GT-Power Report

By Johan Fj
allman
KTH Mechanics, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
Internal Report

Presently in the vehicle industry full engine system simulations are performed
using different one-dimensional software programs in order to assess the effect
of different geometrical and part changes on the system as a whole. These
simulations are usually fast and multiple parameters can be monitored and
analysed.
In this report GT-Power simulations have been performed on a complete
engine designed by Volvo Car Corporation. The investigation was performed
in order to gain basic knowledge about the internal combustion engine and
specifically about the gas exchange system and the turbocharger. A parameter
study was performed and the responses on the turbine efficiency and break
torque were analysed.
The trends in the simulation results follow the background theory well, i.e.
increasing the turbine efficiency increases the engine efficiency and reduces the
time to torque. The effect of the valve opening times and durations on the
break torque and the turbine efficiency can be studied. There is an intricate
relationship where the optimal configuration is dependent on the engine speed
as well as the opening angles and times.
GT-Power is a very powerful tool for simulating complete engines. However
care must be taken when analysing the results. The code only uses one direction
and time, meaning that the flow will always be uniform in the cross sections.
Whereas in many parts of the real engine the flow field is three dimensional and
far from uniform in the cross-sections.

1. Introduction
During the upstart part of this PhD project a short introductory study was
performed with Gamma Technologies GT-Power. This study was performed
in order to gain basic understanding of the turbochargers turbine and its
role in the internal combustion engine. General knowledge was also gained on
GT-Powers strengths and limitations.
GT-Power is a one dimensional flow solver specifically tailored to simulate
internal combustion engine flows, accounting for cylinder motion, combustion,
49

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Johan Fj
allman

gas composition, and temperatures among others. GT-Power calculates the flow
motion in time using many different models for all parts of the engine. The
models are mainly based on experimental empiricism and curve fitting from
tabulated data.
GT-Power has been used to study a variety of different cases. In Sellnau &
Rask (2003) and Lancefield (2003) variable valves are investigated and their effect
on engine performance is evaluated. Reifarth &
Angstrom (2010) performed
GT-Power simulations of EGR systems to assess their strengths and weaknesses.
Park et al. (2010) performed simulations of a light duty diesel engine and Shi &
Feng (2010) were performing optimizations for a gasoline engine intake system.
More advanced models are used when investigating chemistry of different fuels
such as HCCI (Etheridge et al. (2009), Etheridge et al. (2009)). Even acoustics
can be modelled and mufflers can be designed and investigated in GT-Power
(Shaohua et al. (2003)),
GT-Power can be coupled to a large number of external full 3D computational fluid dynamics solvers, e.g. openFOAM, StarCCM+, and Ansys CFX.
This is done in order to extend the validity of the results, to increase the
accuracy, and also study certain components in more detail with a realistic
engine system surrounding it.
The study was performed using GT-Power to visualize how different parameters affected parameters such as turbine efficiency, and break torque. Simulations
were performed both at steady state conditions and during transients. The
transient simulations were performed in order to study the effect the parameter
variations had on the time to torque.

2. Method
GT-Power is a software developed by Gamma Technologies1 that can simulate
an entire internal combustion engine. The software is used by almost all major
car and truck companies including Volvo Car Corporation. The software can
simulate all the parts of the engine and also be coupled with external software
programs to study specific parts.
The programs main parts are the different pipes and flow splits that are
used to build up the geometry. For the more specialized parts (e.g. cylinders,
turbochargers, after-treatment devices etcetera) the program uses models and
tables to calculate the values needed (e.g. pressure, heat release, mass flow,
efficiency, etcetera).
For the transient calculations the time to torque value is being investigated
and especially how the different parameter changes affect it. The time to torque
is defined as the time it takes for the simulations to go from 45 Nm to 300 Nm
brake torque.
1 www.gtisoft.com

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51

2.1. Governing Equations

The governing equations for the GT-SUITE software are as follows; Continuity
(1), Momentum (2) and Energy (3) (Gamma Technologies (2009)).
dm
=
dt
dm

=
dt

dpA +

dxA
(mu)
4Cf u|u|
2
D Cp

boundaries

d(me)
dV
=p
+
dt
dt

(1)

boundaries

1u|u|
2

dx
X

(mH)

hAs (Tf luid Twall )

A
(2)
(3)

boundaries

With m is the mass, t is the time, m

is the mass flux, dp is the pressure
differential across dx, A is the area, u is the velocity at the boundary, Cf is
the skin friction coefficient, is the density, dx is the discretization length, D
is the equivalent diameter, Cp is the pressure loss coefficient, e is the internal
+ kinetic energy, p is the pressure, V is the volume, H is the total enthalpy
(H = e + p ), h is the heat transfer coefficient, As is the heat transfer surface
area, Tf luid is the fluid temperature, Twall is the wall temperature.

