EarlyWritings

19101917

WALTER BENJAMIN
TranslatedbyHowardEilandand Others

TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress
Cambridge,MassachusettsIondon,England
2011

"2^

Copyright2011bythePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege
Allrightsreserved
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

Contents

ThisworkisatranslationofselectionsfromWalterBenjamin,GesammelteSchriften,
unterMitwirkungvonTheodorVf.AdornoundGershomScholem,herausgegeben
vonRolfTiedemannundHermannSchweppenhausencopyright1972,1974,
1977,1982,1985,1989bySuhrkampVerlag.
"'Experience,'""TheMetaphysicsofYouth,""TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin,"
"AChild'sViewofColor,""Socrates,""TrauerspielandTragedy,""TheRoleof
LanguageinTrauerspielandTragedy,""OnLanguageasSuchandontheLanguageof
Man,""Dostoevsky's'TheIdiot,'"reprintedbypermissionofthepublisherfrom
WALTERBENJAMIN:SELECTEDWRITINGS,VOLUME1,19131926,editedby
MarcusBullockandMichaelW.Jennings,pp.347,5074,7881,Cambridge,Mass.:
TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,Copyright1996bythePresidentand
FellowsofHarvardCollege."OnLanguageasSuchandtheLanguageofMan"
originallyappearedinEnglishinWalterBenjamin,Reflections,Englishtranslation
copyright1978byHarcourtBraceJovanovich,Inc.Publishedbyarrangement
withHarcourtBraceJovanovich,Inc."Socrates"originallyappearedinEnglishin
ThePhilosophicalForum15,nos.12(19831984).
LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
Benjamin,Walter,18921940.
[Selections.English.2011]
Earlywritings(19101917)/WalterBenjamin;
translatedbyHowardEilandandothers,
p. cm.
AselectionofshorterworksbyWalterBenjamin,betweentheages
ofseventeenandtwentyfive.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN9780674049932(alk.paper)
1. Benjamin,Waher,18921940TranslationsintoEnglish. I. Eiland,Howard.
II. Title.
PT2603.E455A262011
838'.91209dc22
2010048101

AbbreviationsandaNoteontheTexts

vii

Translator'sIntroduction
1
1. ThePoet(1910)
14
2. AtNight:ThoughtsSuggestedbya
SchumannComposition(1910)
16
3. TheThreeWhoSoughtReligion(1910)
18
4. Storm(1910)
22
5. Spring'sHideaway(191)
24
6. SleepingBeauty(1911)
26
7. Diary,Pentecost1911
33
8. TheFreeSchoolCommunity(1911)
39
9. ThePanofEvening(ca.1911)
46
10. Curriculumyitae(1^11)
'
49
11. Epilogue(1912)
53
12. SchoolReform:ACulturalMovement(1912)
57
13. DialogueontheReligiosityofthePresent(1912)
62
14. QuietStory(ca.1912)
85
15. EstrangedLand(1913)
88
16. TeachingandValuation(1913)
90
17. Romanticism:AnUndeliveredAddresstoStudents(1913) 101
18. MoralEducation(1913)
107
19. "Experience"(1913)
116
20. ThoughtsonGerhartHauptmann'sFestivalPlay(1913)
120
21. TheAviator(ca.1913)
126

vi Contents

22. DeathoftheFather:AShortStory(1913)
23. Romanticism:Replyofthe"Unsanctified"(1913)
24; YouthWasSilent(1913)
25. ConversationonLove(ca.1913)
26. TheMetaphysicsofYouth(19131914)
27. StudentAuthors'Evenings(19131914)
28. EroticEducation(19131914)
29. TheRehgiousPositionoftheNewYouth(1914)
30. TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin:
"ThePoet'sCourage"and"Timidity"(19141915)
31. TheLifeofStudents(19141915)
32. AChild'sViewofColor(19141915)
33. TheRainbow:
AConversationaboutImagination(ca.1915)
34. TheRainbow,orTheArtofParadise(ca.1915)
35. TheHappinessofAncientMan(1916)
36. Socrates(1916)
37. OntheMiddleAges(1916)
38. Trauerspieland'Tragedy(1916)
39. TheRoleofLanguageinTrawcrspieZandTragedy(1916)
40. OnLanguageasSuchandontheLanguageofMan(1916)
41. Aphorisms(ca.19161917)
42. Balzac(ca.19161917)
43. Dostoevsky'sTheIdiot(1917)
44. OnSeeingtheMorningLight(1917)
45. TheCentaur(1917)
Credits
Index

128
132
135
139
144
161
166
168

Abbreviationsanda
NoteontheTexts

171
197
211
214
224
228
233
238
241
246
251
270
273
275
281
283
287
291

ThefollowingabbreviationsareusedforworksbyWalterBenjamin:
GS

GB
SW

CWB

GesammelteSchriften,1vols.,suppL,ed.RolfTiedemann,

HermannSchwepppenhuser,etal.(Frankfurt:
Suhrkamp,19721989).
GesammelteBriefe,6vols.,ed.ChristophGddeand
HenriLonitz(Frankfurt;Suhrkamp,19952000).
SelectedWritings,4vols.,ed.MichaelW.Jenningsetal.
(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,
19962003).
TheCorrespondenceofWalterBenjarnin,trans.Manfred
R.JacobsonandEvelynM.Jacobson(Chicago:University
ofChicagoPress,1994).

TranslationsinthisbookarebyHowardEilandunlessotherwiseindi
cated. Previously published translations have been revised for this
volume.

Translator'sIntroduction

alterBenjamin'searliestpublishedwritingsdatebackto1910,
whenhewasahighschoolstudentinBerlin.Thatyear,ashe
turned eighteen; he published poems and short stories in various
styleslyrical,'allegorical,expressionisticin thestudentrun peri
odicalDerAnfang(The Beginning),forwhichvenueh'fe alwaysmade
useofthemultivalentLatinpseudonym"Ardor."The fllowingyear,
he began publishing theoretical essays on the general subject of
"youth"andits"awakening"?,thesewereovertly polemicalpieces. In
thefeverishyearsbeforetheFirstWorldWar,Benjaminplayedanac
tiverole inwhatis.knowntodayas theCernanYouth Movement,a
politically heterogeneous p|}enomenon which he and many others
lookedon as primarilya movementof educationaland cultufalre
form, one whose goal was the reform of consciousness in general,
nothingshortofa"newhumanity."Thus,hisprogrammaticwritings
on academicreform,comprising abouta quarter ofthe contents of
thisvlurrie,representnotsomuchdirectappealstoactionasefforts
toreorientandliberatetheirreaders'generaloutlook.
Already,in 19051906,atthe countryboardingschoolHaubinda,
wherehehadbeensentbecauseofhisdelicatehealth,theyoungBen
jamincameundertheinfluenceofGustavWyneken,oneoftheleading

2 Translator'sIntroduction

educationalreformersinEuropeduringthefirstdecadesofthetwen
tiethcenturyandafounderoftheFreieSchulgemeindeorFreeSchool
Coinmunity, a pioneeringprogressive andcoeducational secondary
schoollocated ina village in theThuringian Forest incentral Ger
manyItwasthecharismaticWynekenwhotaughtthat'theawakening
ofyouthmusttaketheformx)flivingculture,whichheunderstoodto
beatransformationoftraditioninthelightofpresentdayexperience.
At Haubinda, Benjamin studied German literature with Wyneken,
anditwas inthisclassthathisinterest inphilosophywasborn. The
marriageofliteraryandphilosophicalperspectivesinthispopulariz
ingexposition ofthe modernWynekencombined nemphasis on
objectivespirit witha Nietzscheantragicphilosophy oflifeproved
especiallyfruitfulintheformation ofanhistoricalmindedandcon
sciouslynihilisticmessianism. Inthe courseofhis lasttwo yearsin
highschoolandhisfirsttwoyearsofuniversitystudyatFreiburgand
Berlin,Benjamin dedicatedhimselfwitha highmindedcriticalzeal
tofhisgeneration's widespreadstudentactivism, writingarticles,giv
ingspeechest youthcongresses, organizingandleading.discussion
groups,andultimately,inFebruary1914, assumingthepresidencyof
theBerhnUniversitychapteroftheIndependentStudents'Association
(FreieStudentenschaft),which hehelduntiltheoutbreak ofwarin
August.Atthe sametime,hecontinuedwriting poetryandfiction
alongwithphilosophicalessaysanddialogues,literaryaestheticcriti
cism,traveldiaries, andothernotations, whilemaintaininganintel
lectuallyrichcorrespondencewithfriendsandassociates.
Benjaminasayoungmanwasripeforaproudandradicalmodeof
thought.Growing upthe eldestson inthe populoushousehold ofa
wealthy,assimilatedJewishfamilyintheburgeningwestendofBer
lin,withsummer residencesin nearbyPotsdam andNeubabelsberg,
hereceived instructionfrom private tutors untilhe wasnearly nine
andafterwardgraduatedfromoneofBerlinsbettersecondaryschools,
the KaiserFriedrichSchule in Charlottenburg, where he studied
Frenchfromthefirstyearon,andlaterLatinandGreek,andwherehe
receivedhighpraiseforhiswriting.Hisacademicsuccessdidnotkeep
himfrominwardlyrebelling,however^againsttherigidPrussiancon
ventionalismofbothteachersandpupils.Thetwo yearsatHaubinda

