Culture

Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate")
generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give
such activities significance and importance. Cultures can be "understood as systems of
symbols and meanings that even their creators contest, that lack fixed boundaries, that
are constantly in flux, and that interact and compete with one another"
Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of
a population that are passed down from generation to generation. Culture has been
called "the way of life for an entire society." As such, it includes codes of manners,
dress, language, religion, rituals, norms of behavior such as law and morality, and
systems of belief as well as the art.
Cultural anthropologists most commonly use the term "culture" to refer to the
universal human capacity and activities to classify, codify and communicate their
experiences materially and symbolically. Scholars have long viewed this capacity as a
defining feature of humans (although some primatologists have identified aspects of
culture such as learned tool making and use among humankind's closest relatives in
the animal kingdom).
Culture is manifested in human artifacts and activities such as music, literature,
lifestyle, food, painting and sculpture, theater and film. Although some scholars
identify culture in terms of consumption and consumer goods (as in high culture, low
culture, folk culture, or popular culture), anthropologists understand "culture" to refer
not only to consumption goods, but to the general processes which produce such
goods and give them meaning, and to the social relationships and practices in which
such objects and processes become embedded. For them, culture thus includes art,
science, as well as moral systems.
Various definitions of culture reflect differing theories for understanding, or criteria
for evaluating, human activity. Writing from the perspective of social anthropology in
the UK, Tylor in 1874 described culture in the following way: "Culture or civilization,
taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society."

Other Definitions of Culture

Banks, J.A., Banks, & McGee, C. A. (1989). Multicultural education. Needham
Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
"Most social scientists today view culture as consisting primarily of the symbolic,
ideational, and intangible aspects of human societies. The essence of a culture is not
its artifacts, tools, or other tangible cultural elements but how the members of the
group interpret, use, and perceive them. It is the values, symbols, interpretations, and
perspectives that distinguish one people from another in modernized societies; it is not
material objects and other tangible aspects of human societies. People within a culture
usually interpret the meaning of symbols, artifacts, and behaviors in the same or in
similar ways."
Damen, L. (1987). Culture Learning: The Fifth Dimension on the Language
Classroom. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
"Culture: learned and shared human patterns or models for living; day- to-day living
patterns. these patterns and models pervade all aspects of human social interaction.
Culture is mankind's primary adaptive mechanism" (p. 367).
Hofstede, G. (1984). National cultures and corporate cultures. In L.A. Samovar
& R.E. Porter (Eds.), Communication Between Cultures. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
"Culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members
of one category of people from another." (p. 51).
Kluckhohn, C., & Kelly, W.H. (1945). The concept of culture. In R. Linton (Ed.).
The Science of Man in the World Culture. New York. (pp. 78-105).
"By culture we mean all those historically created designs for living, explicit and
implicit, rational, irrational, and nonrational, which exist at any given time as potential
guides for the behavior of men."

Other Definitions of Culture (continued)

Kroeber, A.L., & Kluckhohn, C. (1952). Culture: A critical review of concepts and
definitions. Harvard University Peabody Museum of American Archeology and
Ethnology Papers 47.
" Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and
transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups,
including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of
traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached
values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, and
on the other as conditioning elements of further action."
Lederach, J.P. (1995). Preparing for peace: Conflict transformation across
cultures. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
"Culture is the shared knowledge and schemes created by a set of people for
perceiving, interpreting, expressing, and responding to the social realities around
them" (p. 9).
Linton, R. (1945). The Cultural Background of Personality. New York.
"A culture is a configuration of learned behaviors and results of behavior whose
component elements are shared and transmitted by the members of a particular
society" (p. 32).
Parson, T. (1949). Essays in Sociological Theory. Glencoe, IL.
"Culture...consists in those patterns relative to behavior and the products of human
action which may be inherited, that is, passed on from generation to generation
independently of the biological genes" (p. 8).
Useem, J., & Useem, R. (1963). Human Organizations, 22(3).
"Culture has been defined in a number of ways, but most simply, as the learned and
shared behavior of a community of interacting human beings" (p. 169).