3. Case set-ups
The tested parameter space can be seen in table 1 for the steady state cases
and in table 2 for the transient cases.
For the steady state cases 13 different engine speeds were used (1000 - 6000
RPM). Between 3 and 18 different simulations were performed per parameter
and engine speed, resulting in approximately 900 different steady state cases.
For the transient cases 3 different engine speeds were chosen, 1250, 1500
and 1750 RPM. The transient cases also had fewer tested parameters, the steady
state simulations showed no effect on the tested variables and were then removed
from the test matrix. In total approximately 140 simulations were performed
for the transient cases.

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Johan Fj
allman
Table 1. The parameters tested in the steady state simulations. For the heat conduction the value was increased by 7
from 7 to 70, and then by 70 up until 700. VVT is the variable
valve timing.
Parameter

Range
Min Max Increment
Exhaust manifold angle
0
45
15
Blade speed ratio
1.4
2.2
0.1
Heat conduction
7
700
7, 70
Lift duration intake
80% 120%
5%
Lift duration exhaust
80% 120%
5%
Turbine efficiency multi 80% 120%
5%
20
VVT exhaust
-20
20
3
VVT inlet
5
55
12.5

Table 2. The parameters tested in the transient simulations.

Parameter

Range
Min Max Increment
Blade speed ratio
1.4
2.2
0.1
Heat conduction
600 1200
100
Lift duration intake
80% 120%
5%
Lift duration exhaust
80% 120%
5%
Turbine efficiency multi 80% 120%
5%
20
VVT exhaust
-20
20
3
VVT inlet
5
55
12.5
The exhaust manifold angle is the angle at which the exhaust pipes from
the cylinder are entering the turbine volute.
The blade speed ratio (BSR) is defined according to equation (4), with U
and Cs defined according to equations (5) and (6).
U
Cs
 
2N D
U=
60
2
BSR =

h

i1/2
1
Cs = 2Cp Tin 1 P R

(4)

(5)

(6)

GT-Power Report

53

Reduced Mass Flow [(kg/s) K/kP a]

With N being the turbine speed in RPM, D is the turbine diameter, Cp is

the specific heat at constant temperature, P R is the pressure ratio across the
turbine and is the ratio of specific heats.
The heat conduction parameter changes the external convection coefficient
value of the exhaust manifold, due to small effects for the steady cases the
parameter was largely increased for the transient cases.
The turbine efficiency multiplier changes the turbine efficiency by multiplying it with the specified value. The unchanged efficiency value is found in the
turbine map supplied to the model, see figure 1.

Efficiency [%]

0.0131
0.0125

69
65
61
57
53
49
45
41
37
33
29
25
21
17
13
10

0.0100

0.0075

0.0050

0.0025

0.0000
1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

Pressure Ratio [-]

Figure 1. Typical turbomap from the manufacturer. The
colors show the efficiency in %.
3.1. Variable Valves
For the cases when the valve lift duration is changed the valve lift curves can
be seen in figure 2. The variations in valve opening angles (VVT) is shown in
figure 3.
3.2. Response Parameters
In all simulations the tested parameters effect on turbine efficiency and break
torque was investigated. The turbine efficiency is read from the table corresponding to figure 1 and it is dependent on the pressure ratio and mass flow
through the turbine. The break torque is calculated from the engine simulation
data.

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Johan Fj
allman

12

Lift [mm]

9
6
3
0

Power

TDC

180

Exhaust

BDC

360

Intake

TDC

540Compression720

BDC

TDC

Crank Angle [deg]

Figure 2. For the valve lift duration:
is the original
exhaust valve lift curve,
is the 20% increase curve, and
is the 20% decrease lift curve.
is the original intake valve
lift curve,
is the 20% increase curve, and
is the 20%
decrease lift curve.