Translator'sIntroduction 3

hadgivenhim asenseofmission andinspired himwithan idealof

openexchangeintheserviceofintellectualseriousness. Ongraduat
ingfrom<he Kaiser FriedrichSchoolinMarch1912s.he publisheda
shortpiece,"Epilogue,"criticizingthearbitrarinessand purposeless
nessoftheclassroom instruction:"We.couldnomore,takeourwork
seriouslythanwecouldtakeourselvesseriously."'
InhisfirstsemesterattheUniversityofFreiburginthesummerof
1912,hemaintkinedanexceptionallyheavycourseloadthat ranged
fromReligious Lifein Laie;Antiquity,Medieval GermanLiterature,
and General History of the SixtenthCentury, to Karit's Weltan
schauung,The PhilosophyofContemporary Culture,and Introduc"
tion to Epistemology and Metaphysics. But he still found time to
carryonhismission"torestorepeopletotheiryouth,"asheputsitin
aletter.Freiburgwas.thefirstofanumberofGermai]universitiesto
perinitstuderitstoorganize"schoolreformunits,"afteraproposalby
Gustav'Wyneken; these weredesigned,to broaden the educational
horizon beyond the scope ofvocational and professional training.
Benjamin soonbegan workingfor the Freiburgreform unit,which
sponsoredalectureseriesandeveningdiscussio'ngroupsasasupple
menttoofficialcourse.offefingsandasanalternativetotheactivities
of establishedstudent associationslike thefraternities anddueling
corps.Butwiththeir antiauthoritarianmodelofa"freeschoolcom
munity,"whichcalledfornonhierarchicalrelationsbetweenteachers
and students, andwith their radicalizing of certain liberal educa
tionalideals ofthenineteenth century,suchasthe intellectualinte
grationofacademicdisciplinesandthecultivationofindividualper
sonalitywithinacommunity ofscholars,theWynekenians raninto
resistancefrommoreconservativeelementsofthe indepenclentstu
dentbody.Infact,theIndependentStuents'AssociationatFreiburg
struckBenjaminas"ahordeofemancipatedphrasemongersandin
competents,"andbytheendofthesummersernesterhehadresoVed
onleaying Freiburgfor theUniversity ofBerlin, wherehecould at
tendclassesandworkforreformwhile'livingathome.Hehadabook
linedstudy inhis parents'newly acquiredvilla onpelbrckstrae,
decoratedwithareproductionofMatthiasGrnewald'sIsenheimAl
tarpiece(1515).

4 Translator'sIntroduction

BenjaminwouldreturntoFreiburgforthesummer1913semester,
butotherwiseheremainedattheUniversityofBerlinwhere he.en
rolledinphilosophyuntilthefallof1915.Therehetookpartinvari
ousschoolreformandyouthgroupfunctionsonandoffcampus,and
herenewedcontactwiththestudentmagazineDerAnfang,which,af
teraperiodofpreparatoryworkinwhichhewasevidentlyinvolved,
launcheditsthirdandfinalseriesinthespringof1913;quarrelseven
tuallybrokeoutamongstudentfactionsseekingeditorialcontrol,and
publication ceased in July ofthe following year. Between May and
October, while publishing inother journals aswell, Benjamin pror
ducedfive pseudonymousarticles onyouth forthe newAnfang, his
lastbeingthelittleessay"'Experience,'"whichhighlightsacharacter
isticconcern.Asherepeatedlysuggestsinthesearticles,youthisthe
capacityforexperiencethatexceedstherationalframeworkoflife,is
readinessfora"radicallynewwayofseeing,"whereasthe"philistine"
or"bourgeois"conceptionofexperienceispreciselytheoutgrowingof
youthyouthasmerelyatransitiontothepracticalrealitiesofadult
hood.Thenostalgicbonhomieofschoolreunionsandalumnigroups
wasaprimetargetofhisscorn.
Wegetasense oftheatmospheresurroundingthe reorganization
ofthejournalDerAnfangfromtheretrospectiveaccountofapartici
pant,cited bythe editorsof Benjamin's Gesammelte Schrifien (Col
lectedWritings):
OnedayI.wasinvitedtoameetingtoconsidersettingupanewjournal.
IfoundmyselfinacircleofyoungmenI'dnotmetbefore.Iheyhad
flowinghair,woreopenshirts,...andtheyspoke or,rather,
preachedinsolemn,mellifluousphrasesaboutturningawayfromthe
bourgeoisworldandabouttherightofyouthtoaculturebefittingits
worth...Theconceptofleaderandoffollowerplayedanimportant
role.WereadStefanGeorge...Oneofus,themostgifted,residesin
ParisasanmigrphilosopherandhasbecomeaMarxist...Theyouth
movementwasexclusivelymiddleclass...Consciousofthislimitation,
Idraftedaclumsyproclamation,arguingthattheyouthoftheworking
classbelongedwithus...Wyneken[whooversawtherunningofthe
journalin19131914]senttheessaybackfilledwithstronglyneg'ative
comments:it'stooearly,westillhavetoconcentrateonourselves.

Translator'sIntroduction 5

Hence. . . t hedangerofintellectualismthatg rewupino urcircle...

Politicswasconsideredunintellectualandunworthy.(Memoirof
MartinGumpert,1939;citedGS2,867.870)
Tobesure,inhisarticles, speeches,andlettersfromtheyears,before
thewar, Benjaminconsistentlyrepudiates anyalignmentof"youth
withexistingpartisanpolitics,seeingthatthelatteriseverywherethe
vehicle ofpoliticalparties, not ideas."In the deepest sense, he re
marksinaletterofJanuary7,1913,politicscomesdowntoonething:
theartofchoosingthelesser evil.Hisunpublished"Dialogue,onthe
Religiosity.ofthePresent,"fromthefallof 1912,nonethelesstouches
onthe possibilityof an"honest" and"individualistic" socialism, as
distinguished from the conventional socialism of theday. Writing
morethanadecadelater,onMay29,1926,tohisclosefriendGershom
SchpleminJerusalem,BenjaminwilldeclarethatradicalpohticalAk
tionpanbeofvalueevenintheabsenceofmeaningfulpoliticalgoals,
for"therearenomeaniijgfullypoliticalgoals."Suchpoliticalactionor
"observance,"he tellscholem, wilLalsobe areligious observance.
Andhemeans:beyondallchurches.Itwillbesomethingdecided"at
everymoment."Ifyouthkeepsitsdistancefrompoliticsinthenarrow
sense,thenwhatBenjaminina 1912pamphletcallsthe ethicalpro
gram"ofschoolreform, youth'sprotestagainstschool andfamilyin
thenameofamorecomprehensivecommunityoflearnmg,willpre
sumablyservepoliticsinabroadersense:namely,thepoliticsthatbe
ginsineducationandcomestofruitioninculture.
Asforthechargeof"intellectualism,"Benjamintakesthisuptoward
thebeginningofhisessay"TheLifeofStudents,"whichbringstogether
themainthemesofhisearlyreformist discourse.Tomeasure student
lifebytheideaoflearningorstudy,heargues,isnotasignofIntellektu
alismusbutanecessityofcriticism.Forwhatdistinguishesthepresent
daylife of students, intheir spinelessacquiescence tothe vocational
demandsoftheage,andtothecriterionof"applicability"aboveall,is
essentiallyunwillingness tobe absorbed inan idea. At issuein such
conformismandfaintheartedness isthedistorted selfunderstanding
oftheuniversityinstitutionitself,specificallytheworkingoftheprofes
sional"apparatus"withinthemodernacademicdisciplines,whichhave

6 Translator'sIntroduction

Translator'sIntroduction 7

graduallylostsightoftheircommonoriginintheideaofknowledge.In
nouncertain terms, Benjamin presents hisindictment ofthe instru
mentalizingofeducation,"theperversionofthecreativespiritintothe
vocational spirit," as an aspect ofthe advancing spiritual crisis con
cealedintheincreasinglysecureorganizationoflife.
How,then,toreorientthedisciplinesoflearningtotheirimmanent
unityofthought?Benjamin doesnotconcern himselfwithpractical
directivesfortherenovationofacademiclife,otherthanto stipulate,
in"TheLifeofStudents,"thatitisnotamatterofconfrontinglawyers
withliteraryquestionsordoctorswithlegalones(assome ofhiscol
leagueshaveproposed),somuchassubordinatingthespecialfieldsof
knowledgetotheideaofthewholerepresentedbytheuniversityitself
Itistheconceptoftheuniversityasanopenendedworkingidealthat
isthetrueseatofauthorityandthebasisofanygenuinevocationfor
learningandteaching,indissolubleastheseenterprisesessentiallyare.
Andit wastherole ofstudents,in theirpropensityforbothuncom
promising idealism and radical doubt, to constitute an intellectual
vanguardinthelearningcommunity:tokeepalive aspace forques
tioning,forrecollectionoftheundrlyingcrisisofmodernity,andin
thiswaytofoster"thecultureofconversation,"therebypreventingthe
degenerationoflearningintoamereaccumulationofinformationand
makingallstudyinafundamentalsensephilosophical.
Ofcourse,forthestudentbodytobecome"thegreattransformer,"
thelifeofstudentsmustitselfbetransformed.This,aswe'veindicated,
isthe immediatehistoricalproblematic inwhichthemessianic con
ceptofawakening,whichplaysapartinBenjamin'sthinkingatevery
stageofhiscareer, isfirst developed.Youth isthe"Sleeping Beauty"
(titleof hisinaugural Anfangessay) thatslumbers anddoes notyet
wake to itself To help bring about an awakening of"the youthful
life"the idealism that starts from pessimism and from unending
"struggles with society, state, law"this, in Benjamir's view, is the
taskoftheyounggeneration. Foritisa suresignofage toseeinthe
existentallthereis.Shakespeare's Hamlet,as"thetragedyofmodern
man,"is adduced in thisconnection. The prince's disgust with the
worlddoesnotprecludehisembraceofamission:"Thoughtheworld
beeversobad,youcametomakeitbetter."Moreover,commentsBen

