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(Fundamental
Theorems of Calculus)

a<x<b
f(x) g(x)
P1:

g ( x ) = f (t ) dt g ( x ) = f ( x )

(1)

P2:

F ( x ) = f ( x ) f (t ) dt = F (b ) F (a )

(2)

f(t)
g(x) = f (t) dt
x

f(x)
a

x x+x

x + x

f (t ) dt

1
(1) P1 g(x)
x
1
[g (x + x ) g (x )]
x
x
1 x + x
= lim
f
(
t
)
dt

a f (t )dt
x 0 x
a
1 x + x
= lim
f (t )dt
x 0 x x

g (x ) = lim

x 0

(3)

1 f(t) f(t) x

x + x

f (t )dt

x0 f(x+x)f(x) f(x)
x

x + x

f (t )dt f(x)x(3)

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1 x + x
1
f (t )dt = lim
f (x )x = f (x )

x 0 x x
x 0 x

g ( x ) = lim

(4)

(1) P1
(2) P2 a<x<b f(x)

F ( x ) = f ( x ) (1)
G ( x ) = f (t ) dt
x

(5)

G ( x ) = f ( x )

H ( x ) = G ( x ) F ( x ) + F (a )

(6)

x=a

H (a ) = G (a ) F (a ) + F (a ) = f (t ) dt = 0
a

(7)

(6)

H ( x ) = G ( x ) F ( x ) = f ( x ) f ( x ) = 0

(8)

(7)(8) H(x)=0(6)

G ( x ) = f (t ) dt = F ( x ) F (a )
x

(9)

x=b

f (t ) dt = F (b ) F (a )
b

(10)

Value Theorem)
(Mean

a<x<b f(x)
x=
f (b ) f (a )
= f ( )
b a

(11)

a<<b 2(a)

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f(x)

f(x)

f ( ) =

f (b ) f (a )
b a

f()=0

b
(a)

x
b

(b)

f(a)= f(b)=0 (11) f()=0

f(x) x=a x=b 0 x= f()=0

f (a ) = f (b ) = 0

f ( ) = 0

(12)

2(b)(Rolles theorem)
(generalized mean value theorem)
a<x<b f(x) g(x) g(a)g(b)
x=
f (b ) f (a ) f ( )
=
g (b ) g (a ) g ( )

(13)

a<<b
(13)(x) f(x)
g(x)

( x ) = ( f (b ) f (a ))( g ( x ) g (a )) ( g (b ) g (a ))( f ( x ) f (a ))

(14)

( x ) = ( f (b ) f (a )) g ( x ) ( g (b ) g (a )) f ( x )

(15)

(14) (a ) = (b ) = 0 (12) x=

( ) = ( f (b ) f (a )) g ( ) ( g (b ) g (a )) f ( ) = 0

(16)

f (b ) f (a ) f ( )
=
g (b ) g (a ) g ( )

(17)

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(lHospitals
rule)

f(x)
g(x) x=0 f(0)=g(0)=0
f (x ) f (0 ) f ( x ) f ( )
=
=
g (x ) g (0 ) g ( x ) g ( )

0< < x

(18)

f (0 ) f ( x ) f ( x ) f ( )
=
=
g (0 ) g ( x ) g ( x ) g ( )

x< <0

(19)

x0
f (0 ) = g (0 ) = 0

lim
x 0

f ( x ) f ( x )
=
g ( x ) g ( x )

(20)

(Taylors
Formula)

a<x<b f(x) n+1

f(x)f(x)f(x)f(n)(x)f(n+)(x)
f ( x0 )
( x x 0 )2
2!
(n )
( n +1)
f (x0 )
(x x0 )n + f ( ) (x x0 )n +1
+ LL +
(n+ 1)!
n!

f ( x ) = f ( x0 ) + f ( x 0 )( x x0 ) +

(21)

a<x0<b x0 x
f(x) a<x<b n+1
f (k ) ( x0 ), k = 0 ,1,2 ,L , n a<x0<b f (k ) ( x0 )
P( x ) = f ( x0 ) + f ( x0 )( x x0 ) +

f ( x0 )
f (n ) ( x0 )
( x x 0 )2 + L +
( x x 0 )n
2!
n!

(Taylors polynomial)

(22)

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f (k ) (x0 )
P (k ) (x0 ) =
0

k = 0,1,2,L , n
k = n+ 1

(23)

R(x ) = f (x ) P(x )

(24)

S (x ) = (x x0 )

(25)

n +1

R(x)(remainder) f(x) P(x)

R (k ) ( x0 ) = S (k ) (x 0 ) = 0,

k = 0 ,1,2 ,L , n

R (n +1) ( x ) = f (n +1) ( x ),

a< x<b

(26)
(27)

(generalized mean value theorem)

R( x ) R( x0 ) R ( 1 )
=
S ( x ) S ( x0 ) S ( 1 )

(28)

1 x x0 (26) R ( x0 ) = S ( x0 ) = 0
R ( 1 )
R( x ) R ( 1 )
=
=
S ( x ) S ( 1 ) (n + 1)( 1 x0 )n

(29)

(26) R ( x0 ) = S ( x0 ) = 0
R ( 2 )
R( x ) R ( 1 ) R ( x0 ) R ( 2 )
=
=
=
S ( x ) S ( 1 ) S ( x 0 ) S ( 2 ) (n + 1) n( 2 x0 )n 1

(30)

2 1 x0
R (n ) ( n )
R( x ) R (n ) ( n )
R (n +1) ( )
=
=
=
S ( x ) S (n ) ( n ) (n + 1) n(n 1)L 3 2 ( n x 0 )
(n+ 1)!