10

Lift [mm]

8
6
4
2
0
0

TDC

Power

180

BDC

360 Intake BDC

540CompressionTDC
720
Crank Angle [deg]
Exhaust

TDC

Figure 3. For the valve timing:

is the original exhaust
valve lift curve,
is the 20 CAD earlier curve, and
is
the 20 CAD later lift curve.
is the original intake valve lift
curve,
is the 5 CAD delayed curve, and
is the 55 CAD
delayed lift curve.

GT-Power Report

55

4. Results - Steady State

After the steady state results had been analysed the exhaust manifold angle
was found to have a very low effect on the tested parameter responses and were
then chosen not to be further tested in transient runs.
4.1. Exhaust Manifold Angle

Turbine efficency (%)

70
65
60
55
50
0

2
3
Time (s)

70
65
60
55
50
0

(a) 6000 RPM.

Turbine efficency (%)

Turbine efficency (%)

When changing the exhaust manifold angle no significant change in the results
are found (see figure 4). The plot lines are virtually placed on top of each other,
except for the 5000 RPM case where a dip is seen at the end of the runs, but
all cases still end up at the same end-value. The dip is coming from when one
of the monitored variables is reaching a maximum or minimum limit set in the
model. The variable value is then changed and the simulation converges.

8 10
Time (s)

12

(b) 1500 RPM.

70
65

Angle 15
Angle 30
Angle 45
Baseline

60
55
50
0

4
5
Time (s)

(c) 5000 RPM.

Figure 4. The effect of the exhaust manifold angle on the

turbine efficiency parameter. The dip for the 5000 RPM
simulations can be seen.

14

16

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Johan Fj
allman
4.2. Blade Speed Ratio

Turbine Efficiency (%)

70
65
60
55
50
0

2
3
Time (s)

65
60
55
50
0

(a) 6000 RPM.

Turbine Efficiency (%)

Turbine Efficiency (%)

For the blade speed ratio parameter the plots show similar results for all engine
speeds except for 5000 RPM case. As can be seen in figure 6 the break torque
reaches a maximum limit and is then reduced by the software control. The
effect of this can also be seen in figure 5. The blade speed ratio parameters
largest effect is on the turbine efficiency results, which is expected (see figure 5)
according to equation 4.

8 10
Time (s)

12

(b) 1500 RPM.

70
BSR
BSR
BSR
BSR
BSR

65
60
55
0

4
5
Time (s)

1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2

BSR 1.5
BSR 1.7
BSR 1.9
BSR 2.1
Baseline

(c) 5000 RPM.

Figure 5. The effect of the blade speed ratio on the turbine

efficiency parameter. The dip for the 5000 RPM simulations
can be seen.

14

16

GT-Power Report
Break Torque (Nm)

450

200

150
0

2
3
Time (s)

400
350
300
250
0

(a) 6000 RPM.

8 10
Time (s)

12

(b) 1500 RPM.

350
Break Torque (Nm)

Break Torque (Nm)

250

57

BSR
BSR
BSR
BSR
BSR

300

250
0

4
5
Time (s)

1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2

BSR 1.5
BSR 1.7
BSR 1.9
BSR 2.1
Baseline

(c) 5000 RPM.

Figure 6. The effect of the blade speed ratio on the break

torque parameter.

14

16

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Johan Fj
allman
4.3. Heat Conduction

Turbine Efficiency (%)

70
65
60
55
50
0

2
3
Time (s)

65
60
55
50
45
0

(a) 6000 RPM.

Turbine Efficiency (%)

Turbine Efficiency (%)

When changing the external convection coefficient for the heat conduction object
of the exhaust manifold parts no effects are observed to any of the monitored
parameters (see figure 7).

65
60
55
1

8 10
Time (s)

12

(b) 1500 RPM.

70

50
0

4
5
Time (s)

HCO 7
HCO 21
HCO 35
HCO 49
HCO 63
HCO 210
HCO 350
HCO 490
HCO 630
Baseline

HCO
HCO
HCO
HCO
HCO
HCO
HCO
HCO
HCO

14
28
42
56
140
280
420
560
700

(c) 5000 RPM.