jamin,despitethefactthatHamletultimatelysuccumbstotheworld,
heremainsvictorious.The tragicsenseoflife,inotherwords, colors
theideaoffulfillmentinthephilosophyofyouth:"theredemptionof
theunredeemable.,.istheuniversalm'eaningweproclaim"(letterof
June23,1913,toas'choolfriend,HerbertBelmore).
AsBenjaminenvisionsit,youth's awakeningtoitselfmeansblast
inginheritednotionsofegoandidentityandopeningthemup.Atthe
sametime,thereisanemphasisontheindividuationandradicalfini
tudeofabsolutespirit.Itisanawakeningtothedrasticsensethat"all
ourhumanityisa sacrificeto thespirit,"asheputs itintheletter to
Belmorecitedabove,asacrificeallowing"no privatefeelings,nopri
vatewillandintellect."Youthawakens toitsownuntowardpresence
(Gegenwart), which itcan onlyawait (erwarten)in readiness. It isa
questionnotofpossessionbut ofactualization.'Writingon Septem
ber 15, 1913, tohisfriend andcompaniohinarms CarlaSeligson, a
medicalstudentinBerlin,Benjaminexpandsonthesubject:
TodayIfelttheawesometruthofChrist'swords:Behold,thekingdom
ofGodisneitherherenorthere,butwithinus.Iwouldliketoreadwith
youPlato'sdialogueonlove,wherethisissaidmorebeautifullyand
thoughtmoredeeplythanprobablyanywhereelse.
1.Theconceptofpos'sessionistargetedintheundated"NotizenzueinerAr
beitBerdieKategoriederGerechtigkeit"(NotesforaWorkontheCategoryof
Justice),whichGershomScholemcopiedoutofBenjamin'snotebookintohisown
diaryonOctober89,1916:"Toeverygood[JedemGute],asdelimitedinthe,or
deroftimeandspace,thereattachesthecharacterofpossession[Besitzcharakter],as
anexpressionof itstransience.Possession,however,asencompassed inthesame
finifude, isalwaysuhjust.Hence nosystemtasedonpossessionorproperty...
canleadtojustice./Rather,justiceresidesintheconditionofagoodihatcannot
beapossession.Thisaloneisthegoodthroughwhichothergoodsaredivestedof
ownership [besitzlos werden].VirtuecanlBe demanded,whereas justice,in the
end,canonlybeas astateof theworldorstateof God
Theimmensegulf
separatinglawandjustice...issomethingindicatedinotherlanguagesaswell."
SeeGershomScholem,Tagebcher19131917(Frankfurt:JdischerVerlag,1995),
401402;inEnglish(abridged)asLamentationsofYouth:TheDiariesofGershom
Scholem,19131919, trans.Anthony DavidSkinner (Cambridge.MA: Hrvard
UniversityPress,2007),442.

8 Translator'sIntroduction

ThismorningIgavethissomemorethought:tobeyoungmeansnot
somuchservingthespiritasawaitingit...Thisisthemostimportant
thing:wemustnotfastenonanyparticularidea,[noteven]theideaof
youthculture...Forthen(ifwedonotturnourselvesintomere
workersinamovement),ifwekeepourgazefreetoseethespirit
whereveritmaybe,wewillbetheonestoactualizeit.Almostevery
bodyforgetsthattheythemselvesaretheplacewherespiritactualizes
itself.Butbecausetlieyhavefnadethemselvesinflexible,turned
themselvesintopillarsofabuildinginsteadofvesselsorbowlsthatcan
receiveandshelteraneverpurercontent,theydespairoftheactualiza
tionwefeelwithinourselves.Thissoulissomethingeternallyactual
izing.Everyperson,everysoulthatisborn,canbringtolifethenew"
reality.Wefeelitinourselvesandwealsowanttoestablishitfromout
ofourselves.
The intimate correlation of political and theological in Benjamin's
thinkingfinds "youthful"expression in thisletter. The theological
hereis certainlynot a matterofpiety, whichhe considersa useless
expenditureofenergy,anditisasfarremovedfrommysticismasitis
from organized religion.^ In "The Religious Position of the New
Youth,"publishedinMay1914,Benjamin,intheSpiritofKierkegaard
andlateTolstoy,likenstheyounggenerationtothe"firstChristians,"
forwhomthe sacredthatis, theultimateandessentialcould ap
pearinthemostinconspicuousthing,inanyobjectorperson^atany
moment.Andinthe"DialogueontheReligiosityofthePresent,"he
voicesthecomplaintthatoursocialactivityhaslostits"metaphysical
seriousness,"and he calls for a*modern (that is, nondogmatic and
noneschatological), a worldlyreligiosity, onerooted ina "newcon
2.Benjamin'sinterestinhisownJewishnesswasawakenedbyhisassociation
withtheWynekenians,alargeproportionofwhomWere Jewish.Beforethat,he
says,hissenseofbeingJewishwaslittlemorethananexotic"aroma"inhislife.
Onthequestionof the"Jewishspirit,"andon Benjamin'scritiqueof "practical
Zionism"fromtheviewpointofculture,whichisalwayshumanculture,seethe
fiveletterswrittenbetweenSeptember1912andFebruary1913tohisfellowstu
dentLudwigStrauss,apoetandlaterliteraryhistorian atHebrewUniversityin
Jerusalem(GBl,6188).Seealso"TheCentaur"(Chapter45inthisvolume)and
thesection"SexualAwakening"inBerlinChildhoodaround1900(SW3,386).

Translator'sIntroduction 9

sciousnessofpersonal immediacy"that wouldlendnew nobilityto

dailylife;Initsmodernity,such religiosityreflectstheRomanticin
sightinto the"nightside" ofnature or, inpostNietzschean terms,
theultimate groundlessnessofbeing. Asweread intheshort essay
"Socrates"(1916),"Theradiantistrueonlywhereitisrefractedinthe
nocturnal."
Youth's presence toitself is dialectical inthis sense. Itsradiance
dependsonitsgravity.That is,genuinecommunitywhichisneces
sarilyacommunityofindividualconsciencescanfloweronlyfrom
thesoilofthe"deepestsolitude."Thecultivationofsolitude isapre
conditionof(philosophical)community;but,asBenjaminexplainsin
aletterofAugust4,1913,toCarlaSeligson,only"anideaandacom
munityinthe idea"caneverlead tomeaningfulsolitude.This para
doxicalsituationresultsinacertainambivalencetowardboththein
dividualandthesocial,takeninthemselves.The"eternallyactualizing"
soulofyouthisatonceaconcertofsingularitiesandateverberation
ofthecollectivewithinthesingular.Thismeansthatyouth'ssenseof
itselfisinevitablydissonant,uncertain"asuncertainasurown I"
("TheReligiousPositionoftheNewYouth").
Theconcentrationonyouth'ssingularcollectivepresenceinvolves
abroadeninganddeepeningt)ftheideaofpresenceitselfandthepres
entirioment.Nietzschehadalreadyattackedthescientificobjectivist
premisesofnineteenthcenturyhistoricisminhisessay"OntheAd
vantageandDisadvantageofHistoryforLife,"whichiscitedinBenja
min's1913Anfangattide,"TeachingandValuation."Nietzscheargues
thatthpastcanbeinterpretedonlyfromoutof"thehighestenergyof
the*present,"for"the pastalways speaksasan oracle."Inthe dense,
expressionistic"The Metaphysics of Youth,"begun.probably in the
summerof1913,whenhewasattendingaseminaronthephilosophy
ofHenriBergsonatFreiburg,Benjaminlaysdownhisownmodernist
metaphysicsalongthese lines,conceivingthe presentas reservoirof
theunmeasured'dreamenergiesofthe past:"Pastthingsbecomefu
tural,"and,therefore,"whatwedoandthinkisfilledwiththebeingof
our fathers and ancestors." The evocation ofa'layered, intertwined
verticaltemporality isdistinctly Bergsonian. Bergsonfollows Nietz
scheindissolvingwhatwecustomarilyregardasmatterintoatissue

