 ft. from the house down the hill the house subtends an
Find the height of the house.
angle of 32 5'.
the opposite
direct line
(26.)
bank
its
the top of the
the foot of a
hill is 2 1 7
the angle of elevation

(27.)
321.4
ft.
is
down
the
building
is
a plane the angle of elevation of
hill
away 2 1 1
ft.
of a hill
is
153.2
ft.
is
20 55', and
15 10'.
13'.
monument.
At a certain distance up the

is
At a point
angle of 11
situated on the top of a hill which
farther,
hill.
high.
monument subtends an
of elevation of the top of the building
the
away in a
farther
this point to the top of the
10 12' to the horizontal.
down
ft.
Find the width of the river.
i9io'.
After going directly
'.
18 37'.
the
hill
is
a point 139.4
hill in
A monument at the top

(28.)
Frc
angle of elevation
From
on
of a river the angle of elevation of a tree
28 31'.
is
is
hill
15.3
inclined
the angle
ft.
farther
Find the height of
the building.
(29.)
cloud, C,
apart, the line
AB
is
observed from two points,
angle of elevation of the cloud

51
18'.
The
angle
and B, 2874 ft.

At A^ the
being directly beneath the cloud.

is
ABC is found
19', and the angle CAB is

be 60 45'. Find the height
77
to
of the cloud above A.

(30.)
Two
observers,
and B, are on a
apart, directly beneath a balloon, C.
are 34 42' and 41 15' respectively.
loon from the
first
observer.
The
straight road, 675.4
angles
ABC
and
ft.
BAC
Find the distance of the
bal-
A man
(31.)
and
tance
CD = 2,S7
= 54
10',
(32.)
cliff
and the angles
ft.,
ADC= 34
and
cliff
327
is
11'.
river
the bottom of the
How far
39'.
A man
(33.)
cliff
measures the
From
sea-level.
the top of the
ships are 15 11'
and
15
13'.
the angle subtended by the ships are
are the ships apart
standing on an inclined plane 112
from the bottom
ft.
observed the angle subtended by a building at the bottom to be

52'.
The
dis-
above the
ft.
from two objects,
He
ACB=2(f 33', BCD = 38 52'. ADB
the angles of depression of two
From
122
on the opposite side of a
B, wishes to obtain their distance apart.
91
inclination of the plane to the horizontal
is
33^^
Find
18 51'.
the height of the building.
Two
(34)
boats,
and B, are 451.35
ft.
The angle
apart.
vation of the top of a light-house, as observed from A,
The base
of the light-house, C,
ABC and CAB are
is
and 137
12 31'
level
of ele33
is
17'.
with the water; the angles
Find the height
22' respectively.
of the light-house.
(35.)
From
window
directly opposite the
angle of elevation of the top of the steeple
window, 20
ft.
below the
vertically
first,
bottom
29
is
21'.
of'
a steeple the
From another
is
39
3'.
Find the height of the steeple.
(36.)
dock
is I
mile from one end of a breakwater, and i| miles
At the dock the breakwater subtends an angle
from the other end.

of 31
(37.)
rises
Find the length of the breakwater
11'.
straight road ascending a hill
ft.
in
angle of 7
(38.)
every
19' at
ft.
From
in feet.
1022
The
long.
ft.
tower at the top of the
the bottom.
tower, 192
triangular yard.
4.
is
hill
hill
subtends an
Find the height of the tower.
high, rises vertically from ene corner of a

its
corners are 58^4' and 17
top the angles of depression of the other
49'.
The
side opposite the tower subtends
from the top of the tower an angle of 75
15'.
Find the length of
this side.
(39.)
the one
There are two columns

is
66
ft.
above the
left
plain,
standing upright
and the other
48.
in
a certain ruins
In a straight line
between them stands an ancient statue, the head of which

from the summit of the higher, and 84
ft.
is
100
ft.
from the top of the lower
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
9*
column, the base of which measures just 74
to the centre of the
ft.
Required the distance between the tops of the two
figure's base.
columns.
(40.)
Two
sides of a triangle are in the ratio of
opposite angles have the ratio of 3 to
i.
What
The diagonals of a parallelogram are

angle between them is 78 44'; find its area.
(42.)
One
side of a
triangle
(43.)
Two
cluded angle
(44.)
(45.)
Two
The
59 10'
find
its
its
2104.7
^"^
i^s
are these angles
area.
and 123.72, and the
in-
area.
angles of a triangle are 35 15'

is
and the
1012.6 and the two adjacent
is
find
sides of a triangle are 218.12

is
included side
9,
12432 and 8413, and the
(41*.)
angles are 52 21' and 57 32'
to
1 1
and 47
18',
and the
area.
three sides of a triangle are 1.2371, i.47i'^ and 2.0721
find the area.

(46.)
angle
is
(47.)
Two
41
sides of a triangle are 168.12

14'
The
and
179.21.
and the included
find its area.
three sides of a triangle are 51
ft.,
48.12
ft.,
and
32.2
ft.
find the area.

(48.)
angle
is
(49.)
Two
27
sides of a triangle are

50'
The diagonals
an angle of 65;
(50.) If
in. 18 and
121. 21,
and the included
find its area.
of a parallelogram are 37
and
51,
and they form
find its area.
the diagonals of a quadrilateral are 34 and 56,
intersect at
an angle of 67, what
is
the area?
and
if
they
CHAPTER
VIII

RIGHT TRIANGLES
82, Let
ABC a
be the centre of a sphere of unit radius, and
right spherical triangle, right angled at A,
the intersection of the three planes ^(96",
with the surface of the sphere.
and
BEC
and
BC E
line
OC.
and
Suppose the planes
passed through the points
and perpendicular to the
formed by
A OB,
The
each measure the angle
and
BOC
DAC"
respectively,
plane angles
DC"
of the spherical
angle, and the sides of the spherical triangle a,
same numerical measure as BOC, AOC, and
b, c
tri-
have the
AOB
respec-
94
tively, then,
^Z? = tanr,
OC" = cos d,
OE=cosc,
BE = %\nc, BC =
AC" =sin b.
OEC
In the two similar triangles

cos c
_
OA
cos c
a,
OC = cosa,
and OAC",
or cos ^ = cos ^ cos
r.
if
sin
= BE
-;r7Tv, or
sin
BC
^
6=
sin f
-:
sin
DAC"
Combining formulas
(2)
and
with
(3)
^
Ctan a
triangle
(3)
(i),
tan b
cos
AB
(2)
if
^ DA
^ tan c
tanC=3^,ortanC=^j^.
Again,
(i)^
BC'E,
.
In the triangle
cos
In the triangle
cos a
s'in
,
.
(4)
^ '
were made the base of the right spherical
ABC, we
should have
sin^=-:
(5)
s\x\a
tan
tan/^
B
sin c
r>
cosB=
From
(f..
(o)
tan c
we may
the foregoing equations
(7)
^^
tana
also obtain
by
combinations,
cos^=sin C
cos^.
(8)
cosC sin^
cosr.
(9)
cos
NAPIER
= cot j5
cot
(10)
RULES OF CIRCULAR PARTS
S3, The above ten formulas
are sufficient to solve
cases of right spherical triangles.
all
They may, however, be

expressed as two simple
95
rules, called, after their inventor,
Napier's rules.
The two
sides adjacent to the right angle, the
of the hypotenuse,
complement
and the complements of the oblique an-
gles are called the circular parts.
The
right angle is not
one of the circular parts.
comp a
comp
Thus
Any one
to
it
there are Jive circular parts

of the five parts
may be
namely,
/',
c,
comprt,
comp 5, compC.
called the middle part, then the
are called adjacent parts, and the remaining
two parts are
two parts next
called the oppo-
site parts.
Thus if c is taken for the middle part, comp^ and b are

comp a and comp Care opposite parts.
The ten formulas may be written and grouped as follows
sin
sin
comp C=:tan comp a tan b.

comp .5=tan comp a tan c.
comp a =tan comp j9 tan comp
sin
<:
sin
Napier's rules
I.
sin
C.
compi? tan
=tan comp C tan<r.
=rtan
(5.
may
id Group,
\st Group.
sin
adjacent parts, and
comp a = cos ^
cos r.
comp^.
comp a cos comp C.
sin comp i9 = cos comp C cos b.
sin comp C =cos comp B cos c.
sin
(5=cos coniprt cos
sin
(-^cos
be stated
The sine of the middle part
is
equal to the product of
is
equal to the product of
the tangents of the adjacent parts.

II.
The sine of the middle part
the cosines of the opposite parts.
96
84. In the right spherical
triangles considered in this work, each
taken less than a semicircumference, and each angle
side
is
two
right angles.
In the solution of the triangles,
greater than 90, the hypotenuse
and the other greater than

(2.)
it is
than
to be observed,
the two sides about the right angle are both less or both
If
(i.)
less
An
is
90, the
less
than 90;
hypotenuse
one side
if
is
less
greater than 90.
is
angle and the side opposite are either both less or both
greater than 90.
EXAMPLE
85. Given 3
= 63 56', = 40 o',
11^
To find
comp a
c
and
is
comp=cos(^
cos a
c,
B, and C.
To find B.
c.
the middle part.
h are the opposite parts,
sin
to find
b is the
comp
cosr,
cos C=-
sin (^=cos
or
<5
sin
Bu ^^"
r-
a=9. 64288
59'
comp a
(z
cos
comp B
sin .5.
'^
log sin (^=9.80807
colog sin
cosr=g.75863
^=54
part.
are the opposite
sin
colog COS ^=0.11575

log
= sin
sin
COS
log COS
parts.
= cos b cosf.
cos a
middle
comp
a and
47"
c?
log sin ^5
v5
=0.04659
= 9. 85466
= 454i'28"
Check.
To find
C.
comp C is the middle part.

comp a, and b are adjacent parts.
sin comp C=tan comprt tan b,
cos C=cot a tan b.
log cot rt=9.68946
log tan
3=9
92381
9.61327
45' 58"
C=65
Use
the three parts originally required.
comp C is the middle part.

comp .5 and c are o]iposite parts.
sin comp C=cosr cos comp B
or
cos C=:cos c sin B.