Figure 7. The effect of the external convection coefficient on

the turbine efficiency parameter.

14

16

GT-Power Report

59

4.4. Intake Lift Duration

70

Turbine Efficiency (%)

Turbine Efficiency (%)

During these simulations the lift end position (in crank angles) was kept constant
and only the lift duration was changed. This means that the lift starting time
is changed, in order to maintain the lift curve and allow for changes in duration.
Results for turbine efficiency and break torque can be seen in figures 8 and 9.
For shorter than normal durations an increase in the turbine efficiency can
be seen and for longer durations only very small changes can be seen for high
engine speeds. For low engine speeds both shorter and longer lift durations
gives an increase to the turbine efficiency except for very short lift durations
when the engine does not get enough air. During short lifts the mass of air
into the cylinder is reduced and depending on where in the turbine map you
are the efficiency is changed. For long lifts the mass of air is increased and a
higher mass flow and pressure ratio is achieved, meaning that the efficiency is
increased.

65
60
55
50
0

2
3
Time (s)

65
60
55
50
45
0

Turbine Efficiency (%)

(a) 6000 RPM.

8 10
Time (s)

12

14

16

(b) 1500 RPM.

70
65

Lift IV 80%
Lift IV 90%
Lift IV 105%
Lift IV 115%
Baseline

60
55
50
0

4
5
Time (s)

Lift
Lift
Lift
Lift

IV
IV
IV
IV

85%
95%
110%
120%

(c) 5000 RPM.

Figure 8. The effect of intake lift duration on the turbine

efficiency parameter.
The intake lift duration only has a small or negligible effect on the break
torque, except for certain engine speeds. For the 6000 RPM case very small
changes are noticed and for the 1500 RPM case similar small effects can be
observed, except for the shortest duration when the engine does not get enough
air. For the 5000 RPM simulations the two cases with the shortest lift duration

60

Johan Fj
allman

do not get enough air into the cylinder. This causes the break torque to reach
a minimum limit and the simulation stops.
Break Torque (Nm)

450

250
200
150
100
0

2
3
Time (s)

400
350
300
250
200
0

(a) 6000 RPM.

8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (s)

(b) 1500 RPM.

400
Break Torque (Nm)

Break Torque (Nm)

300

350

Lift IV 80%
Lift IV 90%
Lift IV 105%
Lift IV 115%
Baseline

300
250
200
0

4
5
Time (s)

Lift
Lift
Lift
Lift

IV
IV
IV
IV

85%
95%
110%
120%

(c) 5000 RPM.

Figure 9. The effect of the intake lift duration on the break

torque parameter.

GT-Power Report

61

4.5. Exhaust Lift Duration

70

Turbine Efficiency (%)

Turbine Efficiency (%)

When the exhaust lift duration was changed the exhaust valve opening time
was kept constant and only the closing time was varied, keeping the lift profile
constant. With a constant lift profile and varying lift duration the maximum
lift decreases and a significant flow constriction is added.
For low RPMs and long lift durations the turbine efficiency is drastically
lowered, the difference is up to 11% lower than the baseline case. This is most
likely caused by back flow from the other cylinders which will lower the pressure
ratio and mass flow.
For high RPMs the turbine efficiency is almost constant except for the short
duration lifts. This is caused by an increase in pressure ratio due to the valve
closing just as the blow down pulse ends.

65
60
55
50
0

3
4
Time (s)

65
60
55
50
45
0

Turbine Efficiency (%)

(a) 6000 RPM.

8 10
Time (s)

12

14

16

(b) 1500 RPM.

70
65

Lift EV 80%
Lift EV 90%
Lift EV 105%
Lift EV 115%
Baseline

60
55
50
0

4
5
Time (s)

Lift
Lift
Lift
Lift

EV
EV
EV
EV

85%
95%
110%
120%

(c) 5000 RPM.

Figure 10. The effect of exhaust lift duration on the turbine

efficiency parameter.
When considering the exhaust lift duration effect on the break torque
similar tendencies can be seen. For the 6000 RPM case the break torque is kept
constant except for the short duration cases. Same for the low RPMs, constant
break torque for lower durations and then as the lift duration increases the
break torque is lowered.
For high RPMs and short lift durations the gases in the cylinders doesnt
have time to be expelled and because of that the break torque is lowered.