IO

Translator'sJntroduction

ofevents,apulsatingvibratoryreality;the.presentemergesasan in
tervalanddepth ofdurationthrough whichthe pastto someextent
persists:sihisontological,ratherthanpsychological^understandingof
memoryitisthebeingoourancestorsthatinhabitsuswastohave
a lasting influence on Benjamin. Bergson further distinguishes the
"concretetime"ofvitalprocessandintuitionfromthe"abstracttime"
associatedwithscientificmeasurement;ourcustomaryconceptshave
beenformed,hesays,onthemodelofsolids,andourlogicispreemi
nentlythe"logicofsolids."(AtthebackofthisstandstheNietzschean
critique ofclassical concepts of substance, identity, continuity, and
causality,infavorofamoredynamicconception.)In"TheMetaphysics
ofiYouth,"Benjamin likewise distinguishes"developmental time"
the time of calendar, clock, and stock exchangefrom "youthful
time,"whichhethinksofas"immortaltime."This/'puretime"flows
intermittently within the everydaychronological, with its chain of
experiences,butit alsotranscendswhat containsit, justas thepreg
nant inner"silence transcendsthe words ofthe conversationarising
from it. (Thefirst part ofthe essay is entitled"The.Conversation.")
Thisis tosay: wetranscend ourselves"we,the timeofthings." Ev
erything that happens, Benjamin contends, surrounds us as land
scape;thelandscapeisourpastandweareitsfuture,wewhoexpand
outwardintotheworldonlyinsofaras,inconsciousnessofdeath,we
drawinward'towardthe"womb oftime,"sourceofallradiatiiig and
gravitating,all"resurrectionsoftheself."
'
Thereisasimilardistinction,atthe.beginningof"TheLifeofStu
dents,"between conventional historiography, presupposinga causal
progressionofevents'withinahomogeneouscontinuum, andanon
linearhistoryinwhichthemeaningofthepastemergesonlyinrela
tion to the "focal point" of the presenta striking anticipation of
Benjamin'slater"monadology"andhistheoryofthe"dialecticalim
age"asthesiteofasuddenhistoricalconstellation,a messianiccon
vergenceof pastandpresent. Accordingtothis view,the taskofthe
historianisfirstofalltoexcavatethepresentmoment,soastobringto
lightandwakenthe fossilizedhistoricalenergies latentwithin it.
Unlikethehistoricistview,whichbelievesitcanrepossessthepast"as
it really was," the constellation of awakening reveals the historical

Translator'sIntroduction ii

objectinitsmeaningfora"hereandnow"thatisitselftransformed,
andnot just intellectually, inthe confrontation/One awakensfrom
thedreamofthepastinwakingtoit,downtoitsmosthiddenrecesses
(thetasteofamadeleinedippedintea).Butitsmeaningis"distilled"
inthelightningflashofinterpretation.
Themetaphysicsandthepoliticsofyoutharecomplemented,inBen
jamin'swritingsfromtheyears19141916,byapoeticsandatheory
oflanguage:namely,intheessays"TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin"
and"OnLanguageasSuchandontheLnguageofMan,"probablythe
twobestknownworksof Benjamin'searlyperiod..{Mentionmightbe
madehere,aswell,ofhiswritingsontheaestheticsofcolor,especially
the dialogueof 1915,"The Rainbow:A'Conversationabout Imagina
tion,"whichdirectlybearsonatheoryofperceptionandmeaningthat
dissolves the logicof solids.) Everywhere throughthe earlywritings,
mostelaboratelyinthelongeressays,runsadialecticalmodeofthought
involvingthetranscendencenotabandonmentMftraditionalmeta
physicaloppositions(suchasformandcontent,wordandthing,spirit
andnature),togetherwithacritiqueoftljeinstrumentalizingofspirit,
whetheritbethereductionoftheworkofarttoamerecopyofpreestab
lishedfacts^orthereductionoflanguagetothesysterofsignsandthe
communicationofinformation. Attheir philosophiccore,these writ
ingsembodyadynamicfieldtheoryofreality,inwhichspaceandtime
areunderstoodintermsofeachothertheessayonHlderlintreatsof
"temporalplasticity"and"spatialhappening"andinwhichcenterand
periphejryareseenasfunctionsofthsiitultaneousconcentration*and
expansionofthefield'offorce.NatureisJierethemanifoldcontinuum
of transformations,afearful eventismbeyondall staticatomism. Itis
the"magic"(thatis,immediate)intelligibilityoftheworldassuch,the
mutelanguageand, asitwere,weather ofthingsarticulatingitself by
degreesinthehuman*languageofnames,whichtranslatesandliberates
itatthehighestlevel,inpoeticart.Foritisartthatbringstolightthe
gravityofexistence,theinexpressibledepthinwhichweareknownby
theunknowable.Andthatis'theuniquetruthfulnessofart.Sometwo
f
3.Butthereisalsoacritiqueofthemystificationsofl'artpourl'art.See"Dia
logueontheReligiosityofthePresent"(Chapter13inthisvolume).

12 Translator'sIntroduction

decadeslater,inaletterofMay31,1935,tohisworldlyfriendandally,
TheodorAdorno, Benjaminwill claimto havelong surpassedthe
"blithelyarchaic"philosophizingofhisearlieryears,withitsromantic
"ensnaremeht"innature.Itremainsthecase,however,despitetheman
ifestdifferencesinfocusandsubjectmatterbetweenearlyandlateBen
jamin,and despiteacertaiincrease inurbanity overthe years, that
noneofthe"romantic"motifsenunciatedabove,rthephilosophic
principlesinforming them, are absentfrom the laterwork, distin
guishedas itis byamethod ofmontage. Thereare virtuallynofalse
stepsihtheyouthwritings.^Thetendencyamongsomecriticstooppose
Benjamin'searly"idealism"tohislater"materialism"ismisleading.
Which,ofcourse,isnottodenythevariusepochsofBenjamin's
careerasthinkerandwriter.Separatingthesevereandmagisteriales
sayson Hlderlinand onlanguage fromthe rhapsodic"The Meta
physicsofYouth"istheadventofWorldWarI,whichwasmarkedin
themostintimatewayforBenjaminbythedoublesuicideofhisfriends
FritzHeinleandRika Seligson(a sisterof Benjamin'scorrespondent
Carla Seligson) ina meetinghouse ofthe Independent Students in
BerlinonAugust8,1914.Afterthisevent,Benjamineffectivelyceased
hisstudentactivisminalettertwomonthslater,hewritesoftheneed
fora"harder,purer,more invisibleradicalism"andheturnedaway
frommostofhiscomradesintheyouthmovement,includinghisformer
mentor,GustavWyneken,whomhedenounced,inaletterofMarch9,
1915,for hispublicsupport ofthe Germanwar effort.This letterto
Wynekenconcludes:"The ideahasslipped outofyour erringhands
andwillcontinuetosufferunspeakably.ThelegacyInowwrestfrom
youisthatoflivingwiththeidea."
Forthefirstthreeyearsofthewar,Benjaminmanagedtoobtaina
medicaldefermentfromthemilitary, ononeoccasionstaying upall
nightandconsuminglargeamountsofblackcoffeeincompanywith

4.Anexceptionis theattitudetowardcinemain1913;seep.104below.The
montageaestheticsemergeswithOneWayStreet,whichwasbegunin1923.Cor
relativetothisisanemphasis nolongeroncommunityassuchbuton"mutual
alienness,"forithasbecome"impossible...inouragetogivevoicetoanycom
munality"("AnnouncementoftheJournalAngelusNovus"[1922],inSWl,296).

Translator'sIntroduction 13

Scholem,whomhemetinthesummerof1915,andonanotherocca
sionallpwinghimselftobehypnotizedbyhistalentedfellowactivist
andwifetobe,DoraPollack,inordertobringonsymptomsofscit
ica.Inthefallof1915,heleftBerlintocontinuehisstudiesinMunich,
wherehewidened hiscircleiof intellectualacquaintancesandbegan
livingwithDora,adiyorce.TheyweremarriedinApril1917,andthat
summertheysecuredamedicalcertificateenablingthemtoleavefor
neutral Switzerland, where theyspent theduration ofthe war, and
where Benjamin in 1919 completed his doctoral dissertation, "The
Concept ofCriticism inGerman Romanticism,"which developsan
ideaofcriticismas"theafterlifeofworks."Hewasalsoengagedatthis
timeintranslatingthe"Tableauxparisiens"sectionofBaudelaire'sLes
Fleursdu mal,whichwouldappearin asmallduallanguageedition
in 1923, with Benjamin's theoretical foreword. After almost three
yearsofSwiss"exile,"ashelatercalledit,hereturnedto Berlinwith
Doraandtheirson,Stefan.
Duringthesummerof1917,inabhrtessayonDostoevsky'snovel
TheIdiot,Benjaminpennedakindofepitaphforyouthandtheyouth
movementone thatsounds anote ofpromiseinits unsubduedla
ment.^Hespeaksonceagain,withreferencetotheultimatedemiseof
thenovel'shero.PrinceMyshkin,of"theimmortalityoflife,"anim
mortalitythatisnot aipiatteroflongevitybutamatterofinfinitevi
bration:"Thepurewordforlifeinitsimmortality,however,is'youth.'
Dostoevsky's greatlament inthe book isfor this:the failure ofthe
youthmovement [das ScheiternderBewegung derJugend].Itslifere
mainsimmortalbutlosesitselfi n itso w n l i g h t . . .
SpecialthanksaredueMichaelW.JenningsandPeterFenvesfortheir
adviceconcerningthepreparationofthisvolume.
5.InaletterofFebruary23,1918,toScholem,Benjaminsimilarlyinvokes"the
endofa greatepochin mylifenowbehindme.Thesixyears[that]havepassed
sinceIleftschoolliaveconstitutedasingleepoch;livedthroughatamonstrous
tempo,anepochwhichformecontainsaninfiniteamountofthepast[unendlich
vielVergangenheit]inotherwords,ofeternity"(CWB,117).