log cos
^=9. 75863
log sin /^=9. 85466
log cos
C=g. 61329
C=65
45' 54"
. .
97
AMBIGUOUS CASE
When
56.
a side about the right angle and the angle opposite
this side are given, there are
lowing
terms of the
two
solutions, as illustrated
by the
fol-
Since the solution gives the values of each part
figure.
the results are not only the values of
sine,
a, b,
in
B, but
i8o rt. \ZcPb, iSoB.
Given c
= 26
4'.
C=36o'.
To
find a,
a', b, b'
To find
sin
and B,
B', usinig Napier's rules.
and B'
To find a and a'.
C= cos comp B
comp
C=sin
cos
or
cos
or
sinB='
-,
cos
sin
r=cos comp a
or
sin
^=sin a
or
s\na=:
cosr,
c,
C= 9. 90796
log sin f = 9.64288
colog sin (7=0.23078

log sin a =9. 87366
^=9.95455
B=
64
^'=i8o-i5=ii5
14'
C,
sin
colog cos ^=0 04659

log sin
Comp
sin c
cos c
log cos
cos
sin C,
a=
30"
45' 30"
a'
48 22'
55"-
= l8o 0=13103'/
5" +
(Discrepancy due to omitted decimals.)
To find
sin
and
3= tan c
/>'
tan
^=tan c cot
log tan ^=9. 68946
log cot C=o. 13874
sin
Check.
comp
C.
C,
sin
sin
^=cos comp a
^=sina sin B.
B,
log sin3=9. 82821
(6= 42 19' 17"
= l8o i!'=i37 40'
comp
log sin a or ^' = 9. 87366

logsini9ori5' = 9.95455
log sin (5=:9. 82820
(J'
cos
43"
<5'=
42
19'
21"
180 ^=137040' 39"
98
QUADRANTAL TRIANGLES
57. Def. A quadrantal triangle
one side of which is a quadrant.
A quadrantal
triangle
may
is
a spherical triangle
be solved by Napier's rules for
right spherical triangles as follows
By making
we
use of the polar triangle where
= i8o /4'
^ = i8o a'
^=180^'
C=i8o c'
^=180 5'
^=180
see that the polar triangle of the quadrantal triangle
a right triangle which can be solved by Napier's
Whence we may
at
is
rules.
once derive the required parts of the
quadrantal triangle.
The corresponding
a'
By
= 63
Napier's rules
^'
EXAMPLE
B = 140 o'.
A = 136 4'.
Given
= 90 o'.
parts of the polar triangle are
56',
we
d'
= 40 o'.
A'
= 900
find
= 450 41' 28",
C'
= 6545'
^=54
58",
59' 47";
whence, by applying to these parts the rule of polar triangles, we

obtain
/5= 1 340
^=114
18' 32",
C=i25o'i3".
14' 2",
EXERCISES
88.
63
(I.)
56',
angles
(2.)
and the side
B and
(3.)
(4.)
= 40.
B = g^ 6'.
ABC,
ABC,
Required the remaining
;^6.
Why
is
c,
a=
and the
i?
= 44
50'.
the side b^^26
ABC,
the side
not the result ambiguous
= 91 42', and
parts.
^',
and the
parts.
In the right-angled spherical triangle
and the angle
the side
side,
the hypotenuse a
In the right-angled triangle
B=
ABC,
Required the other
C.
In a right-angled triangle
the angle
angle
in this case.'
[)arts.
^=54
30',

In the right-angled spherical triangle ABC, the side
(5.)
and the side c=6t,
(6.)
69 20', and the angle
^=58
In the spherical triangle
(7.)
42
15'.
and the angle
10',
Hint.
(8.)
A=
115
69 13' 46", and the angle
^=55 28',
parts.
ABC,
the angle
16'.
B=
parts.
ABC, the side a = 90, the angle C=

20'.
The angle A of the polar triangle
99
is
parts.
a right angle.
ABC, the side b = 90, the angle
^ = 72
12' 4".
C=
parts.
(9.)
27' 42",
sides a
(10.)
and the
and c.
side b =
10 39' 40".
ABC, the
In the right spherical triangle ^^C, the angled
and the angle
C=6i 50'
29".
Required the sides.
C= 23
B and the
angle
Required the angle
= 4754' 20",
CHAPTER
IX
89, Let
ABC
three planes
AED
be the centre of a sphere of unit radius, and
an obHque-angled spherical triangle formed by the
A OB, BOC,
passed through the point
tersecting the planes
and
sec
AD
b,
and
AOC.
Suppose the plane
AOB, BOC, and AOC,

Then
respectively.
AO, inAE, ED,
perpendicular to
AD tan
b,
in
AE\.ax\
c,
0D =
OE ?,&cc.
In the triangle
ROD,
/t /9'^
In the triangle
= sec V;
-f-
secV
2 stcb stcc cosa.
AED,
ED' tanVv'
-|-
tanV
2 la.nb
tanr cos A.
Subtracting these two equations and remembering that

sec'î^
=22
secb
tani5=i, we have
cosa + 2 tan^ tan^- cos A.
se.cc
Reducing, we have
cosa=iC086 cosf + sin6 sine cos^.
(i)
If
we make
and
lOf
we obtain
c in turn the base of the triangle,
in
similar way,
cos (^
and
cose
= cose cos + sine sin a cos^,

= cosa cos(^ + sina sin^ cosC
rt
Remark. In this group of formulas the second may be obtained

from the first, and the third from the second, by advancing one letter
in the cycle as
a, c for b,
a for
shown
c,
in
the figure
for A,
thus, writing b for
for B,
and
The
for C.
same principle will apply in all the formulas of ObliqueAngled Spherical Triangles, and only the first one of
each group will be given in the text.
90, By making use
d=iSo-B'
c=\?>(f-C
we may obtain
where
of the polar triangle
B=iZo-b'
(;=i8o-<;'
a second group of formulas.
Substituting these values of
and
a, b, c,
in (i),
and remembering
= sin^, we have
that cos(i8o'' ^) = cos/i and sin (i8o
cosA' = cosB' cosC' + sini5' sin C cos
/?)
a'.
Since this
is
true for any triangle,
we may omit the accents and
write,
cos A= - cos B cos C + sin B sin C cos a.
FORMULAS FOR LOGARITHMIC COMPUTATION

91 Formula
(i),
cos = cos^ cost + sin

.
gives
cos^=:
By36,
cosA
,,^,
Whence
COSrt
cos<^
^- COS^
7
sin
= i2
a,
i 2sint^=
,
^ sine cos/i,
sin c
s'ur'
Â
COS cos
<^
cose
,
-.
sin o sin c
^
or
sin
51
iA=
cos/^cose+sin*^ sin
;
2 sin a sine
cos<2,
(2)
_cos(^ r) cosa
*~
2 sin b sin^
a-Vbc
'
ab-\-c
sin
sin
2
\3)
sin b sin c
Putting
a-\-b-{-c
=s, then
a-\-bc
z=.sc,
ab-\-c
(j
(sb)
/sin
=:sb,
'
we have
sin*^ =:\/
Since, also,
cos^ =2cos'^y4
we
and
sin
j.
c)
sin ^ sin^
i,
have, similarly,
(^-) ^*" (^-^)

8in8 8in( a)
tanj^^. A!"
Hence
By
Sin b sin c
(I)
a like process, formula (2) reduces to
,/ coHSeofi(SA)
tan*a=\/
,
92.
If,
in
formula
we advance one
I,
letter,
,.-.
-.
(II)
we have
/sin^^-)_sii7(7p_
^^
And
dividing
tan^^ by
Sin
tan
idinÂ
tan ^
J-
sin {s
b)
^5, and reducing, we obtain
s\n{s-'b)
B~ sin {sa)'
By composition and
By
division,
<^)4-sin (j )
ta.n
tan
-I
y^ tan ^ B~ sin(j ^) sin {sa)'
30, 38, this
-\-
ta.n
-^
sin (^
becomes
fi\i\^{A-^B)
8in^(4
jB)
tan^c
taii^(a fe)
(III)
tan^^ by tan^^, and
Multiplying
tan-|^ tan-|^
division
we
obtain
sin(j g)
~"
sinj
By
reducing,
T03
"
and composition, and by
30, 38, this
be-
comes
co8-^(^4--B)
tan^c
.^^'
co8-J(^ )~ tan^(a + 6)*
Proceeding
And
03
way with formula
a similar
in
8in^(a 6)
tan^(^ )*
co8|(a + &
cotjC
II,
pendicularly to
AB,
then,
obtain
(V)
,^^'
co8i(a 6)~tan^(^ + B)*
we
ABC, suppose CD drawn
by the formulas
per-
for right spher-
ical triangles.
In triangle
In triangle
p = smb sin A.
sin / = sin ^ sin B.
ACD,
BCD,
Whence
or
sin
sin
sin
sin
sin
Remark. li (A + B)>i8o,
then (a-H^)<i8o''.
B = sin b sin Ay
= sin 6
sin B
then (a + ^)>i8o, and
/tttt\
(VII)
if
(A-t-B)<i8o,
104
94, All
cases of oblique-angled triangles
by applying one or more
of the formulas
may be
solved
III,
IV, V,
I, II,
VI, VII, as shown in the following cases.
CASES
(i.)
Given three
sides, to find the angles.
Apply formula
(2.)
Given three angles, to

Apply formula
(3.)
(4.)
(5,)
(6.)
II.
VI.
find the sides.
Check : apply III or IV,
Given two sides and the included angle.

Apply V and VI, and VII. Check : apply III or IV,
Given two angles and included side.
Apply III and I V, and VII. Check : apply
V or
VI.
Given two angles and an opposite side.

Apply VII, V, and III. Check: apply IV,
Given two sides and an opposite angle.
Apply VII, V, and I V. Check : apply III.
EXAMPLE CASE
95*
V or
Check: apply
I.
Given a = 81 10'
To
a=
81 10'
60P 20'
(T
=112
find
= 12(P
25'
57'
V
30"
47' 30"
s6=6()
37'
30"
log sin
= i4
32'
30"
(j-
= 9. 96281
<^)
log sin(j^)=:9. 39982
12 35'
sin J sin
(j a)
^)=9.9628l
log sin (j f)=g.39982
colog sin ^=0.14460
colog sin(j a)=o.0974l
2)19.60464
log sin J.=9. 90259
1<^ sin (^)=9. 85540
C.
log sin(^
J 0=45
j--^
A, B, and
<:
To find A.
2J=25355'
S
(l)
bzs6cP2o'
log tan
^^=
9.80232
i.(4=3223' ig"
.4=64046' 38"
81
105
To find
To find B.
hm{s-a)sm{s-b)
tan i 6"= .
UniB=./^-''}f^'-'y
V sinjsm(j ^)
C.
sin 5
sin(j f)
log sin(j a)=9.85540
log sin (j-<2)=9. 85540
log sin(j f)=g.39g82
log sin (j (J) =9. 9628
colog sin ^=0.09741
colog sin j=o. 09741
colog sin (j <^) =0.03719
colog sin
(j
= o. 600 1
<)
2)20.51580
2)19.38982
\ogtaa^B=
logtan^C=
9.69491
iB=262i' 6"
^=52 42'
10.25790
iC=
61
5'
32"
C=I220ll' 4"
12"
Check.
'^^(-+^) ,
Formula V. cot^ C= '^-^(^rf)