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Johan Fj
allman
Break Torque (Nm)

250
200
150
100
0

3
4
Time (s)

400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time (s)

(a) 6000 RPM.

(b) 1500 RPM.

400
Break Torque (Nm)

Break Torque (Nm)

300

350

Lift
Lift
Lift
Lift

300
250
200
0

4
5
Time (s)

EV
EV
EV
EV

80%
90%
105%
115%

Lift EV 85%
Lift EV 95%
Lift EV 110%
Baseline

(c) 5000 RPM.

Figure 11. The effect of the exhaust lift duration on the break
torque parameter.

GT-Power Report

63

4.6. Turbine Efficiency Multiplier

80

Turbine Efficiency (%)

Turbine Efficiency (%)

Changing the turbine efficiency multiplier from 80% to 120% in 5% steps

changed the turbine efficiency by that value.

70
60
50
40
0

2
3
Time (s)

80
70
60
50
40
0

Turbine Efficiency (%)

(a) 6000 RPM.

8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (s)

(b) 1500 RPM.

80
Turb Eff
Turb Eff
Turb Eff
Turb Eff
Baseline

70
60
50
40
0

4
5
Time (s)

80%
90%
105%
115%

Turb
Turb
Turb
Turb

Eff
Eff
Eff
Eff

85%
95%
110%
120%

(c) 5000 RPM.

Figure 12. The effect of turbine efficiency multiplier on the

turbine efficiency parameter.
For high RPMs the break torque converges to the same value for all turbine
efficiencies. This is the same for low RPMs as well, unless the efficiency is too
low and lowers the engine power output.

64

Johan Fj
allman
Break Torque (Nm)

Break Torque (Nm)

300
250
200
150
100
0

2
3
Time (s)

500
400
300

(a) 6000 RPM.

8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (s)

(b) 1500 RPM.

Break Torque (Nm)

400
350

Turb Eff
Turb Eff
Turb Eff
Turb Eff
Baseline

300
250
200
0

4
5
Time (s)

80%
90%
105%
115%

Turb
Turb
Turb
Turb

Eff
Eff
Eff
Eff

85%
95%
110%
120%

(c) 5000 RPM.

Figure 13. The effect of turbine efficiency multiplier on the

break torque parameter.
4.7. Variable Valve Timing
During the VVT simulations the lift duration was kept constant and the valve
opening angle was changed instead. This was done in order to change both
the valve overlap (intake and exhaust valves) and the cylinder overlap (exhaust
valves between cylinders).
It can generally be seen that a later exhaust valve opening (EVO) angle
gives a higher turbine efficiency (see figure 14) and that a later intake valve
opening angle also increases the turbine efficiency. Opening the exhaust valve
later gives the cylinder more time to build up pressure and as such a higher
pressure ratio is achieved, which increased turbine efficiency. Opening the intake
valve later reduces the valve overlap in the cylinders which increases efficiency.
The low RPM cases showed the same trends for the break torque as they
did for the turbine efficiency. An early intake valve opening angle results in a
higher break torque. For the high RPM cases the trends are opposite. A late
exhaust valve opening angle lowers the break torque

Turbine Efficiency (%)

70
65
60
55
50
0

Turbine Efficiency (%)

Turbine Efficiency (%)

GT-Power Report

3
4
Time (s)

65

65
60
55
50
45
0

(a) 6000 RPM.

70

8 10
Time (s)

IV 5
IV 30
IV 55
EV -13.3
EV 0
EV 13.3
Baseline

60
55
1

14

16

(b) 1500 RPM.

65

50
0

12

4
5
Time (s)

IV 17.5
IV 42.5
EV -20
EV -6.67
EV 6.67
EV 20

(c) 5000 RPM.

Figure 14. The figures show the effect of the varied valve
timing on the turbine efficiency parameter.
Break Torque (Nm)

Break Torque (Nm)

300
400

250

300

200

200

150
1

3
4
Time (s)

100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time (s)

(a) 6000 RPM.

400

(b) 1500 RPM.

Break Torque (Nm)

100
0

IV 5
IV 30
IV 55
EV -13.3
EV 0
EV 13.3
Baseline

350
300
250
200
0

4
5
Time (s)

IV 17.5
IV 42.5
EV -20
EV -6.67
EV 6.67
EV 20

(c) 5000 RPM.