IhePoet IS

Chapter1

ThePoet

Wheresuddensteepfallofrock
Eternallythundersintothegloomydepths.
Beholdthebrinkofthemonstrousabyss;
Thereyouseeonestandinguntroubled
Betweenblacknightandmanycoloredlife.
Hestandsthereinimmutablecalm.
Solitary,atadistancefromtheroadoflife.
Hispenetratinggazeisdirectednowwithin.
Nowboldlyupwardtousinthelight.
Andnow,rangingwide,upon'thethrong.
Hishandwritesdownlineseternal.
Seeandknowthisone:itisthepoet."'

Notes
AroundthethroneofZeusweregathered
TheOlympians.AndApollospoke,
HisgazeturnedonZeus,questioning:
"Inyourvastcreation,greatZeus,
Icandiscerneachindividualbeing
Andtelleachfromtheothersataglance.
OnlythepoetIseekinvain."
Whereupontheruleransweredhim:
"Lookbelowonthecliffsoflife,thesteep
Rockyslope,wherethegenerations
Wanderineternalchange.
Amotleytrain:youseesome
Withhandsupraised,supplicatinginmisery.
Whileothersyouseatplay,inlaughter.
Pickingflowersontheprecipice;
Andsomeyouseecreepingalonginsilence.
Theirblankgazefixedontheground.
Numberlessthebeingsyoufindwithinthethrong.
Eachdifferinginspiritanddemeanor;
Butamongthemyouseekinvainforthepoet.
Looktothemarginofthegreatstoneroad,

"DerDichter" (GS2,832) waspublished, underthe pseudonym"Ardor," in

Der Anfang. Zeitschriftfr kommende Kunstund Literatur(hectographed),
June1910.
1.This poemwas Benjamin'sfirst publishedwork, appearingwhen he
wasstill inhighschool. Theverse formin Germanis unrhymedtrochaic
pentameter.

AtNight 17

Chapter2

AtNight:Thoughts
SuggestedbyaSchumann
Composition

layformanyhourswithoutbeingable.to sleep.,Iturnedthisway
andthat, butto noavail; myglances keptreturning tothe tiled
stove,whosewhitelightfilteredthroughthedarkness.Asidefromthis
eternalwhite radianceI sawnothing, though I knew perfectlywell
wherethedoorwassituatedononesideoftheoven,atthefootofmy
bedtherewherethewallreceded.Iknewalso'thatthegreatchestof
drawersstoodalongtheotherwallacross frommybed. AndI knew
thatIcouldtouchthewindowpane ifIstretchedmyhandacrossthe
bedsteadtowardtheheado f t heb e d . . .
Inalittlewhile,themoon wouldbeshiningthroughthewindow.
Butnowallwasdark.IlistenedasoutsidetheMarchwindwasplaying
i n thetrees.Thecurtaintrembledattheb l u s t e r . . .
Iturnedoverandclosedmyeyes.WhenIagainlookedup,Isawonce
moretheglowofthe tiledstove, indistinctlywhitethrough thedark
ness.Itwasasthoughitsoughtme.ForalongtimeIlookedatit,then
suddenlyIwasseizedwithfear.Icouldnotmove;Imustseealwaysthe
paleglow. Butthe clockonthe wallhadjust ticked,quite loudlyand
keenly.Iknew:itwantedtowarnme.Moreover,itspokealwaysinthe
sametone;alwaysitswarningsweresharpandloud.Ilistenedtoit,but
Icouldnotturn myeyesawayfrom thewhiteglimmerthat fromthe
16

wall diffused itself through the room. The clock went on warning
monotonously...
Butnowitceasedwarning;nowitsaidsomething,loudandclear.It
saidthatsomeonewascoming.Andveryclearly,from,putsideonthe
longwalkway, I heardslow, shufflingsteps steadilyapproaching...
Andn o w t heywereveryn e a r . . . A n d therewasn o stoppingt h e m . . .
Thentheglowstirredandcamealiveandtookholdoftheentireroom;
itspreadoutonthefloor,andnow,attheclock'scommand,itclimbed
upthewalls,andquicklyitspranguponmefromaboveandfromall
sides.Andasitcame,itchanged,becomingeverlouder,whileyellow
formsbrokefree andadvancedtoward me;louder,shriller camethe
command, the room growing ever fuller, and they pounced more
quicklyonme, onfeet andeyes. Immobile,with openmouth, Ilay
there...untilthefirstlanded onmychest. ThenI toremyselfloose
andlifted upmyarm andthrust itinto themaelstrom...Ahollow
tones o u n d e d . . . Theroomemptiedout,andm y e yesc l o s e d . . .
WhenIlookedup,itwasquiet,andthemoonshoneintotheroom.
Theclockshowedonehourpastmidnight.'

Notes
"InderNacht:GedankenbeieinemSchumann'schenStck"(GS2,832833)
waspublished,underthepseudonym"Ardor,"in DerAnfang.Zeitschrift fr
kommendeKunstund Literatur(hectographed),June1910.
Thereference inthetitle istotheGerman composerRpbertScl\umann
(18101856),whosemusichasalyricalandsometimesfantasticcharacter.He
sufferedfrom hallucinationsin lateryearsand wascommitted toamental
asylum.
1.Comparethetwoyeirsionsof"TheMoon"(1933and1938)inBenjamin's
BerlinChildhoodaround1900(SW3,382383,405407).

TheThreeWhoSoughtRehgion

Chapter3
>

TheThreeWhoSoughtRehgion

hreeyoungmenwerestandingunderthegreatfirtreeonthhill
andhadjoinedhands.Theycouldsee,lyingbelowthem,thevil
lagewheretheyhadbeen bornand,stretchinginto thedistance,the
roadstheywerenowaboutto travelontheirwayoutintolife.And
thefirstyouthspoke;"So,inthirtyyearsweshallmeethereagain,and
thenwewillseewhichofushasfoundreligion,thesoleandthetrue
rligion."Theothersagreed and,aftershakinghands, theysetoff'in
threedifferentdirections,onthreedifferentroadsintolife.
Thefirsthadbeentravelingforseveralweekswhenonedayhesaw
thespiresanddomesfamightycityrisingbeforehim.Andhequickly
madeuphismindtogothere,forhehadheardwonderfulthingsabout
bigcities:theyweresaidtohouseallthetreasuresofart,togetherwith
thickbooksfilledwiththewisdomofages,andfinallymanychurches
aswell,inallofwhichthepeopleprayedtoGod.There,religionwould
surelyalsobefound.Fullofcourageandhope,hestrodethroughthe
citygates at sunset...Andfor thirtyyears heremained inthe city,
pursuingstudiesandseekingaftertheonetruereligion.
Thesecondyouthfollowedadifferentroad,onethatwoundthrough
shadyvalleysandwoodedhighlands.Singingcheerfullyandwithout
acare intheworld, he wanderedabout, andwhere hecame upona
J

jp

lovelyspot,helaydown,rested,anddreamed.Andwhenhewasthus
engrossedinthe beautyof thesetting sun,when helay inthegrass
andwatchedthewhitecloudspassoverheadinthebluesky,whenin
thewoodshe suddenlyglimpsedahiddenlakeflashing upfrombe
hindthe.trees,.thenhewashappyandfelthehadfoundreligion...For
thirtyyearshewanderedinthisway,ramblingandresting,dreaming
andlookingabouthim.
Thingswerenotsoeasyforthethirdyouth.Hewaspoorandcould
notpleasantlyroam forlongbut hadtothink insteadofearninghis
dailybread.Andsohedidnothesitateforlongeither:afterafewdays
hehad^lreadyapprenticedhimselftoasmithinavillagesoastolearn
atrade.Itwasadifficulttimeforhim,andinanyeventhehadnoop
portunityto devotehimself tothe search forreligion. This was the
casenotonlyduringthefirstyearbutduringthewholeofthesubse
quentperiod;Forwhenhehadfinishedhisapprenticeship,hedidnot
spend'timetravelingthroughthe worldasajourneyman butinstead
foundemploymentinabigcity.Therebelaboredassiduouslyoverthe
courseofmanyyears,and,bythetimethethirtiethyearwasdrawing
toaclose,hehadbecomeanindependentartisan,buthehadnotbeen
abletoseek religionandheJiadnotfoundit.And.towardtheendof
thethirtiethyear,hesetoutonthejourneytohisnativevillage.
Hiswayledthroughavastandwildmountainousregion,wherehe
traveledfor daysonendwithoutmeeting asouF. Onthe morningof
thereunion,however,hewantedforoncetoclimboneofthosetower
ingmountainswhosepeaks'hehadseenabovehimduringhisjourney
there.Hestartedoutquiteearly, severalhoursbeforesunrise,butthe
ascentprovedmerelylaborious,sowhollyunpparedformountain
climbingashwas. Hestoodfor awhileonthe summittocatch his
breath.Therehesawlyingbeforehimintheradianceofthemorning
sun,whichwas justthenrising, abroad,broad plain...withallthe
villagesinwhich hehadonce workedand withthecity inwhichhe
hadbecome masterofhiscraft. Andalltheroads, the>rdadshehad
traveledhesawthemclearlybeforehimandhisvariousworLsit'es.
Hecouldnotgethisfilloflooking'atthescene!
Butwhen hedid turnhisgazeaway andlookhigherup, intothe
radiance ofthe sun,he saw.inthe cloudsa newworldrising slowly