/4=6446' 38"
^=52042'
A -B=12
^{A-B)^
<i=8i
10'
12"
4'
26"
2'
13"
log
=6cP 20'
a +^=141 30' ^(a+^)=70
a 6= 20 50'; i( ^)=ioP
;
tan^f^ .ff)=9.02430
log sin ^((7 + 3)
25'
cot^ (7=9.74210
^ c= 61 5' 32"
C=I22<= II' 4"
EX\MPLE CASE
6. Given a
= 78
5'
<J
To
\{a-Vb')-=tf
17'
|(a-^)=io='
57'
find
30"
30"
(3)
= 56 20'
A, B, and
log sin ^(rt+^)=9. 96498
+ =9.58663
1^)=9.27897
log cos ^ (a ^)= 9. 99201
log cot ^(7=9.76144
taniM+^)=^2ii(l!Z^!!IgjK,
F)^=
9. 99201
cot^C=
9-76144
colog cos ^(^ + <^)= 0.41337
log tan \{A-\- E)=\o. 16682
^(^+^) = 5544'36"-
k{A-B)=
/f
(^)
log sin^(rt
Formula VI may be written
log
C=I20P
c.
log cos ^(rt'
^C=6o
log cos \(a
9 97501
colog sin^(rt i^)=o. 74279
45'
6 47'
4"
=62 31' 40"
^=48
57'
32"-
Tofind\{A~B).
Formula
V may be
written
tanM^-^)^ '"^^.^\"A'?!*'^
logsin^((j-/0 = 9.27897
log cot ^ (7=9.76144
colog sin^((Z +/') = 0.03502
K^-^)=6
57'
4"
zo6
Check.
To find c.
From Formula VII, sinf=
sin b sin
sin
log sin b
log sin
=9.92027
C=9. 93753
Formula III may be written

%m\{A-\-B) tan^(a ^)
tan^r:
%\xi^{A-B)
log sin
^(^+7?)=
9.91725
g.28696
colog sin ^(î')= 0.92762
log tan ^ (a
colog sin B-=o. 12249
=
(ii)
log tanJf=io. 13183

\c= 53 33' 56"r=io7 i 51"
log sin f =9. 98029
<-=I078'
(Dis:.epancy due to omitted decimals.)
AMBIGUOUS CASES
97.
(I,)
Two
sides
and an angle opposite one of them are the
given parts.
If the side opposite the given angle

other given side, the given angle
less
or both greater than
(2.)
(jicP,
differs frojn QcP
and the
more than the
side opposite being either both
there are two solutions.
Two angles and a side opposite one
If the angle opposite the given side

other given angle, the given side
and
of
differs
them are the given
from
90 more i/ian the
the angle opposite being either
both less or both greater than 90, there are two solutions.
Remark.
There
is
sin^=
no solution
sin
sin a
the numerator of the fraction
if,
sin h
is
in either of the formulas,

sin
'
parts.
/'
sin
'A'wB
greater than the denominator.
EXAMPLECASE
95. Given a=40
To
To find
16'
find
B,
B\
sm BD
log sin
sin
log sin 5
To find C.
^ sin b
sma
cot
0.18953
logcot^C=
log sin (+*)
9-84177
9.04901 n *
1.
18633 n
10.07711
65 16' 30"
|C = 3956'24"
C= 79 52' 48"
c.
To find C.
logsinKa+&) = 9-84177
cos\{A+B) tan|(a + 6)
coihiA-B)
logcosH^+-S) =9.71326
log tan I (a +6) = 9.98484
logtanK^-S') =
colog sin |(a 6) =
log cot I
= 9.70080
ic=2639'42"
c = 53 19' 24"
Check.
Formula III may be written
find c'
sin
+5 0=9 -0463
log tan I (a +
=9.98484
ft
sin
sin c
sinC
log sin
ft)
B') = 0.06745
log tan \c'
1. 18633
C = 10.80963
log cos \ {A
9-78153 n
hC'= 8 48' 41"

C' = i737'""
B)= 0.00270
log tan 5 c
colog cos^(^
K^ -B)
J)
114 43' 30"
To
written
<^+^) ^^"
log tan \{A
9.86924
To find
colog cos \{A
C=
^'"
sin 5 (a
Formula IV may be written

tan 5
V may be
=9.95824
B=
5'
c\
c,
=
B) =
cologsinJ(a 6) =
=
=
colog sin a
C, and
Formula
=9.89947
yl
log sin 6
^=52 30'
B and B'.
Formula VII may be written

.
(6)
= 47 44'
C,
107
B = 9.95824
log sin f
colog sin
9.09860
^c'= 7 9' 9"

c'=i4i8'i8"
9.90418
C = 0.00682
log sin 6
ft
= 9.86924
= 47 44'
EXERCISES
99,
side
<5
(2.)
(i.)
= 3i

19',
and the angle
^=
ABC,
16 26'.
the side a
In the oblique-angled spherical triangle
45', angle
124 53', the
Find the other
ABC,
C= 30 35', and the angle j5 = 68 50'.
angle
parts.
A= 128
Find the other parts.
*Tlie letter " n " indicates that these quantities are negative.
tt*
(3.)
and
(4.)
the side c
= 78
^=56 10',
15',
Required the other parts.
20.
ABC,
C=48
gle
ABC,
A=
the angle
and the side ^ = 83
30',
^ = 1250 20', the
an-
13'.
parts.
(5.)
and a
(6.)
38',
= 71
and C=i2o
0=^6 45'
maining
(8.)
^5C.
Required the
43'.
and the side ^
28",
C= 161 25'
31 34' 38", and
10',
the angle
.<4
= 109
55',
B=n6P
sides.
the angle
= 44
ABC,
.<4
= 130"
5'
22",
the
Required the re-
13' 45".
and a
= 89
ABC,
and the angle
.,4
.,4
= 33
15' 7",
B=s
sides.
the side
c=ii2
22'
58", ^
Required the angles.
16' 53".
ABC,
50 10' 30",
the angle
Required the
17".
52 39' 4",
(10.)
= 39
35',
parts.
(9.)
the side c=^6fP
ABC,
(7.)
angle
ABC,
Required the angles.
15'.
= 34
15'
the side ^
= 76
35' 36',
fi
3".
parts.
AREA OF THE SPHERICAL TRIANGLE

100,
triangle
It is
is
area.^={A -{-
proved
equal to
-\-
C 2
where A, B, and
in
its
rt.
geometry that the area

spherical excess, that
angles)
of a spherical
is,
area of the tri-rectangular triangle,
are the angles of the spherical triangle.
Hence
area
_ ^ + ^-f CiSo*
~"
720**
surface of sphere
The
surface of the sphere
area = ^^(
The
fies
is 47r/?*,
therefore
1805
following formula, called Lhuilier's theorem, simpli-
the derivation of {A-^
B+C lSo)
where the three
sides of the spherical triangle are given
in
it
a,
b,
and
2s=a+b + c.
denote the sides of the triangle, and

tan ( A+B+C--lSO \
109
Vtan i s tan i (s-a) tan 4 {s-6) tan h (s-c).
EXERCISES
The
(i.)
(7= 79
^=63, ^=84 21',

What is the area of the
angles of a spherical triangle are,
the radius of the sphere
is
10
in.
triangle?
(2.)
The
^=9.43
in.
sides of a spherical triangle are,

;
is
25
^=6.47 in.,
What is
in.
^^
= 8.39
in.,
the area of
the triangle?
(3.)
In a spherical triangle,
radius of the sphere

(4.)
is
14
in.
^=75
16',
^5=39
20',
^=26
In a spherical triangle, <? =44 1 miles, /^= 287 miles,
is
in.
the
Find the area of the triangle.
3960
miles.
C=38 21'
Find the area of the triangle.
CHAPTER X
APPLICATIONS TO THE CELESTIAL AND TERRESTRIAL SPHERES
ASTRONOMICAL PROBLEMS
101, An
observer at any place on the earth's surface
finds himself seemingly at the centre of a sphere, one-half
which
of
is
The
bodies.
once
its
entire sphere
is
surface appear
seems
all
heavens.
1 16')
is
called the
the heavenly
to turn completely
axis.
around
The
im-
the axis of the earth indefinitely produced.
points in which
it
pierces the celestial sphere appear
and are called the north and south poles
stationary,
in
and upon
23 hours and 56 minutes, as on an
in
aginary axis
The
This sphere
the sky above him.
celestial sphere,
The North
of the
Star (Polaris) marks very nearly (with-
As
the position of the north pole.
the observer
travels towards the north he finds that the north pole of the
heavens appears higher and higher up
in the sky,
and that
height above the horizon, measured in degrees, corre-
its
sponds
The
to the latitude of the place of observation.
fixed
stars
and nebulae preserve the same
positions to each other.

ets
change
continually,
The
sun,
their positions with
the
sun
moon, planets, and com-
respect to
the fixed
stars
appearing to move eastward among
the stars about a degree a day, and the

teen times as far.
relative
moon about
thir-
APPLICATIONS
The zenith
III
the point on the celestial sphere directly
is
overhead.
The horizon
is
the great circle everywhere 90 from the
zenith.
The
equator
celestial
tial
if
extended would cut the celes-
sphere.
The
ecliptic
by the sun
The
the great circle in which the
is
plane of the earth's equator
is
in its
the path on the celestial sphere described
apparent eastward motion
ecliptic is a great circle inclined
among
the stars.
to the plane of the
equator at an angle of approximately 23|
The poles
of the earth
of the equator are the points where the axis

if
produced would pierce the
celestial sphere,
and are each 90 from the equator.
The poles of the ecliptic are each 90 from the ecliptic.