Figure 15. In the figures the effect of the varied valve timing
on the break torque is shown.

66

Johan Fj
allman

5. Results - Transient
The transient cases are evaluated with respect to how the different parameters
change the time to torque (i.e. the time it takes to reach 300 Nm (in this case)).
Three low engine speeds were chosen (1250, 1500, and 1750 RPM) as this is
where the time to torque is important (during accelerations and overtakes).
All the graphs display an initial slope where the suction engine effect is
coming in, this happens before the turbocharger spins up and starts providing
the increased demand for airflow.
5.1. Blade Speed Ratio
Only small effects are seen when changing the blade speed ratio of the turbine
on the engines time to torque curves. For the 1250 RPM case the engine does
not reach the 300 Nm target in the 2 second time frame that is given but it
is shown that the higher the blade speed ratio the higher the torque is at a
certain time. For the two higher engine speeds almost all cases reach the 300
Nm target within the time frame and the fastest time is 1.046 s for the 1750
RPM case with the two highest blade speed ratios.
Break Torque (Nm)

400

300
200
100
0
0

3
4
Time (s)

300
200
100
0
0

(a) 1250 RPM

3
4
Time (s)

(b) 1500 RPM

400
Break Torque (Nm)

Break Torque (Nm)

400

300

BSR
BSR
BSR
BSR
BSR

200
100
0
0

3
4
Time (s)

1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2

BSR 1.5
BSR 1.7
BSR 1.9
BSR 2.1
Baseline

(c) 1750 RPM

Figure 16. The effect of the blade speed ratio on the time to
torque for three transient cases.

GT-Power Report

67

5.2. Heat Conduction Object

The effect of the heat conduction object on the time to torque curves can be
seen in figure 17. The effect of changing the parameter is small on low engine
speeds and the effect increases with increasing engine speed. For the lowest
engine speed no case reached the target torque value and for the 1500 RPM case
only the two lowest values for the heat conduction object failed to reach the
target torque. The fastest case was the 1750 RPM case with the highest value
for the heat conduction object, 1.114 s. With a higher value for the external
heat conduction the reduced mass flow is changed and because of that the
turbine efficiency is increased and a higher break torque is obtained.
Brake Torque (Nm)

400

300
200
100
0
0

3
4
Time (s)

300
200
100
0
0

(a) 1250 RPM

Brake Torque (Nm)

Brake Torque (Nm)

400

3
4
Time (s)

(b) 1500 RPM

400
300

HCO 600
HCO 900
HCO 1100
Baseline

200

HCO 700
HCO 1000
HCO 1200

100
0
0

3
4
Time (s)

(c) 1750 RPM

Figure 17. The effect of the heat conduction object on the

time to torque for three transient cases.

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Johan Fj
allman
5.3. Exhaust Valve Lift Duration

Changing the exhaust valve lift duration changes the time to torque drastically
after a certain value. The trend is similar for all three engine speeds, a too long
lift duration increases the time to torque. The higher the engine speed the more
likely it is that the engine will reach the targeted torque value in the given time
frame. The fastest cases were the 1750 RPM cases with a lift duration close to
the original one (80 - 95 % of the original time), 1.114 s.
Break Torque (Nm)

400

300
200
100
0
0

3
4
Time (s)

300
200
100
0
0

(a) 1250 RPM

3
4
Time (s)

(b) 1500 RPM

400
Break Torque (Nm)

Break Torque (Nm)

400

300

Lift EV 80%
Lift EV 90%
Lift EV 105%
Lift EV 115%
Baseline

200
100
0
0

3
4
Time (s)

Lift
Lift
Lift
Lift

EV
EV
EV
EV

85%
95%
110%
120%

(c) 1750 RPM

Figure 18. The effect of the exhaust valve lift duration on

the time to torque for three transient cases.