(31)

n n-1 x0 n x0 (25)(27)

( )(x x0 )n +1
R(x ) =
(n + 1)!
(22),(24),(32) f ( x ) = P( x ) + R( x )
f

(n +1)

f ( x0 )
( x x 0 )2
2!
(n )
f (x0 )
f (n +1) ( )
n
(
)
(x x0 )n +1
+ LL +
x x0 +
(n+ 1)!
n!

(32)

f ( x ) = f ( x0 ) + f ( x 0 )( x x0 ) +

x x0

(33)

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P(x) f(x) f(x)P(x)

R(x)
M x x0
f (n +1) ( )
(x x0 )n +1
R(x ) =
(n+ 1)!
(n+ 1)!

n +1

(34)

f (n +1) (t ) M M t x x0 |R(x)| x x0

n +1

x x0 < 1 x x0 |R(x)| P(x)

f(x)
x x x0=0

f (0) 2
f (n ) (0) n f (n +1) ( ) n +1
f ( x ) = f (0) + f (0) x +
x + LL +
x +
x
2!
n!
(n+ 1)!

(35)

x 0 (Maclaurins formula)
f(x) x=x0 (analytic) f (n ) ( x0 ) , n=0,1,2,

f (x ) =
n =0

f (n ) (x0 )
( x x 0 )n
n!

f ( x0 )
( x x 0 )2 + L
= f ( x 0 ) + f ( x0 )( x x0 ) +
2!

(36)

(Taylor series) x0=0

f (x ) =
n =0

f (n ) (0) n
f (0) 2 f (0) 3
x = f (0) + f (0) x +
x +
x +L
n!
2!
3!

(37)

(Maclaurin series)
1
f ( x ) =

1
x=0.5 x=2
1 x

f(x) x=0.5 x=2 f(x)

f (x ) =

1
1
= (1 x )
1 x
6

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f (x ) = (1 x )

f (x ) = 2(1 x )

n f (n ) (x ) = (n! )(1 x )

( n +1 )

(n )

(x ) = (1 x )(n+1) =

x=0.5

(n )

(1 x )n+1

(0.5) = 2 n +1

n!

f ( x ) = 2 n +1 ( x 0.5)

n =0

2( x 0.5) < 1 0 < x < 1 x=2

f

(n )

(2) = ( 1)n +1

n!

f ( x ) = ( 1)
n =0

n +1

( x 2 )n

x 2 < 1 1 < x < 3

(Exponential
Function)

t m(t)

m(t ) = 2

t t0
T

m(t 0 )

(38)

m(t0) t=t0 T t=t0+T

m(t 0 + T ) =

1
m(t 0 )
2

(39)

t=t0 (38) 2

t t0
T

x y(x) a x
7

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y ( x ) = k a x

(40)

a>0 k >0 a x x
<0 a x x =0 a x =a x
3 k>0 y(t)

<0

y ( x ) = k a x
(k>0)

>0

=0

3
(40)
b ba b>0
a x = b x

(41)

b x log b a = x

= log b a

(42)

y (x ) = k a x = k b x = k b ( log b a )x

(43)

(natural exponential function)

e = lim 1 +
n

n
2
3

x
n x
n x
n x

= lim 1 + C1 + C 2 + C 3 + L

n
n
n
n
n

2
3

n x n(n 1) x
n(n 1)(n 2 ) x

= lim 1 + +
+
+ L

n
2! n
3!
n
1! n

x x2 x3
xn
= 1+ +
+
+L =
1! 2! 3!
n = 0 n!

e x=1 e
8

(44)

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e = 1+

1 1 1
1
+ + + L = = 2.718L
1! 2! 3!
n = 0 n!

(45)

x=1 e
e 1 = 1 +

( 1) +
1!

( 1) = 0.3679
1 ( 1)
+
+L =
2!
3!
n!
n =0
n

(46)

ex ex
ex

de x
x2 x3
xn
= 0 + 1 + x+ + + L = = ex
dx
2 ! 3!
n = 0 n!

(47)

ex
exey=ex+y

k
xn ym
xn ym
x p y k p
e e =
=
=
n = 0 n! m = 0 m!
n = 0 m = 0 n! m!
k = 0 p = 0 p! (k p )!

=
k =0 p=0

k!
x p y kp
1 k
= C pk x p y k p
p! (k p )! k !
k =0 k ! p=0

(48)

1
(x + y )k = e x + y
k =0 k !

ex (48)

x
y
x
y

e e = lim 1 + lim 1 + = lim 1 + 1 +

n
n
n n
n n n
x

x
y
x + y xy

= lim 1 + 1 + = lim 1 +
+ 2
n
n
n
n

n n
n

x+ y

x+ y
= lim 1 +
=e
n
n

(49)

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a (47)
x

(43)
d x d (ln a )x
a =
e
= (lna ) e (ln a )x = (ln a ) a x
dx
dx

(50)

ln a = log e a (47)

10