The equinoxes are the points where the celestial equator
and ecliptic intersect; that which the sun crosses when coming north being called the vernal equinox, and that which
when going south the autumnal

The declination of a heavenly body
crosses
it
equinox.
is
its
distance, meas-
ured in degrees, north or south of the celestial equator.
The
right ascension of a heavenly body
measured
in
is
the distance,
degrees eastward on the celestial equator, from
the vernal equinox to the great circle passing through the

poles of the equator and this body.
The
celestial
latitude
of
heavenly body
is
the
dis-
tance from the ecliptic measured in degrees on the great

circle
passing through
the
pole
of
the
ecliptic
and the
body.
The
tance,
celestial longitude of a heavenly
measured
in
body
degrees eastward on the
is
the dis-
ecliptic,
from
112
the vernal equinox to the great circle passing through the

pole of the ecliptic and the body.
EXERCISES
(i.)
tion
The
is
is 25 35', and its

Assuming the angle between the
right ascension of a given star
(north) 63
26'.
equator and the ecliptic to be 23
27', find
declinacelestial
the celestial latitude and
celestial longitude.
In
this figure
AB is the
celestial equator,
the equator, P' the pole of the ecliptic.

the lines
AC
SB
AB
AC.
is
is
and
SC
SC the
P PS
the celestial latitude,
P and P perpendicular to .^ând

BS the declination of the star, while
PS
it
will be seen that P' S
is
the comple-
the complement of the declination, and
90 plus the right ascension.
is
P the pole of
ecliptic,
the position of the star, and
latitude of the star.
P PS,
ment of
is
drawn through
are
the right ascension and
the longitude and
A C the
It is to
be noted that
is
the ver-
nal equinox.
(2.)
23
The
27'.
latitude
declination of the sun on
At what time
is
41 18' north
will
December
21st
is
(south)
the sun rise as seen from a place whose
the distance from the zenith to the centre of the sun

The
ZS
when the sun's upper rim is on the horizon is 90^ 50'. The 50' is made up
arc
which
is
of the sun's semi-diameter of
16',
plus the correction for refraction of 34'.
APPLICA riONS
(3.)
23
27'.
The declination of the sun on December 21st

At what time would the sun set as seen from a
tude 50
35'
north
In these figures
tial
"3
lination,
(south)
lati-
AS\^
equator.
is
place in
is
the pole of the equator,
the declination of the sun,
7*^= 90 latitude.
The problem
angle of 15 at the pole corresponds to
is
Z the
zenith,
ZSQf:P
EQ
the celes-
/"^^go^ + decangle SPZ.

An
50',
to find the
hour of time.
GEOGRAPHICAL PROBLEMS
102 The meridian
of a place
is
the great circle passing
through the place and the poles of the earth.
The
latitude of a place
is
the arc of the meridian of the
place extending from the equator to the place.

Latitude
measured north and south of the equator from 0 to goP.
is
The longitude
of a place
is
the arc of the equator extend
ing from the zero meridian to the meridian of the place.
The meridian
of the
Greenwich Observatory
is
usually taken
as the zero meridian.

Longitude
The
is
measured
east or west
longitude of a place
the meridian of
tlie
place.
is
from 0 to 180.
also the angle
between the zero meridian and
114
In the following problems one minute
is
taken equal to one geo-
gfraphical mile.
(I.)
places,
rs' E.,
Required the distance
and
and the
E,
in
geographical miles between two
on the earth's surface.
latitude 20
10'
N.
The longitude
The longitude
of
of
is
60
is 115 20' E.,
and the latitude 37 20 N.
In this figure AC represents the equator of the earth, P the north pole
andy^ the intersection of the meridian of Greenwich with tlie equator. Ph
and PC represent meridians drawn through D and E respectively. Then
AB is the longitude
and
BD
the latitude of Z>
AC the
longitude and
the latitude of .
(2.)
Required the distance from
longitude 74
122 28' W.,
(3.)
o'
New
York, latitude 40
W., to San Francisco, latitude 37
on the shortest
48' N.,
43' N.,
longitude
route.
Required the distance from Sandy Hook, latitude 40
longitude 74
i'
W., to Madeira, in latitude 32
28' N.,
28' N.,
longitude 16
55,
W., on the shortest route.

(4.)
Required the distance from San Francisco, latitude
N., longitude 122 28'
tude 106
(5.)
53' E.,
W., to Batavia in Java, latitude 6
37*^
9' S.,
48'
longi-
on the shortest route.
Required the distance from San Francisco, latitude 37
N., longitude 122 28' VV., to Valparaiso, latitude 33
71" 41' W., on the shortest route.
2'
S.,
48'
longitude
CHAPTER
XI
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION OF A SPHERICAL TRIANGLE
103, The
off,
given parts of a spherical triangle
may be
laid
and then the required parts may be measured, by making
use of a globe
The
fitted to
a hemispherical cup.
sides of the spherical triangle are arcs of great circles,
and may be drawn on the globe with a

rim of the cup, which
cup
of the
The
is
is
pencil, using the
The rim
a great circle, as a ruler.
graduated from o to i8o
in
both directions.
may be measured on
angle of a spherical triangle
great circle drawn on the sphere at a distance of 90 from
the vertex of the angle.*
Case
to
I.
Given the sides
a, b,
and
of a spherical triangle,
determine the ajigles A, B, and C.

Place the globe in the cup, and draw upon
to the
number
cup as a
With
of degrees in the side
Mark
ruler.
and
and
Then, placing the globe

shall rest
in the
at
and B.
line
AC=b,
radii,
(Fig.
cup so that the points
on the rim, draw the
To measure
and a respectively as
draw with the dividers two arcs intersecting
a line equal
the extremities of this line
as centres,
same way draw
it
using the rim of the
c,
and
i).
and
in the
BC= a.
the angle
place the arc
* Slated globes, three inches in diameter,
made
AB
in
coincidence
of papier-mache, and held in
metal hemispherical cups, are manufactured for the use of students of spherical
trigiinometry at a small cost.
ii6
with the rim of the cup, and
make
AF
AC
in
make
globe in the cup so that
and
note the measure of the arc EF.

In the same
angle A.
Ah
equal to 90.
Then
produced equal to 90.
way
F shall
This
the angles
is
be
in
Also
place the
the rim, and
the measure of the
and
can be de-
termined.
Case
a, b,
and
Given the angles A, B, and
II.
find the sides
c.
Subtract A, B, and
a',
C, to
b\ and
c'
each from 180, to obtain the sides
of the polar triangle.
Construct this polar
tri-
method employed in Case I. Mark

and C. With each of these vertices as
angle according to the

its
vertices
A\
B',
a centre, and a radius equal to 90, describe arcs with the

viders.
The
vertices
A, B, and
points of intersection of these arcs will be the
this triangle a,
of the cup.
di-
b,
of the given triangle.
The
sides of
and c can then be measured on the rim
Case
A,
Lay
point
B, C,
and make
to the
AB
3) the line
mark another
Turn the globe
the included angle
AB produced,
in
dividers
With
and c, and
sides, b
and a.
off (Fig.
117
Given two
III.
to find
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION'
in the
equal to
an J. mark the
c,
AD equals
so that
With the
90.
point, F, at a distance of 90
cup
till
and
from A.
are both in the rim,
DE equal to the number of degrees in the angle A.

E in the rim of the cup, draw the line AC equal
and
number
of degrees in the side
b.
Join
C and
B.
The
required parts of the triangle can then be measured.
.Jk^m.
Ip
w
^m
P: .ym^
..
Gr-'"^
p
1
:-.:-/ .:-.-\-
FIG. 4
FIG. 3
c,
Case IV. Given t/ic angles A and B atul the included side
to find a, b, and C.
Lay off the line AB equal to c. Then construct the given
angles at
and B, as
in
Case
III.,
and extend their sides to
intersect at C.
Case V. Given
of these sides,
to
the sides
find
c,
B,
b, a,
and
arid the angle
C.
(Ambiguous
opposite one
case.)
ii8
Lay
off (Fig. 4)
6^
AC
Take
as in Case III.
equal to
c in
b,
and construct the angle
as a centre describe arcs cutting the other side of the
angle in
two
the dividers as a radius, and with

tri-
and B\ and measure the remaining parts of the
triangles.
If the arc described with
triangle, there
is
no solution.
Case VI. Given
as a centre does not cut the other side of the

If tangent, there
the angles A, B,
is
one solution.
and
the side
the
given
a opposite
one of the angles.

triangle
by
then construct the original triangle as in Case
II.,
Construct the polar triangle of
Case V.
and measure the parts required.

The
constructions given above include
triangles.
all
cases of right
and quadrantal
CHAPTER
XII
ELEMENTARY RELATIONS
sin;v
tan^c :=
cot X
<'
lO)
cos X
sin^
cos:*:
secx
cos X
sin
tan^ cot;c=
i,
+ cos^x = I,
+ tan^^ = sec^x,
+ cot^jc = csc^
sin^jc
I
j;.
RIGHT TRIANGLES (14 AND 27)

sin^
= -,
sin^
cosA
= -,
cosB
tan^
h
-,
= hypotenuse,
= -,
/T
C0tj9
a
where
= ~,
c
tan^=-,
COt^
= -,
= -,
b
a and b sides about the right angle
the acute angles opposite a
and
b.
FUNCTIONS OF TWO ANGLES ( 3O-34)

sin (x -\-y) = sin x cosy + cos x siny,
= sin^ cosj cos:f sin_y,

= cos X cosy sin x sin j,
cos {x
cos
y) cos x cosy + sin x sinjy.
sin(:x: _y)
-\-}')
(jx
and
120
tan^r
tanj)/
'^
+ y) = I tan+^ tan^
tan V
tan;r tan^
tan (xy)
+ tan;r tuny'
cot^ cot^
COt{x-\-y) =
cotj/ + cotjr
tan ix
'
'
-^
'
cot jr cot J/ 4-
cot {xy)
cot/
cotjr
FUNCTIONS OF TWICE AN ANGLE

2^=: 2
sin
( 36)
sin;tr cos;r,
= cos''jr sin'jr,
= 2
= 2cos';r
2 tan;i:
tan 2x =
cot^-r
cot 2 =
cos 2x
sin";!",
I,
tan-'jir
jr
2 cot;r
FUNCTIONS OF HALF AN ANGLE

1
sin
/i
ix=^:K/
( 37)
cos^
,
/l-}-cos;jr
cosi^=^-X_
1
tan ^x
cosx
/i
= \
,
V + cos X
cot
/ + <ôs X
*^=\/
^
V cos X
,
'
SUMS AND DIFFERENCES OF FUNCTIONS
=
sin 7/:= 2 cos^(-|-7') sin \{u
cos u
cos = 2 cos \{u-\-v) cos | {u
cos
cos 7/= 2 sin \{u-^v) sin
sin
2^ -(-
sin
t(
sin
7/
2 sin |(-j-?/)
v),
7y
i^(?^
i(
sin ?^-|-sin
( 38)
v),
v),
-\-
sin
cos ^(
7/
sin v
tan ^ (//
tan ^{u
-|- 7^)
v)'
z/).
_
i2l
r
tf
OBLIQUE TRIANGLES
a_ sinA
( 42-45)
s\nA
-~sinC'
^""sin^'
a~
X.2.n\{A
sin
~c~ ^\nC'
B)
a-^b~~x.?iX\\{A-\-BY
a c tan^(^ C)
a-\-c~\.?in\{A^Cy
c_ x.Sin\{B C)
b
\h-\-c~X.z.n\{B-irC)'
^t=.c^-\-a^~ 2ca cos B,
c^
wnere
d'^b'^ zab cos C
a)
s{s
b)
5=
2
tani^=j^.
where
s{s
tani5=j^.
tanJC=J~.
Ar=\/^3gE5fc).
AREA OF A TRIANGLE
S\ac
sin B.
S=\ba
sin C.
( 46)
S=^b sin /j.
5= -\/:r(5 )(j ^)(5
-^
f).
LOGARITHMIC, COSINE, SINE, AND EXPONENTIAL SERIES

(58)
ôg^ (I
+ ^) =^ 7
JT^
"*"
T
X'^
~ " +' etc.