What is anthropology ?
Anthropology concerns itself with humans as complex social beings with a capacity
for language, thought and culture. The study of anthropology is about understanding
biological and cultural aspects of life among peoples throughout the world.
All humans are born with the same basic physical characteristics but, depending on
where they grow up, each individual is exposed to different climates, foods,
languages, religious beliefs, and so on. However, human beings are not simply shaped
by their environment, they also actively shape the worlds in which they live. A key
aim of anthropology is to understand the common constraints within which human
beings operate as well as the differences which are evident between particular
societies and cultures.
Given such concerns, the potential subject matter of anthropology is truly vast.
Researchers nowadays tend to specialise in one or another branch of the discipline.
Some, called physical or biological anthropologists, investigate such topics as how
humans or human-like creatures evolved over thousands or millions of years, as well
as our genetic and behavioural relationships with non-human primates. Others, called
social or cultural anthropologists, study such things as the very varied ways in
which different peoples organise themselves to ensure stable agricultural production
or community life. They might study different assumptions people hold about how the
world works as revealed in their religious beliefs and practices. They might study the
many material forms that people produce such as their houses, dress, crafts and art. In
this Guide we discuss both of these kinds of anthropology, although we say more
about the social and cultural side of the discipline.
The job of the anthropologist is frequently to make the apparently strange and exotic
seem comprehensible once put into the context of another culture. Conversely,
anthologists may wish to make 'natural' or 'commonsensical' behaviours seem in need
of just as much explanation as any custom carried out by people in a foreign culture.
It is concerned with all aspects of the way people live -- everyday activities as well as
'special' ones such as rituals and ceremonies. It is also concerned to be comparative,
that is, to see how behaviours and beliefs vary or have close parallels in different
cultures.

Stereotypes

A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + tpos = "solid impression") is a generalized

perception of first impressions: behaviors presumed by a group of people judging with
the eyes/criticizing ones outer appearance (or a population in general) to be associated
with another specific group. Stereotypes, therefore, can instigate prejudice and false
assumptions about entire groups of people, including the members of different ethnic
groups, social classes, religious orders, the opposite sex, etc. A stereotype can be a
conventional and oversimplified conception, opinion, or image, based on the
assumption that there are attributes that members of the "other group" have in
common. Stereotypes are forms of social consensus rather than individual judgments.
Stereotypes are sometimes formed by a previous illusory correlation, a false
association between two variables that are loosely correlated if correlated at all.
Though generally viewed as negative perceptions, stereotypes may be either positive
or negative in tone.
Sociologist Charles E. Hurst of the College of Wooster states that, One reason for
stereotypes is the lack of personal, concrete familiarity that individuals have with
persons in other racial or ethnic groups. Lack of familiarity encourages the lumping
together of unknown individuals. Different disciplines give different accounts of how
stereotypes develop: Psychologists focus on how experience with groups, patterns of
communication about the groups, and intergroup conflict. Sociologists focus on the
relations among groups and position of different groups in a social structure.
Psychoanalytically-oriented humanists have argued (e.g., Sander Gilman) that
stereotypes, by definition, the representations are not accurate, but a projection of one
to another.
Stereotypes are not accurate representations of groups, rather they arise as a means of
explaining and justifying differences between groups, or system justification. Social
status or group position determines stereotype content, not the actual personal
characteristics of group members. Groups which enjoy fewer social and economic
advantages will be stereotyped in a way which helps explain disparities, such as lower
employment rates.
Stereotypes focus upon and thereby exaggerate differences between groups.
Competition between groups minimizes similarities and magnifies differences. This
makes it seem as if groups are very different when in fact they may be more alike than
different.