20

TheThreeWhoSoughtReligion 21

EARLYWRITINGS

beforehiseyes inthetrembling light.'Hebecame awareofmoun

tainpeaks,glisteningwhitemountainpeaks,whichrosehighintothe
clouds.
Butalightofunearthlyintensityuptheredazzledthevisionandhe
couldrecognizenothing'dearlyintheradiance,althoughhethought
he could seefigures inhabiting it, and crystalline cathedrals were
ringingfromafarinthemorninglight.
Onperceivingthis,hefelltotheground,pressedhisbrowagainst
therock,andsobbedandbreatheddeep.
Afterawhileherosetohisfeetandthrewanotherglanceatthewon
derfulworldupthere,whichnowlaybeforehiminthefullradianceof
thesun. Andhesawthere also,quite small,faintly tracedin thedis
tance,pathwaysleadingupintotheshining,burgeoningmountains.
Thenheturnedaroundand climbedbackdown.Andhard itwas
forhimtofind hiswayagaininthevalley therebelow.^Byevening,
however,hehadreachedhisnativevillage, andonthehillabovethe
villagehemethisfriends.Thentheysatdownatthefootofthegreat
firtreeandtoldoneanotheroftheirfortunesinthe world,andhow
theyfoundtheirreligion.
Thefirst toldofhislife inthe greatcity,how hehadstudiedand
carriedonresearch*,inthelibrariesandlecturehalls,howhehadlis
tenedtothemosteminentprofessors.Tobesure, hehimselfhadnot
foundreligion, buthe wasnonetheless confidentof havingdone all
thatcouldbedone."For,"saidhe,"intheentirelengthandbreadthof
thecity,thereisnotonechurchwhosedogmasandaxiomsIcouldnot
refute."
Thenthesecond toldofthefortunes ofalifespent inwandering,
andmuchofwhat herecountedcaused histwofriends toburst out
laughingortolisteninsuspense.But inspiteofallhiseffortshedid
notsucceedinmakinghisreligioncomprehensible totheother two,
andhecouldneverquitegetbeyondthewords:"Yes,yousee,onehas
tofeelit!"Andagain:"Thisissomethingyoumustfeel!"Andtheoth
ersdidnotunderstandhim,andintheendtheywerealmostsmiling.
Veryslowly,andstillmovedbyhisgreatexperience,thethirdbe
gantotell ofhisfortunes. Buthetoldof themnotas theothershad
describedtheirs,notasheactuallyexperiencedthem;rather,he told

ofhow,thatmorning,ashestoodonthetopofthemountain,hehad
casthiseyeoveralltheroadshehadevertraveled.
Andattheveryend,hesitating,hementionedthoseshiningwhite
mountainpeaks."Ibelievethatwhenyoulookovertheentirecourse
ofyourlifelikethis,thenyoualsomayseethewaythatleadstothose
mountainsanddazzlingheights.Whatisboundupinthatfire,how
ever,canverylikelyonlybeguessedat,andwemusteachseektogive
itshapeonthebasisofourownfortunesmlife."
Thenhefellsilent.
Theothertwodidnotquiteunderstandhim,butneitheruttereda
wordinresponse.Instead,theylookedoutintotheapproachingnight,
tosee ifperhaps theymight catchsight ofthe shiningpeaks inthe
distance.

Notes
"DiedreiReligionssucher"(GS2, 892894)waspublished,und^rthe pseud
onym"Ardor,"inDerAnfang.Zeitschriftfr kommendeKunst undLiteratur
(hectographed),August1910.
1." . . . saherl angsami n denW olkeninzitterndemScheine ineneueWelt
vorseinenAugenerstehen."Scheincanmean"illusion"aswellas"light."
2.ComparePlato'sparableofthecaveat thebeginningofBookSevenof
TheRepublic.
^

Storm 23

Chapter4

Storm

Deepshadowsfanoutfromthevalley.
Ontheheightsthfewoodsaremurmuringsoftly;
Thetall,thicktreetopsbendandsway
Slowlytheynodandfallasleep.
Beyondthemountainscloudsaremassing.,.
Butthemurmurswells,andfromtheheights.
Withhollowrumbleandmountingferocity.
Thestormsweepsdown.Flyingheadlong.
Ithumblestheheightsandinmightyblasts
Invadesthevalley,anditswingsspreaddarkness
Allaround...Thewoodsareinanuproar.
Thestormishowling;everywhereitssharpclaws
Tearintotheland.Theninmightyrecoil
Itdashesupthemountainside...Thetreetrunksarecrashing;
Higherup,ithurlsitselfintotheclouds.
Anddisappearsbehindthemountain...Adistanthowl
Heraldsitsbattlewithcloudgiants.

22

Note
Sturm (GS2,834) waspublished, underthepseudonym "Ardor,"inDer
Anfang. Zeitschrift fr kommende Kunst und Literatur (hectographed)
September1910.

Spring'sHideaway 25

Notes
Chapter5

Spring'sHideaway

Thebarewallsstretchstifflyupward,
Theflatroofsrisetowardthesky...
Butdeep,deepbeneath,closedround
Bythewallsandbygrayfences,
Liesagarden.Theretheblueskyofspring
Peersinbetweenadjacentrooftops.
Alittlegrassyspot.Andwindingshyly,closely.
Aroundthethingrassisayellowgravelpath.
Butinacorner,wherethefences
Pressstillcloserandahighredwall
Loomsdarkandbrutal,
Apeartreestands;anditslongbranches
Reachoverthefence...thedarkstem
Fullofluminous,delicatewhiteflowers.
Andnowandagainamildwindblows,
Andblossomsfloatdownintothegarden.

24

"DesFrhlings Versteck"(GS2, 834) waspublished, underthe pseudonym

"Ardor."inDerAnfang.Zeitschriftfi^rkommendeKunstundLiteratur(hecto
graphed),September1910.
Benjaminpublishedonemorepoem,"Dmmerung"(Dusk), inDer An
fang(February1911).SeeGS2,835.

SleepingBeauty 27

Chapter6

SleepingBeauty

eliveinanageofsocialism,ofthewomen'smovement,oftraffic,
ofindividualism.Arewenotheadedtowardanageofyouth?
Atanyrate,wearelivingatatimewhenitisimpossibletoopena
newspaperwithoutrunningintotheword"school,"atatimewhenthe
words"coeducation,""boardingschool,""child,"and"art"areinthe
air.Youth,however, istheSleepingBeautywhoslumbersand hasno
inkling ofthe prince whoapproaches toset her free. Andto bring
abouttheawakening ofyouth,itsparticipation inthe strugglegoing
onaroundit, ispreciselythe goalto whichourjournal aimstocon
tribute.'Itaims toshowyoungpeoplewhatvalue andexpressionare
preservedforthemintheyouthfullifepfgreatindividuals;ofaSchil
ler,aGoethe,aNietzsche.^Itaimstoshowthemthewaystowakenin
themselvesa senseofcommunity, aconsciousnessof themselvesas
theoneswho, notwithoutglory, willweaveand giveformto world
history.
That thisideal ofayouth consciousof itselfas afuture cultural
factor does not originate withus today, that it isa notionalready
clearlyexpressedbygreatwriters,isprovedbyaquickglanceatworld
literature.