X*
cosr=i-^-h-,-^-H,etc.
RECAFITULATION OF FORMULAS
122
sin
\-
3!
5!
71
+ '^ + ^ + ,etc.
^=i+;c-|--^
3!
2!
4!
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
(cos
+ V
smnx = /icos -i jc sin
sin jc)"= cos 7ix
n(n i)(n
^
-+-
( 71)
2)
^cos
^^
jr
etc.
sin nx.
n--i
"*
jc
sm^ jr +, etc
3!
cos
nx
nin
n cos x
^^
i)
^
-2
cos
sin'' :f
+
,
etc.
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS (75)

X
.r
sinh
;c
cosh ^
e^^ cos :v -f /sin

ix
sin
x=
x.
ix
,
2 /
cos
sin
zj;
.V
-^^
-^
= e + e
Sinn x,
cos IX
= cosh X.
SPHERICAL TRIANGLES
Use Napier's
( 8^, 87)
rules.
OKLlgUE TRIANGLES
( 89-93)
sin ^ sin r cos A.

COS a = cos d COS c
cos A = cos B COS C+ sin B sin 6' cos a.
sin
[sin
>
sin y sin (s a)
-\-
(i-
/^)
(i-
(-)
cos ^ cos yj
_
- \^^3 (^ _ ^) ^Q3 (^ _ ^
(.S"
tan
123
tan ^
\{A \- B) _
\{A B)~ tan i (a ^)
tan i r
cos \{A \- B) __
sin
<:
sin
cos i (^
- ^)
tan 1 (a
<^)*
C
_
b) ~ tan i (^ -B)
cos
+ _ cot|- C
~ tan \{A+B)
cos 1 (a -'
cot \
sin \ {a-\-b^
sin
\{a
1^ (<?
<^)
/^)
sin a
sin
sin b
sin
AREA OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLES

area
r A+B+C-i?,o \
lOl)
= ttK^
V
tan
180
^ Vtan|j-tani(j-)tani(j-/?')tan^(j-^).
APPENDIX
RELATIONS OF THE PLANE, SPHERICAL, AND PSEUDOSPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRIES
We have
up to the present considered the trigonometries

which deal with figures on a plane or spherical surface. A
characteristic feature of these two surfaces is that the curvature of the plane
tive constant p.
is
If the radius of the
definitely, its surface

its
zero, while that of the sphere
sphere
is
is
a posi-
increased
in-
approaches the plane as a limit while
curvature p approaches o.
In works on absolute geometry

ists
it is
shown
that there ex-
a surface which has a constant negative curvature
called a pseudo-sphere, and the trigonometry upon
it
it is
pseudo-
spherical trigonometry.
We
observe that as p passes continuously from positive

to negative values, we pass from the sphere through the
Thus the formulas
plane to the pseudo-sphere.
of plane
trigonometry are the limiting cases of those of either of the
two other trigonometries.

In the treatment of spherical trigonometry the radius of
the sphere has been taken as unity.
of the sphere
is r,
and
a, b,
and
If,
however, the radius
denote the lengths of the
sides of the spherical triangle, the formulas are changed, in
that a
is
replaced by
-,
by
-,
and
by
thus,

APPENDIX
126
^ sine
smC=-:
.
sin a
e
sin.
becomes
sin
C=
a
r
sm-
The
same
formulas for pseudo-spherical trigonometry are the
as the formulas of spherical trigonometry, except that
the hyperbolic functions of
-,
-,
and - are substituted
for
the trigonometric.
Thus, corresponding to the above formula of spherical

trigonometry,
is
the formula
sinh-
smC=
sinhr
of pseudo-spherical trigonometry.
PSBUOO-SPHBRE
The
pseudo-sphere
is
generated by revolving the curve whose equation
y=r log
about
its
axis.
The
-y/r*-,,
-i
radius of the base of the pseudo-sphere
is r.
is
APPENDIX
Hence
127
the formulas of plane trigonometry can be derived
from the formulas of either spherical or pseudo-spherical

trigonometry by expressing the functions in series and allowing r to increase without
Show that
Example.
limit.
if
increased indefinitely the following
is
corresponding formulas for the spherical and pseudo-spherical right

triangle
cos -
= cos b-cos c-,

r
cosh -
= cosh -
cosh -
(2)
r''
reduce to the corresponding formula for a plane right triangle

is,
(i)
that
to
^2
Substituting the series cos -,
= ^' + ^.
(3)
equation (i),
etc., in
we
obtain
(-^(:r--H-Mr )(-f,(-:r
or
+
2
-I-
r^
/"
;-
Substituting in equation (2) the series for cosh
cosh
.X
r-'
+
4
(4)
r<
which we obtain from
etc.,
we have
or
-i
wr---hm--){'^m^-}
Cancelling
|-.--
2I ri
i-|
in equations (4)
r to increase without limit,
-\
2l r^
r*
we
and
f----
r^
(5), multiplying
by
r^,
(5)
r*
and,
finally,
allowing
get from either equation

a-
=6^
c\
EXERCISES
Derive each of the following formulas of plane trigonometry from
the corresponding formula of spherical trigonometry,
and
also from
the corresponding formula of pseudo-spherical trigonometry.
APPENDIX
128
Right triangles ;
A = right angle,
sinC=f
(i.) Plane
Spherical,
sin
sin c
sin<z
Pseudo-spherical,
sin
C=
ainha
ObUque
Triangles.
^ \- <? 2 be cos A.
= cos b cos ^ + sin ^ sin e cos A.
Pseudo-spherical, cosh a = cosh b cosh e + sinh b sinh cos A.
(2.) Plane,
a^
IP-
cos a
Spherical,
<r
(3.)
Plane,
6"= Vj(j a)(j' <^)(j ^).

^
Spherical,
U (fl+5+C- 180:1 ^ Xniitaife=i?lmni(=^.ani(lli).

4
^"/-""r
"r
Pseudo-spherical,
tanll8o:il^l^^ = Xrihi^tanhi(:^tanh^(:i^tanhji^,
'
r
r
r
4
(I.)
4 (page
3).
III.
(6.)
(2.) 25.
(3.)
287, 647.
(4.)
Quadrant
III.
cos 810
cos
tan
is
negative,
is o.
70 is negative,
550 is negative,
560 is negative,
sec 300
is
cot 1560
is
positive.
is
negative,
tan 310
is
negative.
13 (page
cos
-30=
-30==- jV3>
-3o = -V3,
sec
-30=
x= \^2,
cot X = 2 V2,
sec X = ^ V2,
tan
.r
cot
= 3.
cos 3
2=1,
sec 2
CSC z
sec
(10.)
= cos 45 = 1 V2,
45= I,
45= CSC 45= V2.
sin^y^ ^V5, cosji'= f,
secj=-|,
cot_>;=|V5,
(i
.)
= I,
=f
=f
(9.) sin 45
tan
tano=o.
= 4,
csc;'=-f V5.
sin 30= i cos 30=
V3..
tan3o= LV3,
sec
CSC
30= I V3,
30= 2.
(12.)
sinjc=4,
(13.)
VfiV5..
cos:r
V3,
^0 = 2.
cosjc = IV2,
CSC
sin 2
2-V3,
CSC
(4.)
11),
tan
cot
coso=i,
(8.)
negative,
cos 260
2,
= I V3.
(7.)
positive,
is
sin 130
60=
CSC 60
sin 760 is positive,
cot
sec
9 (page 9).
tan 1000
;/
cotjK
i92si'25f".
Quadrant
(3.)
= |, tan = -!,
= |, sec;/ = |,
CSC J = f
sin6o = i-V3,
tan 60 = V3,
cot 60 = ^ V3,
(5.) cos;'
(i.) sin
17
(page
70=
= f.
14).
cos 20,
= sin 30,
cos 89 31' = sin 29',
cot 47 = tan 43,
cos 60
13
630= cot 27
tan
the same as those of
39'= cos 17
sin 72
(3.)
X = 30.
X = 22 30'.
(4.)
.r=i8
(5.)
^=150
(2.)
21'.
given in
600*'
(4).
~ 2250 = I
225 = I
tan 225= cot 225=
sec 225=
esc 22 5=
sin 420 = ^ -/5,
cos 420^ =
tan 420 =
y J,
cot 420 = J
sec 420 =
CSC 420 == f
sin
-v/2,
cos
-v/2,
-v/2,
25 (page 21).
(I.)
225 and 3 1 50,

60 and 240.
(2.)
60, 120, 420P, 480P.
(3.)
sin 30=
-v/2,
^,
-v/3,
cos 3oo=i'/3.
sin
sin
765= cos 765

120=^ y'3,
cos
20
cos 210= ^
(4.)
The
= J -/I,
-v/3!
The
= i,
210=
sin
2,
equal to the functions of
J,
(6.)
-v/3.
functions of 405 are
equal to the functions of
600=
600= I,
tan 600=
600=
The
-y^3,
f V3.
equal to the functions of 45.
45= ^-/2,
cos 45=i -/2.
tan 45= cot 450=
sec 45=
CSC 45= y'J.
sin
-v/2,
sin
225= cos 225=^
-/J,
(7.)
v/2.
120 are
(8.)
tan 325= cot 225=

sec
(5.)
The
I,
225= CSC 225==

functions of
= cot 37
= tan 370,
sec 233 = CSC 27,
CSC 233 = sec 37".
sin 197 = sin 17
cos 1970 = cos 17,
tan 197 = tan 17,
cot 970 = cot 70
sec 197 = sec 17,
CSC 197 = CSC 170.
sin 894 = sin 6
cos 894 = cos 6,
tan 894 = tan 6
cot 894 = cot 6,
sec 894 = sec 6,
CSC 894 = esc 6.
sin 267 = sin 870,
tan 2540= tan 74,
cos 950'' = cos 50.
cot 233
cot 600= J y/2,

sec 600= 2,
CSC
= cos 370
cos 2330 = sin 37
sin 233
tan 233
45,
^ 'v/3,
sin
cos
0.28.
30.