English Stereotypes
What are the first three things which come into mind when you hear the words 'England' or
'the English? The most common picture depicting a typical Englishman is a man wearing a
bowler hat and reading the Times newspaper. Bowler hats are now rarely seen in England.
When people think of the English, they think of .........
'Beer, honesty, Bulldog-type, Royal Family, Cricket, the Weather'
- Dickie Bird (Famous English cricket umpire)
'Long shadows on county cricket grounds, warm beer,
invincible green suburbs, dog lovers and
old maids bicycling through the morning mist'
- John Major (Ex Prime Minister )
cream teas, 'Big Ben, Shakespeare, pubs, '
'Men wearing bowler hats, pin striped suite,
a newspaper under the arm and
carrying a long unopen umbrella.'
'Gardening, warm beer, stiff upper lip, double-decker buses, Morris dancing, fish and chips,
rolling hills and sarcasm '
'England is a land of beer, football and bad weather.'
(Contrary to popular belief, it DOES NOT rain every day in England! :)
'Patriotic people, some think we are snobs but we are just proud of our country and Queen.
We are very polite and patient although as in any country, there are the bad eggs.
But on the whole we are a very pleasant nation.'
Tom Eccles aged 13.
'Saying 'splendid' and 'terribly' (to mean 'very', eg 'terribly sorry to bother you' etc) and old
fashioned words/phrases like 'cheerio' 'spiffing' etc, ''
(We don't say these words!)
'I think that English people are quite reserved. I had to laugh when I went by tube and saw
everyone sitting and reading their newspapers.Also
' People think the English are no good at learning foreign languages and have the attitude that
if they yell loud enough in English the "foreigners" will evertually understand them...
'A lot of folks overseas think that the English are crazy about dogs and love them more than
their kids!'

Values
Values are traits or qualities that are considered worthwhile; they represent your
highest priorities and deeply held driving forces. When you are part of any
organization, you bring your deeply held values and beliefs to the organization. There
they co-mingle with those of the other members to create an organization or family
culture.
Examples of Values
ambition, competency, individuality, equality, integrity, service, responsibility,
accuracy, respect, dedication, diversity, improvement, enjoyment/fun, loyalty,
credibility, honesty, innovativeness, teamwork, excellence, accountability,
empowerment, quality, efficiency, dignity, collaboration, stewardship, empathy,
accomplishment, courage, wisdom, independence, security, challenge, influence,
learning, compassion, friendliness, discipline/order, generosity, persistency, optimism,
dependability, flexibility.
Why Identify and Establish Your Values?
Your values are made up of everything that has happened to you in your life and
include influences from: your parents and family, your religious affiliation, your
friends and peers, your education, your reading, and more. Effective people recognize
these environmental influences and identify and develop a clear, concise, and
meaningful set of values/beliefs, and priorities. Once defined, values impact every
aspect of your life.
You demonstrate and model your values in action in your personal and work
behaviors, decision making, contribution, and interpersonal interaction.
You use your values to make decisions about priorities in your daily work and home
life.
Your goals and life purpose are grounded in your values.
Choose the values that are most important to you, the values you believe in and that
define your character. Then live them visibly every day at work and at home. Living
your values is one of the most powerful tools available to you to help you be the
person you want to be, to help you accomplish your goals and dreams, and to help you
lead and influence others.

Combating Stereotypes
1. Respect each person as a unique individual.
2. Be willing to accept and respect cultural differences.
3. Remember that even within a group, there are individual differences
4. Learn more about other groups through interaction, attending cultural events,
reading, attending workshops, taking classes, etc.
5. Take time to get to know someone from a culture different from yours.
6. Ask yourself, How would I feel if someone were stereotyping me ?
7. Suspend judgment and remember, especially when getting to know someone from
a different cultural group, our first impressions are usually incorrect.
8. Try to understand the other persons or groups perspective.
9. Ask yourself, What did I grow up hearing about ? (here put the name of the
group such as Native Americans, older people, African Americans, etc.)

Effects of Stereotypes
1. They distort what we think about a whole group of people.
2. They put people down.
3. They perpetuate misunderstandings.
4. The people who are being stereotyped may begin to believe the negative images
about themselves (especially if they are young children).
5. They prevent us from accepting persons from another group.
6. They keep people from other groups on the outside.
7. Even if they are positive stereotypes such as:
all Asians are smart or good in math, they put pressure on the people being
stereotyped and do not allow for individual differences.