26

Nodoubtfewofthe ideasthatoccupyour timeshavenotalready

beentouchedon byShakespeareinhisdramas,andaboveall inthe
tragedyofmodernman,HamletThere Hamletspeaksthewords:
Thetimeisoutofjoint.Ocursdspite,
ThateverIwasborntosetitright!'
Hamlet'sheart isembittered. Heseesinhis uncleamurderer, inhis
mothera woman livingin incest. And what feeling giveshim this
knowledge?Clearly, hefeelsdisgust withthe world.But hedoesnot
turnaway fromit inmisanthropicwillfulness. Rather,there livesin
himthefeelingofamission:hehascomeintotheworldtosetitright.
To whom could these words better apply than the youth oftoday?
Notwithstandingallthetalkofyouth,spring,andlove,ineverythink
ingyoungperson lurksthe germof pessimism.This germisdoubly
stronginourday.Porhowcan ayoungperson, especiallyonefrom
thebigcity,confrontthedeepestproblems,thesocialmisery,without
atleast sometimesfallingprey topessimism? Nocounterarguments
willservehere;onlyconsciousnesscan andmustbeofhelp.Though
theworldbeeversobad,youcametomakeitbetter.Thatisnotarro
gancebutonlyconsciousnessofduty.
ThisHamletlikeconsciousness oftheworld'sbasenessand ofthe
calltomakeit betteralsoantidatesKarl Moor.^ButwhereasHamlet
neverforgetshimselfbeforethewickednessoftheworld,andrepresses
alllustforrevengeinordertoremainpur,KarlMoorlosescontrolof
himselfin.hisanarchistic intoxication with freedom. Thus, hewho
startedoutasliberatormustinthe endsuccumbtohimself.Hamlet
succumbstotheworldandremainsvictorious.
Later,Schillercreatedanotherpersonificationofyouth:MaxPicco
lomini.5ButthoughhemaybemoresympatheticthanKarlMoor,asa
manheisnotsoclosetous(usyouth);forKarlMoor'sstrugglesareour
struggles,theeternalrebellionofyouth,thestruggleswithsociety,state,
law.MaxPiccoloniiniisinvolvedinamorenarrowlyethicalconflict.
Goethe! Do we expect from him sympathywith the youth? We
thinkofTassoandseemtocatchsightofGoethe'sseverecountenance

28 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

SleepingBeauty 29

orhissubtlesarcasticsmilebehindthema^kof Antonio.Andyet
Tasso.Thereisyouthoncemore,althoughonawhollydifferentplane;
notfornothingis theheroapoet.Atthecourtof Ferrara,propriety
anddecorumarethemorerigorouscriteria.Not"uncouth"morality.
AndnowwerealizethatTassoisyouth.Hekeepswatchoveranideal
thatofbeauty.Butsincehecannotsubduehisyouthfulardor[Feuer]
anddoeswhatnopoetissupposedtodo,sinceinhislovefortheprin
cesshe transgresses the boundaries of propriety, violating his own
ideal,hemustbowtoage,tothoseforwhomconventionhasbecome
"etiquette."Hence,theironyofhisfinalwords;

consequencesof hisfanatical idealism,his resolveto serve theideal

doesnotwaver.Shouldtheidealproveunattainable,thenlifeforhim
isworthlessarid histask ishenceforth"tobe thirteenthat table"'"
thatis, todie.Somethinglsecomestolight inTheWild Duck.Like
manyof Ibsen'splays, thisone, too;isagitated byproblemswhich
arenotresolved,theseproblemsareineffectthebackground, theat
mosphereofthetimes,fromwhichthecharacterofaGregrsemerges,
onewho throughhisownlife, throughthe will,the,intentionofhis
moralaction,resolvestheproblemsofcivilizationforhimself.
Youth,assuch,IbsenhasrepresentedinthefigureofHildaWangel
inTheMasterBuilder}^Ourinterestisfocused,hovrever,onthemaster
builderSolnesshimself, ratherthanon HildaWangel,who ismerely
thepalesymbolofyouth.
Icomfinallytothemostrecentpoetofyouthandonewhoforthe
youthoftodayisthepoetinvokedbeforeothers;CarlSpitteler.'^Like
Shakespearein Hamletandlike^bsen inhisdramas,Spitteler pres
entsheroeswhosufferforthe idealiIt isauniversalidealofhuman
ity,more outspokenthan withIbsen. Spitteleryearns fora newhu
manityemboldenedbythespiritoftruth.Theoutstandingexpression
ofhisconvictionsarehistwogreatworks,theepicpoemsPrometheus
and EpimetheusandOlympian Spring,and intheseworks, asinhis
splendid"autobiographical novel Imago (which I consider the most
beautiful ofbooks for theyoung), he depictsnow tragically, now
comicallyor satiricallytheapathy and cowardice of theordinary
man.He,too,startsfrompesimismonlytoarriveatoptimisriiwith
his faith in the ethical personality (Prometheus,Heracles in the
Olympian Spring).If'his universal ideal ofhumanity andhis over
comingofpesimismmakehimapoetfortheyoUth,andparticularly
forus youth,the samemaybe saidabove allfor hissilperS pathos,
whichbespeaksa masteryoflanguage thatis practicallytinequaled
amonghisContemporaries.
Thus,thesphereofknowledgeinwhichourjournalaimstobeac
tiveisalreadyfirmlyestablishedintheworksofthegreatestauthors
ofliterature.

Andsothesailorclingsfasttothatvery
Rockonwhichhisvesselshouldhavefoundered.^
Theironyisthathenowclingsfasttotherockofconventionhewho
offendedagainsttheidealofbeautyKarlMoorfoundersinsofarashe
betraysanethicalideal.Tassoinsofarashebetraysanaestheticideal.
ThemostuniversalrepresentativeofyouthisFaust:hiswholelife
isyouth,fornowhereishelimitedandalvraysheseesnewgoalsthat
hemust.realize;anda manis youngsolongas hehasnot yetalto
getherconvertedhisidealintorealityThatisthesuresignofage;to
seein theexistentallthere is.Therefore, Faustmust diehisyouth
mustendthemomenthe'contentshimselfwithwhatisathandand
seesnothingelse.Ifheweretoliveon,thenwewoulddiscoverinhim
anAntonio. WithFaust itbecomesclear whytheseheroes ofyouth
can"nevergetanywhere,"whytheyhavetoperishinthemomentof
fulfillmentorelsecarryonaneternallyunsuccessfulstruggleforthe
ideal.
Thesefailedchampionsoftheidealhavetheircounterpartsinthe
plays ofIbsen, especiallyin two stirringfigures; Dr. Stockmann in
Enemyof thePeople and,evenmoreimpressivelyandsubtly.Gregers
WerleinThe Wild Duck?Gregers Werle issharplydistinguishedby
thatgenuinelyyouthfultrait, thatfaithinthe idealandthatspiritof
sacrificethatremainsunshakeableevenwhentheidealcannotbeful
filledorwhenitbringsalamity.(Forhappinessandidealsareoftenin
opposition.) At the close of The Wild Duck, when Gregerssees the

30

EARLYWRITINGS

Notes
"Das Dornrschen"(GS2, 912)was published,under thepseudonym"Ar
dor,"inDerAnfang.VereinigteZeitschriftenderJugend,March1911.
1.Benjaminrefers tothestudentrunperiodical DerAnfang(IheBegin
ning),which appearedin afirstseries between1908 and1910,in asecond
seriesin1911, andinathirdseriesbetweenMay1913andJuly1914.Having
begunhisassociationwiththejournalin1910whilestillinhi^hscliol,Ben
jamincontinuedwritingforitthrough1913.benjaminreturnstotheclassic
fairy1;ale"SleepingBeauty"{Dornrschenismoreliterally"LittleBriarRose")
inashort,mordant"PrefacetotheTrauerspielbook,"writtenJuly1925after
the failure ofhis submission ofa dissertationon theseventeenthcentury
GermanTrauerspiel(mourningplay) totheUniversityofFrankfurtandthe
collapseofhisplanstobecomeauniversitylecturer.Theprefacewasenclosed
inalettertoGershomScholemofMay29,1926,andreads;"I wouldliketo
tellthe storyofSleeping Beautya secondtime./Shesleeps inher hedgeof
thorns.Andthen,afteracertainnumberofyears,shewakes./Butnotatthe
kissofafortunateprince. /Thecookwokeherupwhenhegavethescullery
boyaboxonthe earwhich,resounding fromthepentup forceofsomany
years,echoedthroughthepalace.//Abeautifulchildsleepsbehindthethorny
hedgeofthefollowingpages./ Maynofortune'sprinceintheshiningarmor
ofscholarshipcomenear.Forinthekissofbetrothalitwillbite./ Andso,in
ordertoawakenit.theauthorhashadtoreservetohimselftherole ofchief
cook.Alreadylongoverdueistheboxontheearthatwouldresoundthrough
thehallsofacademe. / Fortherewillawakenalsothispoortruth,whichhas
prickeditselfonanoldfashionedspindleas,inforbiddenfashion,itthought
toweaveforitself,inthelittlebackroom,aprofessorialrobe"(GB3.164).
2.The writersFriedrich vonSchiller (17591805)and JohannWolfgang
vonGoethe(17491832)weretheforemostrepresentativesofGermanClassi
cism.ThephilosopherFriedrichNietzsche(18441900)exertedarevolution
aryinfluenceontheartistsandthinkersofBenjamin'sgeneration.Thephrase
"youthfullifeofgreatindividuals"translatesJugendlebenderGroen.
3.Hamlet, I.v.188189. BenjaminquotesthetranslationbyAugustWil
helmSchlegel(1798).
4.ProtagonistofSchiller'sfirstplayDieRuber(TheRobbers;1781),Karl
Moor isa fundamentallynoble, ifsomewhat dissoluteyoung man,who is
driventoaUfeofcrimebythevillainiesofhisyoungerbrother.Afterbeing
disownedbyhisfather,hedefiesestablishedauthoritybybecomingchieftain