(9.)
2 sin* X.
(I9-) 53 33'-
I.
(II.) sin
90)= cos^,
cos {x
90) = sin X,
tan {x 90) = cot X,
cot {x 90) = tan X,
sec (x 90) = esc x,
90) = sec X.
CSC (x
(io.)sec'^:r
(;r
II 5.136
(20.)
^=
^ = C = 4959'44".
^=53
(23.)
area
23.263
(2.)
= 21.874,
^ = 390 45'
^=50
28",
17 48".
(27-)
5-3546 in.
(28.)
1084950 sq.
(29.)
17
14' 32".
= 300.95,
= 683.96,
^ = 66 15'.
^ = 26.608,
c = 45763,
(30.)
(3.)
/J
(4.)
^=35^33'.
= 495-34.
=
^
3-9973.
^ = 4.1537,
A = is 46' 33".
area = 2.257.
^ = 0.01729,
a = 298.5.
yi = 39 42' 24".
area
(5.)
(6.)
(7.)
(8.)
ft.
(12.)
186.32
(13.)
34 33' 44".
(14.)
303.99
ft.
(1 5-)
238.33
ft.
12.861.
(32.)
1782.3 sq.ft.
(33.)
38168
(35-)
2518.2
(I.)
79079
ft.
(l8.)
165.68
ft.
ft.
29 (page 28).
^ = 22 58',
^ = 7.07,
c
(2.)
<J
= 9.0046.
= 79-435.
^=45 27' 14",

C = 95 24' 46".
(3.)
î? = 7.6745,
^^' = 2.6435,
B = 46 43'
B'=
(4.)
50",
133 16' 10",
ACB = ios 53' 10",

= 19 20' 50".
A = 37 S3'.
^ = 430 53 '25'',
ACB'
miles (about).
15
(I7-)
ft.
(34.) 20.21 ft.
ft.
(16.)
ft.
= 24.882 in.,
apothem = 2o.i3 in.,
area = 1472 sq. in.
radius
444.16
ft.
885 sq.
(31.)
(9.) r = 2346.7.
(ic.) /y = 28 57' 8".
(II.)
ft.,
in.
ft.
(26.)
52' 40".
in.
in.,
= 24246 sq.
area
a =62.324,
in.,
= 72.392 sq,
<J= 130.52
28 (page 24),
A = 32
16' 36",
i>= 12.0518
(25.)
(I.)
ft.
76.355 ft.
80 32",
(22.)
(21.)
(24.)
131
'32
(5.)
902.94.
(6.)
1253.2
(7.)
357.224
ft.
ft:
^=44
(8.)
2' 9",
5 = 51
C = 840
(9.)
29' 40",
area=
126 100 sq.
407.89
ft.
(10.)
28' II",
(5.)
ft.
sin(45-f^j
D = 7i II' 6".
(II.) 5C= 5-672,
DC= 3-694-
tan 7 5 =2-1- -v/3.
tan 15
sin (30 xj =
\ (cosjr
sin
(15.) sin
2X
cos
2Jr
=
fsinx),
(16.) sin
cos (6o-f -r)

I (cos
X \/3
sin
(4.)
sin 75
22i=iy/2 -v/2,
COS 22^
= ff.
tan
= I iy/2 -H v/2,
22^=
sin
15=
cos 15=
-v/6
I,
CSC 22^
= \/4
1,
-|-
-v/2.
-v/5
X^.
'v/2
(17.)
(18.) sin T5
\/6+
= -v/2-(= a/4 2-V/2,
_4
4
v/2
sec 22^
cot 22|
1/6-1-^/2
-\/6 \/2
cos 75 =
(5.)
'
= ^,
= ^5.
-r).
sin(j' j)=^.
,
3+V5
jr),
-v/3 sin
\ (\/3 cos.v
sin(;r+>')
sini/
cosij
jr),
\ ("v/s cos.r-}-sin;r),
(3.)
(14.)
^')
yj z (cos.r
sin (6o-f--r)
= 2 -v/3.
\-\/2 (cos.r-|- sin ^),
cos (45+
sin x),
34 (page 34).
.t_)
-|-
I 'V/2 (cos X -\- sin jr),

cos (45+-^)
sin x).
h \/2 (cos -tr
(6.)
sin (450-1-
X sin JT),
\ yfi (cos ;r
Z>'=i2i 21' 16",
-v/S (cos
cos(45 ^) =
C=926'38".
(2.)
39 (page 37).
sin(45-.r)
-/a"
cos
= s\/^~-/3.
= J >y2
-I-
-v/3,
= 2 -/i,
5 = 2 + Vs.
i5=:2W2
tan i5
cot
sec
(3.)
= 2y^2 + v/35Jr =
sin
5 sin
X 20
sin^
(4.)
^ = 105
a=i
r=: 47.738.
(5.)
^ = 68 58',
-|-i6 sin*x.
cos
;tr
20 cos' X
(6.)
The
(23.)
values of
0 30,
50^
;r
i?=54"58'.
923.4,
c=
< 360 are
-\/2
= 450,
(I.) (I.)
Two
solutions.
(2.)
One
solution, a right tn
(3-)
One
solution.
(4-)
Two
solutions.
135
angle.
45+ 360, etc.

cos
=60
300, etc.,
tan '
(1)= 135, 31 5 etc.

=0 360, etc.,
cos
sin ( J) = 2 10, 330, etc
(2.) i?
tan.r
(3.)
cos;r
(6.)
=
= |,
3.
(8.) 45.
(9.) ;r
(10.)
225.
= 45./=l8oo.
C ==
= 93.59,
^=12.07,
B = 26 52' 7", 5'= 1330 7' 53/
C = i3i46'53".C"=50 3i'7.'
(4.)<r
(5.)
(6.)
sin~'a = 225.
No
solution.
= 0916, ^'=0.36276,
A= 39037'i6",^'=i4o2 2'44",
B = 7 50' 44",/?'= 7 6".
b
1.
<r
(2.)
48 (page 46).
C=i2i33',
^
15' l",
142 13' 59".
(I.)
5 50' 39"'
: 0.32122.
c^ = 2.5719,
B- = 13
dz|.
sin(tan-'i-/3)=isin (cos -I I) = 1.
cot(tan-'xV)=i7-
16 57' 21",
C
(3-)
tanx =
=1
C-
(2.)
187.7.
49 (page 47).
41 (page 40).
sin- ^
80, 2 1 0, 330,
(36.) tan^" tan/.
(5.)
= 5274.9,
-j-i6 cos';r.
(4.)
59',
54.018,
cos $xr=
(21.)
(I.)
= i548.i,
^=1293.7.
-y/s.
CSC i5
(20.)
= 653.52.
C=4534'.
= 2133.5,
= 2477.8.
C=554i'.
^=534.05.
(I.)
50 (page 48).
a =0.097 1,
^ = 90 35' 36",
(7 = 48'" 9' 24".
5' = o.oo5326i.
5'
ANSli'f^^S TO
134
(2.)
(3.)
f 14.21 1,
A = 76 20'
5=48^44'
6'=
5=0.60709.
21' 42",
C=6248'
(1.)
(2.)
3081.8 yards.
(3.)
638.34
18",
3962.8.
f
-(4
19' 39".
= 72.87,
= 40 50' 32",
.fi=ii
(5.)
13.27 miles.
(6.)
6667
(7.)
121.97.
(8.)
44
(9.)
32.151 sq. miles.
A=
B=
C=
S=
i2.)A
51 (page
49).
(13.)
106 35' 36".

3'
267 .92.
34 24' 26",
52 20' 24".
B = 107 IS 14",
C= 20 20' 24".
56".
= 12296
294.77
ft.,
ft.
ft.
(16.)
42 1
(17.)
72.613 miles.
1.8
ft.
(18.)
51.035
(19.)
0.85872 miles.
(20.)
2.98 miles.
(21.)
1331.2 ft
ft.
(22.) 8.2 miles.

(23.)
187.39
ft.
'
S=
(4.)
(5.)
(6.)
(24.) 0.601
A = 97 48'
B = 18 21' 48".
1.
"^25.) 4.81 12 miles.
1437- 5(26.)
60 51' 8".
(27.)
37.365
(28.)
3.2103 miles.
C = 63
S=
A=
solution.
(14.) 222.1 ft.
42".
= 73 14' 56".
C=:72 20' 36",
S= 3.61 43.
i3-)A
2'
<r= 13055
55 20' 42".
18"
One
ft.
(II.) 54 29' 12".

(12.)
(I.)
ft.
8.1.
28",
2'
5 = 422.65.
ft..
and
(4.) 4.1
5=0.08141.
(5.)
ft.
14653 sq.
9' 21",
C= 131''
52 (page 50),
16.6
1 1
a =0.6767,
5= 15
32",
C=95i5'56",
5",
5 = 44 52' 55".
5 = 80.962.
^ = 85.892.
A =67
(4.)
EXERCISES
50' 12",
ft.
193 13-
(29.)
10.532 miles.
54 20' 16",
(30.)
851.22 yards.
B^ 70^
27' 46".
(3'.)
9-5722 miles.
C=
54^^
72'
(32.)
6.1271 miles.
S~
6090.
(33.)
280.47
A--^ 35' 59' 30",
(34.)
126
ft.
M.
ANSIVERS TO EXERCISES
(35-)
4-8i34 miles.
(36.)
2728.25
(4.)
.*-,
1 1
= 0.5236,
= 0.7854.
60 = .0472,
20 = 2.0944,
30
(I.)
450
(23-
= o.309o-4-zo.95ii,
= 0.8090 + 0. 5878,
x^ = 0.8090 / 0.5878,
x^ = o. 3090 / 0.95
JTj
ft.
53 (page 56).
x^=i,
I3S
(24.
(25.
135= 2.3562,
720= 12.5664,
990= 17.2788.
(26,
(27.
(page
77
78).
X = 30.
= 30.
= 0 or 45.
= 6o.
J = 45.
_y
jf
jr
(28.
(2.)
= 22 30',
I
(29.
^=18
10
i = 28 38' 53",
= 100 16' 4".
I
(3.)
X = 30.
(31-
;i:
(32-
X = 30.
(33(34.
1-35. 0.54.
(35-
(I.)
(36.
74 (page 73).
sin 4.r
(37-
= 4 cos'-r sin.r
4 cos.r sin^x,
cos
4-r
= cos* X
6 cos^'x
(2.)
sin
6.ar
= 6 cos*
jr-|-sin*-r.
jr
sin
;i-
= cos* X
15 cos*.r sin'';r
+ 15 cos^x sin* X sin* x.
(3.)
x^=i,
x^
(39-
= 6o
No angle < 90.

X = 30.
= cos 2
= sin 37
tan 320 = tan 40,
cot 350 = cot 10.
sin 265" = cos 5
sin 92
cos 127
tan
171= tan
|.
a/1
= l-\-z^,
tan x=:^\/sS'
cotx =
^2
= -* + ^'^.
-^3
= -I.
cscx =
(43.)
=\
..V~3
z
/5
V55,
secx= |,
^=_i_/V^
x^
9.
= 1^33,
(41tan.r = -/gV'33,
cot-ir = 1-/33,
sec-r = /3V'33,
esc X =
(42.) sinx = i-v/55.
cos.r
20 cos^.r sin*jr
+ 6 cos-T sin*jr,
cos 6x
(38.
(40.
sin''^
^ = 45.
(30-
sinx =
COSX=:
cotr =
|,
5**-;
f*^
5*3
-y/sS-V/T3,
-v/13,
sec,r
= 5^/13,
ANSIVENS TO EXERCISES
136
(21.) 71' 33' 54"(22.) 858,160 miles.
(44.) sin;ir=-VvV74,
cos
_
secx=fV74,
;ir=
7^^/74,
f,
J-\/74.
tanjr=
cscjr=
(45.)
Quadrant
II
(46.)
Quadrant
or IV.
or
II.
(47.)
Quadrant
III or
(48.)
Quadrant
or
IV.
(23.) 238,850 miles.
(24.) 2163.4 miles.