GT-Power Report

69

5.4. Intake Valve Lift Duration

The intake valve lift duration affects the time to torque differently than the
exhaust lift duration does. For the three simulated engine speeds the lift
duration needs to be close to the original one for the shortest time to torque.
For the 1500 RPM case the optimal lift duration was the original one, changing
the duration by more than 5% caused the engine not to reach the torque value
within the given time. For the 1750 RPM case the optimal lift duration was
between the original one and a 5% increase but also here the time increased if
the duration was changed too much from the original. Optimal in this case is
the lift duration that would give the shortest time to torque. The two fastest
cases were the 1750 RPM ones with a lift duration of 100% and 105%, 1.183 s.
Break Torque (Nm)

400

200
100
0
0

3
4
Time (s)

300
200
100
0
0

(a) 1250 RPM

3
4
Time (s)

(b) 1500 RPM

400
Break Torque (Nm)

Break Torque (Nm)

300

300

Lift IV 80%
Lift IV 90%
Lift IV 105%
Lift IV 115%
Baseline

200
100
0
0

3
4
Time (s)

Lift
Lift
Lift
Lift

IV
IV
IV
IV

85%
95%
110%
120%

(c) 1750 RPM

Figure 19. The intake valve lift duration effect on the time
to torque for three transient cases.

70

Johan Fj
allman
5.5. Turbine Efficiency Multiplier

Increasing the turbine efficiency reduces the engines time to torque, the higher
the efficiency the faster the engine reached the torque value. This was an
expected result and the software behaved as the theory dictated. The fastest
case was the highest engine speed (1750 RPM) with the highest turbine efficiency,
0.909 s.
Break Torque (Nm)

400

200
100
0
0

3
4
Time (s)

300
200
100
0
0

(a) 1250 RPM

3
4
Time (s)

(b) 1500 RPM

500
Break Torque (Nm)

Break Torque (Nm)

300

400

Turb Eff
Turb Eff
Turb Eff
Turb Eff
Baseline

300
200
100
0
0

3
4
Time (s)

80%
90%
105%
115%

Turb
Turb
Turb
Turb

Eff
Eff
Eff
Eff

85%
95%
110%
120%

(c) 1750 RPM

Figure 20. The turbine efficiency multiplier effect on the time

to torque for three transient cases.

GT-Power Report

71

5.6. Variable Valve Time

All three engine speeds behave the same when changing the valve overlap. A
late exhaust valve opening and an early intake valve opening gives the shortest
time to torque. It can be seen in all plots that delaying the intake valve opening
gives a longer time to torque than keeping the original values (lighter color
shows later intake valve opening angle (see figure 21)). Delaying the intake valve
angle by more than 30 CA reverses the trend, i.e. a later exhaust opening then
reduces the time to torque. The fastest time to torque was the 1750 RPM case
with an 20 CA increase in intake valve opening and 5 CA increase in exhaust
valve opening, 1.114 s.
Break Torque (Nm)

400

200
100
0
0

3
4
Time (s)

300
200
100
0
0

(a) 1250 RPM

3
4
Time (s)

(b) 1500 RPM

400
Break Torque (Nm)

Break Torque (Nm)

300

IV 5
IV 30
IV 55
EV -13.3
EV 0
EV 13.3
Baseline

300
200
100
0
0

3
4
Time (s)

IV 17.5
IV 42.5
EV -20
EV -6.67
EV 6.67
EV 20

(c) 1750 RPM

Figure 21. The valve lift time variation effects on the time
to torque for three transient cases.

72

Johan Fj
allman

6. Discussion and Conclusions

For almost all the cases the trends are clear and they are easy to understand.
For example an increased turbine efficiency will increase the turbine performance
and the total engine performance (i.e break torque), a change in the blade speed
ratio parameter will only affect the turbine performance and not the overall
engine performance in steady state.
When interpreting the effects of the variations in the valve lift starting
time the results are more complex. Not only is the value of the intake lift time
important but also when the exhaust valve opens and closes. For low engine
speeds and steady state simulations a very late (> 30 CA) intake valve opening
decreases the torque significantly. However when the intake valve opening is
not delayed more than 30 CA the exhaust valve opening seems to have little to
no effect on the break torque. For high engine speeds an exhaust valve opening
angle that is earlier or close to the original one is shown to be the most efficient
and then the intake opening angle is shown to have a very small effect on the
break torque.

7. Acknowledgements
Johan Lennblad at Volvo Car Corporation is thanked for the help with understanding the engine model and the supplying of the model. Volvo Car
Corporation is also acknowledged for the financing of this Ph.D. project.

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