(25.) 90,824,000 miles.
(26.) 432.08
ft.
(27.) 60.191
ft.
(28.) 0.32149 mile.

(29.)
193.77
xo, 120^, 180'^, 240,

x=3o,
135, 150% 315.
(50.)
(51.) x=oP, 90, 120, 180, 240,
(I-) 3.416
(3)
270.
ft.
(2.) 3.7865
20.45
ft.
ft-
(57-) o.
(4-) 36.024
(58.) a.
(5-) 8.6058 sq.
(59) 2{a-b).
(6.)
(I.)
78 (page 80).
306.32
831.06
(3.)
53^ 28' 14".
209.53
(9.)
(10.)
37^^
5.1311
(9-)
25.92
ft.
in.
ft.
24".
(10.)
92*^ I'
(II.)
I. 2491.
(12.) 33 12' 4".
(130 1 1 248 ft.

(14) 0.60965 mile.
ft.
(7.) 7.3188
(8.)
(8.)
ft.
(5.) 0.43498 mile.
(6.)
ft.
ft.
(2.)
(4.) 49.39
ft.
181.23 ^^
(7-) 2.9943
K^'-^')
ft.
79 (page 83).
(49.)
(60.)
or 1632.9
ft.,
II.
(I5-)
.3764.
ft.
(16.)
(I7-)
19.882.
9755-
ft.
36' 30".
109.28
(18.) 0.9397.
ft.
502.46
(19) 6.4984.
ft.
(20.) 3.4641.
(II.) 6799.8
ft.
(12.) 219.05
ft.
(13.) 491.76
ft.
(21.) 6.1981.
(22.) 69.978.
(14.) 50
(23)
32' 44".
(15.) 49' 44' 38"(16.)
34063
(17.) 32.326
(18.)
80 (page 84).
(78.) ^=90*^,
ft.
ft..
15.25.
29
6'
35".
5.6569 miles an hour.
(79) xo\
120"^,
20,
9o'^
loo"^,
135',
140,
180%
220",
260',
2JO'\
315",
(19.) 56.295
tt.
225',
103. 09
ft.
340
(20.)
240, 270.
45%
(80.)
x=o,
30 90
ScP,
1800
270.
(81O
x = o,
45 120
'.
:4o 225
270.
,;82.)
(83.)
(84.)
(85.)
(86.)
(87.)
(88.)
(89.)
= o,90 180, 270.

x = o, 90, 210, 330.
X = 240, 300.
x = 2io, 330".
X = 0, 90.
x = o, 180
;r
x = oo.
x = o,
1800.
90 120,
80 240",
270.
(24.)
55.74
(25.)
247.52
ft.
(26.)
556.34
ft.
ft.
t37
ft.
(27.)
455.12
(28.)
18.825
(29.)
2639.4
ft.
(30O 396.54
ft.
ft.
(31.)
287.75
ft.
(32.)
2280.6
ft.
(33.)
64.62
(34.)
127.98
ft.
(350 45-183
ft.
(36.)
4365-2
ft.
ft.
(90O
.r
= 450,
1350, 2250 315-
(37.)
140.17
ft.
(91,)
x = 30,
150 210 330.
(38.)
610.45
ft.
(39.)
156.66 ft./
(40.)
41 48' 39" and 125 25'
81 (page 88)
(I.) 2145.1
ft.
(41.) 51,288,000.
(2.)
12.458 miles.
(3.)
1.
(4.)
1508.4
1033 miles.
ft.
(42O 364183586.
(430
(44.)
947460.
(50 1719-3 yards.

(60 1.2564 miles.
(45.) 0.89782.
(70 1346.3
(470 751-62 sq. ft
(8.) 387.1
ft.
yards.
(46.) 9929.3.
(48.) 3145.9.
(9O 5.1083 miles.
(49.) 855.1.
(loO 3791-8
ft.
(50.) 876.34.
(iiO 44152
ft.
(12.)
28 57' 20".
(I.)
(13.)
115.27.
(14.)
44.358
ft.
(15.)
92.258
ft.
101 32' 16".
(17.)
0.83732 mile.
(19O 1.239.
(21.)
67.110
and
ft.
137.78 ft
238.3.
41' 28",
C=6545'58".
C=7,36'47".
^
(3.)
(22.) 32.071 ft.

(23.)
(20
ft.
(20.) 152.31
88 (page 98).
54 59' 47".
^ = 45
(16.)
(18O 539-1
c=
= 95
22',
= 71=
32' 14",
C=64
14' 30",
C'=ii545'3o".
= 48=
22' 55",
'=i3i'
c=42'
37' 5".
19'
17".
5/
138
^ =
(4-)
49' 54".
= 63
= 38
59' 12".
= 75
(5.)
137 '*4o'43".
C = 65'
B = 58
C = 67
a = 76
b = 65
c = 55
(7.)^ = 54
(6.)
b.
c
(8.)
= 64
= 47
B = 96
= 73
C:= 70
10 6".
^ = 130 35' 56".

^ = 30 25' 34".
C = 3i26'32".
(6.) a = 982i'22",
(5.)
^=109
13' I".
27' I".
-ff
(7.)
30' 37".
28' 58,"
47' 44".
t:
a = 80''
(8.)
36' 39".
8",
<r
^=70
39' 4".
13' 23".
5 = 48
36' 2",
17' 29".
C=ii9
57' 45".
8'
38".
(9.)
(10.)
15' 2".
= 40 0' 12".
Bz=42 15' II",

C=i2i36' 19".
a:= 11 35' 49".

C:= 4 35' 26".
61 4' 55".
(10.) a-.=
100 (page log).
b:= 40 30' 22",
(I.)
80.895 sq.
in.
a= 50 30' 32".
(2.)
26.869 sq.
in.
(3,)
158.41 sq. in.
(4.)
39533 sq. miles.
99 (page 107).
=155
B=io
(7=
(2.)
5'
= 70 10' 36",
= i455'2".
44' 23".
(9.)^:=66 58'
(I.)
50' 8",
= 115 13' 4".

= 32* 26' 9",
a = 84i4'32".
= 5i6'i2".
f
25' 46".
35' 22",
(I.)
171" 48' 22".
= 131
36' 36".
^=116
36' 58",
19' 34",
= 2g II' 42",
= 107" 7' 45".
101 (page 112).
5C = 48
AC= 52
43",
53' 9".
24 A.M.
(2.)
(3.)
4 P.M.
2'
(3.)
(4.)
102 (page 114).
5 = 48
C = 62
57' 29".
(I.)
31' 40".
(2.)
2229.8 miles.
^ = 62
54' 43".
(3.)
2748.5 miles.
(4.)
7516.3 miles.
ar= 114
t
30' 26",
= 5639'
10".
(5.)
THE END
30291^ miles.
5109 miles.
ADVERTISEMENTS
ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY
ANDREW
By
W. PHILLIPS,
FISHER, Ph.D.,
Plane and Solid Geometry,

Plane Geometry
Geometry of Space
geometry
it
Among
Elements of Geometry.
Abridged edition
Logarithms of Numbers
ALTHOUGH
for
IRVING
Ph.D., and
Professors in Yale University
this
book meets
entrance to
all
all
the requirements in
the colleges in the country,
aims to present more than a mere
minimum
course.
Rigor of treatment,
clearness of presentation both in the form of statement and in
the diagrams, natural and symetrical methods of proof, and
richness and variety of original problems.
^ The
its
chief characteristics
are
geometric, or space axioms, viz.;
the straight
line
axiom, the parallel axiom, and the superposition axiom are

separated from those that relate to magnitudes in general, and
are emphasized as the foundation on which the whole
geometric superstructure is built.
^[
The
definitions are distributed through
the book as they
many
pages
advance of the propositions to which they apply.

alphabetical index is added for easy reference.
An
are needed, instead of being grouped in long
lists
in
^ The constructions in
the Plane
uted, so that the student
the
same time
that he
is
is
taught
Geometry are also distribhow to make a figure at
required to use
it
in
demonstration.
In the Geometry of Space the figures consist of half-tone
engravings from the photographs of actual models constructed

for use in the class
rooms of Yale University.
By
the side of
these models are skeleton diagrams for the student to copy.
Attention
is
also called to the
theorems of proportion, the
theory of limits, the use of corollaries as exercises to supply

the
need of inventional geometry, and the introduction
to
modern geometry.

(69)
TEXT-BOOKS ON ALGEBRA
WILLIAM
By
New
York
MILNE,
J.
State
Ph.D., LL.D., President

Normal College, Albany, N. Y.
ACADEMIC ALGEBRA
MORE
High
extended and more comprehensive than Milne's

School Algebra, this work not merely states the
principles and laws of algebra, but establishes them
The student first makes proper inferby rigorous proofs.
ences, then expresses the inferences briefly and accurately,
and finally proves their truth by deductive reasoning.
The
definitions
are very
complete,
well
graded,
and
special
The examples
devices have been added.
and the explanations which
processes, giving a
more
steps, constitute
valuable
intelligent
applications and
are
numerous and
accompany the
insight into the
feature.
The book
requirements in algebra for admission to
all
various
meets the
of the colleges.
ADVANCED ALGEBRA.
book
THIS
entrance requirements
and scientific school

advanced algebra.
While
the earlier pages are identical with
the author's
Academic Algebra, more than i6o pages of new matter
Among the new subjects considered
have been added.
are
incommensurable numbers, mathematical induction,
probability, simple continued fractions, the theory of numbers, determinants, convergency of series, exponential and
logarithmic series, summation of series, and the theory of
equations, including graphical representation of functions of
one variable, and approximation to incommensurable roots.
Over 5,000 unsolved exercises and problems are included in
the book.
The treatment is full, rigorous, and scientific.
covers fully
all
college
in
AMERICAN BOOK COM ANY

1^
(61)
AN ELEMENTARY TEXTBOOK OF THEORETICAL

MECHANICS
GEORGE
By
A.
MERRILL,
B.S.,
of the
Principal
and Director of
the Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts, San Francisco
California School of Mechanical
MERRILL'S MECHANICS
classes in
intended for the upper
for the two lower

knowledge of elementary
secondary schools, and
Only
classes in college.
algebra, plane geometry,

for a
is
Arts,
and plane trigonometry
is
required
thorough comprehension of the work.
By presenting only the most important principles and

methods, the book overcomes many of the difficulties now
encountered by students in collegiate courses who take up
the study of analytic mechanics, without previously having
covered it in a more elementary form.
It treats the subject
without the use of the calculus, and consequently does not
bewilder
the beginner with
much
algebraic
matter,
which
obscures the chief principles.
^
in
The book
the
most
is
manner
written from the standpoint of the student

that
easily grasped.
experience has proved to be the one

Therefore, beyond a constant endeavor
to abide by the fundamental precepts of teaching, no one

method of presentation has been used to the exclusion of
others.
The few necessary experiments are suggested and
outlined, but a more complete laboratory course can easily be
supplied by the instructor.
The explanation of each topic is followed by a few wellchosen examples to fix and apply the principles involved.
A
number of pages are devoted to the static treatment of force,
with emphasis on the idea of action and reaction.
Four-
place tables of the natural trigonometric functions are included.
AMERICAN BOOK COMl'ANY

C73)
ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY
By
ELIOT BLACKWELDER,
Associate
Professor
of
HARLAN
Geology, University of Wisconsin, and

H.
BARROWS, Associate Professor of General Geology
and Geography, University of Chicago.
AN
introductory course in geology, complete enough for
college classes, yet simple
The
enough
for high
school pu-
seldom merely descriptive, and the student gains a knowledge not only of the
salient facts in the history of the earth, but also of the methods
The style is
by which those facts have been determined.
pils.
text
Few
simple and direct.

is
is
explanatory,
technical terms are used.
The book
exceedingly teachable.
^[
and
The volume
divided into
is
historical geology.
cessors in the emphasis
ment of its
It differs
on
different topics
are
treated
and
in the arrange-
Factors of minor importance in the de-
material.
velopment of the earth, such

geysers,
two parts, physical geology

more or less from its prede-
as
much more
earthquakes, volcanoes, and

briefly
than
is
customary.
This has given space for the extended discussion of matters

of greater significance.
For the first time an adequate discussion of the leading modern conceptions concerning the origin
and early development of the earth is presented in an elementary textbook.
^1 The illustrations and maps, which are unusually numerous,
really illustrate the text and are referred to definitely in the
discussion.
They are admirably adapted to serve as the basis
for classroom discussion and quizzes, and as such constitute one
of the most important features of the book. The questions at
the end of the chapters are distinctive in that the answers are
in general not
to
ever, be reasoned
They may, how-,

text.
by the student, provided he has read
be found in the
out
the text with understanding.
MAYNE & HATCH'S HIGH

SCHOOL AGRICULTURE
MAYNE,
By D. D.
Principal of School of Agriculture and
Professor of Agricultural Pedagogics, University of
nesota; and
K. L.
HATCH,
tural Education, University
THIS
of Wisconsin.
course has a double value for pupils in the
On
years of the high school.
the
Min-
Professor of Agricul-
the one hand,
it
first
puts
the study of agriculture on a serious basis and teaches

young beginner how he can carry on the work of a farm
most
On
profitably.
introduction to
all
the other hand,
it
affords an interesting
the natural sciences, enabling the student to
master certain definite principles of chemistry, botany, and

zoology, and to understand their applications.
ments are included, which

or
may
by the teacher before the
made
ultrascientific,
process
have
forcing
A few experi-
be performed by the student
class.
the
But the subject is not

through the long
student
of laboratory method to rediscover what
scientists
fully established.
The topics
The treatment
up
in the text in their logical
order.
begins with an elementary agricultural
chem-
are taken
which are discussed the elements that are of chief

Following in turn are
importance in plant and animal life.
sections on soils and fertilizers; agricultural botany; economic
plants, including field and forage crops, fruits and vegetables ; plant diseases ; insect enemies ; animal husbandry ; and
istry, in
farm management.
^[ The chapter on plant diseases, by Dr. E. M. Freeman,
Professor of Botany and Vegetable Pathology, College of
University of Minnesota, describes the various

growths that injure crops, and suggests methods of
fighting them.
The section on farm management treats farming from the modern standpoint as a business proposition.
Agriculture,
fungus

(3M)
A BRIEF COURSE IN
GENERAL PHYSICS
GEORGE
By
A.
HOADLEY,
A.M.,
C.E.
Professor of Physics, Swarthmore College
COURSE,
containing a reasonable amount of
work
for
an academic year, and covering the entrance requirements of all of the colleges. It is made up of a reliable
text, class demonstratibns of stated laws, practical questions

and problems on the application of these laws, and laboratory
experiments to be performed by the students.
The text, which is accurate and systematically arranged,
presents the essential facts and phenomena of physics clearly
and concisely. While no division receives undue prominence,
stress is laid on the mechanical principles which underlie the
whole, the curve, electrical measurements, induced currents,
the dynamo, and commercial applications of electricity.
The illustrative experiments and laboratory work, introduced at intervals throughout the text, are unusually numerous,
and can be performed with comparatively simple apparatus.
Additional laboratory
work
is
included in the appendix, to-
gether with formulas and tables.
HOADLEY'S PRACTICAL MEASUREMENTS IN
MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY.
THIS
book, which
tricity as applied to
treats
of the fundamental measurements in elec-
the requirements of modern
life,
furnishes a satis-
factory introduction to a course in electrical engineering for secondary
and manual training schools, as well as for colleges. Nearly loo experiments
Each experiment is
are provided, accompanied by suggestive directions.
followed by a simple discussion of the principles involved, and, in some
cases, by a statement of well-known results.

(59)
ELEMENTS OF
POLITICAL ECONOMY
By
LAURENCE LAUGHLIN,
J.
fessor ot Political
Ph.D., Head ProEconomy, University of Chicago
thoroughly revised
the present edition the entire work
INand
entirely
as regards both theory and practical data
is
is
The treatment
with the times.
plain for even high school students.
in accord
^ The book
in
is
is
sufficiently
two parts: Part I, pertaining to the prineconomy and containing chapters on the
ciples
of
many
phases of production, exchange, and distribution; and
political
Part II, treating of such important topics as socialism, taxation,

the national debt, free trade and protection, bimetallism. United
States notes, banking, the national banking system, the labor
problem, and cooperation.
^ The
work
is
equally
course, and contains

are intended to
dent,
large
suitable
many
stimulate
for
short
or
long
valuable practical exercises which
thought on the part of the stu-
bibliography, footnotes, and references are
included.
Throughout the main purpose
is
to present
fair
and
impartial discussion of the important questions of the day, and

to give a large
amount of
useful, practical information, rather
than to devote extended space to abstract theory.
Among
the important features of the
discussion of the
law of
new
satiety, final utility,
edition
and
its
are
relation-
ship to expenses of production in the theory of value; an
explanation of the industrial system wherein the time element

has created a different organization from that of primitive
an adjustment of consumption to the general ecoan enlarged statement of the development

of division of labor, and a brief discussion of large production
and so-called "trusts."
society;
nomic
principles;

(189)
CHEMISTRIES
By
W. CLARKE,
F.
Chief Chemist of the United
Geological Survey, and L.
M. DENNIS,
States
Professor of
Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Cornell University
Laboratory Manual
Elementary Chemistry
THESE
two books
chemistry which
The
schools.
devoted
designed to form a course in
are
sufficient for the
TEXT-BOOK
respectively
Diagrams and
is
to
inorganic
is
needs of secondary
divided into
and
organic
figures are scattered at intervals
two
parts,
chemistry.
throughout the
and explanation of some particular experiment or principle. The appendix contains tables of metric
text in illustration
measures with English equivalents.

Theory and practice, thought and application, are logically
kept together, and each generalization
evidence upon which

to
human
affairs, its
proper place.
it
unobtainable.
is
made
to follow the
application of the science
modern life, is also given its

number of experiments are inby whom an organized laboratory
utility in
reasonable
cluded for the use of teachers

is
The
rests.
Nearly
all
of these experiments are of the
simplest character, and can be performed with
home-made
apparatus.
The
ments,
LABORATORY MANUAL
among which
are a
few of a
contains 127 experi-
quantitative character.
Full
consideration has been given to the entrance requirements of

the various colleges.
The
left
hand nages contain the experi-
ments, while the right hand pages are
left
blank, to include
the notes taken by the student in his work.
In order to aid
and stimulate the development of the pupil's powers of observation, questions have been introduced under each experiment.
The directions for making and handling the apparatus, and
for performing the experiments, are simple and clear, and are
illustrated by diagrams accurately drawn to scale.

C162:)
wK
c
Date Due
%w li 1 5
QTR
^*7!9
[r nr
Js
%^
JAM
2*^79
PRINTED
The RALPH
IN U. S. A.
O.^Ri>
UWVtniSlTY
of
^^'^^^^
CALIFORNIA
^l d
UCLA-Geology/Geophysics Library
QA
531 P54
L 006 571 367 9
^ 001321299

Elements of Trigonometry ( 200 Pages)

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THE LIBRARY

Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive

PHILLIPS'LOOMIS MATHEMATICAL SERIES

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

Harper & BROTHKRa.

All rights reserved.

the beginning, because certain parts of the subject can be

more simply by the

of the two methods, than by the ratio

called to the following features of the

Plane and Spherical Trigonometry.

The emphasis given

formulas essential to the solu-

The large number of exercises.

the trigonometric, inverse

trigonometric, and hyperbolic functions.

use of photo-engravings of models in the Spherical

recognition of the rigorous ideas of

number and the

graphical solution of spherical triangles.

acknowledgments are due

are also indebted to Dr. George T. Sellew for

the collection of miscellaneous exercises.

THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions

Signs of the Trigonometric Functions

Relations of the Functions

Acute Angle of a Right Triangle

of 0, 90, 180, 270, 360

(i8ox), (180+^), (360 .r)

THE RIGHT TRIANGLE

Solution of Oblique Triangles by the Aid of Right Triangles

THE OBLIQUE TRIANGLE

Formulas for the Area of a Triangle

Periodicity of the Trigonometric Functions

and Regular Polygons

RIGHT AND QUADRANTAL TRIANGLES

Derivation of Formulas for Right Triangles

Formulas for Logarithmic Computation

THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

position of the other side to reach

and one-half revolutions, the angle

one-half a revolution, the angle

one revolution, the angle

the hand of a clock makes one-fourth of a rev-

olution, the angle through which

side of the angle has revolved

one right angle

four right angles;

six right angles, etc.

The amount the side OB has rotated from OA to reach

sides and yet be different.

of complete revolutions to an angle does not change

Through how many right angles does the

of a clock revolve in 6\ hours.' the minute-hand

the fly-wheel of an engine

makes 100 revolutions per

right angles does

side of the angle

which the revolution

the side from

initial line; the

the terminal line.