SleepingBeauty 31

ofabandoffreelivingbrigands,buthesoonrealizesthefutilityofhiswayof
lifeandgiveshimselfupattheendtothelaw.arrangingfortherewardtogo
toapoordaylaborerwithelevenchildren.
5.AmaincharacterinSchiller'strilogyWallenstein(1800),Max.Piccolo
miniisayoungarmycoloneltornbetweenhisvenerationofhiscommander
Wallensteinandhisinabilitytoapprovethelatter'streasonagainsttheEm
peroi";unabletoreconcilehisheartwithhisduty,heendsindespair,finding
deathinabattlewithWallenstein'sallies.
6.Goethe'sTorquatoTasso(1790)dramatizestheexperienceoftheyoung
Italianpoet. TorquatoTasso, at thecourt of Duke Alfonsoof Ferrara:his
initial acclamation, subsequent violation ofcourt etiquette, andfinal dis
tractedflightfromFerrara.TheplayturnsontheideaofSittlichkeit(morals),
whichisanimportantterminBenjamin's writingsonyouth(see"Dialogue
ontheReligiosityofthePresent,"Chapter13 inthisvolume).Thecharacter
AntonioMontecatino isa worldlywise statesman whodisplays bothcon
temptforandenvyofthepoetandattheendseemstoofferhimfriendship.
7. Torquato Tasso, trans AlanBrownjohn (London:Angel. 1985),p. 137
(modified).
8.BenjaminreferstothescholarandnecromancerHeinrichFaust,heroof
Goethe'stwopartversedramaFaust(1808;1832).
9.TheNorwegianplaywrightHenrikIbsen(18281906)isregardedasthe
creatorof modern, realistic prose drama. In hisplay Enemy'of the People
(1882),theprotagonistDr.ThomasStockmannstandsupforthetruth(about
thedangersofaproposedpublicproject)despitethecollectiveoutrageofhis
fellowcitizens.InTheWild Duck(1884).youngGregers Werle.atthe"sum
monsof theideal." likewise unearthshidden truthsabout thefamily with
whichheisliving,onlytodiscoverthattheycannotgoonwithout"thesav
inglie."
10.The WildDuck, trans.UnaEllisFermor (1950;rpt.Harmondsworth:
Penguin.1982),p.260(ActV).
11.InIbsen'sTheMasterBuilder(1892),themiddleagedarchitectHalvard
Solness is incited to reckless and selfdestructive actions by the adoring
youngwomanHildaWangeL
12.The Swisswriter CarlSpitteler (18451924) wasawarded theNobel
PrizeforLiteraturein1919.HewasacorrespondentofthephilosopherNietz
sche.whoarrangedpublishingventuresforhim.HisepicpoemPrornetheus
andEpimetheus(1881)opposesPrometheus,assovereignindividual,toKing
Epimetheus,defenderofconvention.Hewonwidespreadacclaimforanother
epicpoem.DerolympischeFrhling(OlympianSpring;19001905.rev.1910).

32

EARLYWRITINGS

whichconcernsthedeathandrebirthofthegods.Inessays,Spittelerattacked
organizedreligionas inauthentic.Hisautobiographical novelImago (1906),
dealingwith theliberation ofthe creativemind from itsmiddleclass up
bringing,influencedthedevelopmentofpsychoanalysis.DuringWorldWar
I,he spokeout againstthe proGermanismof theSwiss Germanspeaking
majority.ThereisevidencethatBenjaminwasreadingSpitteleraslateas1939
(GB6,269,278).

Chapter7

Diary,Pentecost1911

pril11, 1911.Everywhere inGerniany nowthefields arebeing

tilled.Whentraveling,oneshouldnotwearone'sworstclothes,
becausetravelisanactofinternationalculture:onestepsoutofone's
privateexistence intthe publictDuringthe journey, Iread Anna
Karenina:travelingand readinganexistencebetween twonew,in
structiveandrriomentousrealities.One theme:religionandnature
(naturalreligion).' Thefarmer isnecessarilyreligious. Everyyearhe
experiencesthemiracleofthe plantingandharvest.For theresident
ofthebigxity,thelossofnatureisperhapsaccompaniedbythelossof
religion;initsplacecomessocialfeeling.
Thesearesome thoughtsI hadduringthejourney. FromHalleio
Groheringen,thevalleyoftheSaale istheretoenjoy;butthen only
fields,^eldsthat intersect, rise and fall, andbetween themvillages
withtheirwidemainstreet.^
InFrttstdt, yousuddenlyhave themountains beforeyou. They
wereenveloped intransparentmist, theirpeaksquite uneven.From
Waltershausenon,thetrainpassesthroughbeautifulforestland.
SteinfeldcaughtupwithmeatReinhardsbrunn.^Fromthereitwas
aquarlerhourtoourpension(Koffer).Theproprietorseemsafriendly,
goodnatured man. He subscribes to Jugend and the Israelitisches
33

34 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

Diary,Pentecost1911 35

Familienblatt^The advertisingsectionis dominatedbytheproducts

Intheafternoontherewasarevoltofobjects.Threebananas,going
byairtoSt.,whowaslyingin.bed,shatteredhispincenez.Insimilar
fashion,mypocketknifewoundupunderthebed,whereit'sdarkest.
Thetoothhasdecreedanamnestyforthesakeofafewbonbons.In
otherrespects,too,ithasbehavedadmirably.

ofSolomon&Fkele,sausagesanddishesfortheSeder.(Thelatterare
usedforthePassoverfeastandhavedifferentcompartmentsfordiffer
entfoods.SosaysSteinfeld.)IntheafternoonwefollowedtheHerzog
swegpastthemilltothewaterfall,"returningthroughthevillage,with
itslittle squares:DorotheaWaldemarLottchenAugust. Alwayswith
Spitteler'scounselinmind:notgaping atnaturebut rathertalking
aboutBerlin, thetheater, linguisticblunders.^I'mgoingto stopnow,
inordertoformtheplanfortomorrowwithSteinfeld.
Theintentionwaspeaceful.
Outpostskirmisheswiththeseconduppermolar.
Ih o p e . . . !

April12, 1911.Today isYontev. I'vejust beenreading inthe Hagga

dah.DuringthemealMr.Charizkeptsaying:"So,whatdowemake
forYontev?"(that is,cook).One doesnotsay"Good'day"'but"Good
Yontev."Atdinnertherewasathreearmedcandelabrumonthetable.
ThankGodtheydidn'tdoSeder.Itmightwellhavebeenveryinterest
ingandmightevenhavemovedme,but itwouldhave seemedtome
liketheater,nothingholy.
Nevertheless, thisevening I traveledback inworld historyabout
vehundredyears.
Rainandstormushered inthefeast day.We visitedSalomonand
wentwalking withhim.'' Howenjoyable peoplecan bewhert you're
alonewiththem.Andoutsideoneissoindependentandsuperior,on
anequalfootingwiththem.(Forjustwherewordsarelacking,apara
doxhasemerged...andsoforth.)
This morning I dragged mybodywhichresponded valiantly
over theSeebachsfelsen tothe Spieberghaus, andwe climbedwith
Gottlob to its mossy top. Belowlies Friedrichroda, and opposite a
charmingmountain thathas a crookedpeak (novqrumrerum cupi
dus)and thelowlandswith villagesand mountainrail.?As wede
scendedtowardFriedrichroda,St. [Steinfeld]indulgedinhis favorite
pastime,applyingpsychologytounoffendingobjects.Thistimeitwas
afarmwoman.Unfortunately,shewascarryingcheesewithher.

April13,1911.Eveningwasthecrownofthisday.Morningdidn'thap
penbecauseweconvincedourselves,byexertingalltheforcesofintel
lectand will,that weneedn't risebefore 9:15.With coffethere was
matzoh,andthat'showitwillbe;foryesterdaywasYontevandweare
inPesachweek.ThenwewentclimbingontheAbtsberg. Beneathus
stretchedtheplainwiththesunandtheshadowsofclouds.Wewalked
untilwereacheda bench;thenbackandtothe right,upthroughthe
forestto Schauenburg. Passedbythe Alexandrinenruhand Gnsek
uppehillswithoutrealizingit.The conversationconcernedstoryclo
sure inthe novel and, in connectionwith this, landscape inpoetic
work.WhenSteinfeldandIare'together,aliteraryphilosophicalten
sionis'generated.Insteadofadescription,characterization,"andsta
tisticalanalysisofthe'middaymeal("WhatdowemakeforYontev?"),
therefolloWsoneofthemasterofthehouse:
^
Aphilistine,hespentnineyearsinBerlinanddoesn'tpossesssuffi
cienttacttostartaconversationwithhisguestsbutmanifestshisbore
domthroughlowwhistling andthroatclearing. Affableand, ascon
cernsthe environsof Friedricjiroda, informative.Inthe afternoon,
domesticscenestookplaceinbed.Outside,splendidlargesnowflakes;
inside,foolish.thingsweresaidaboutgraphology."* I sawlettersfrom
Steinfeld'sparents.
Thenwewentout,boughttheSimplicissimus(onthewayback,aco
conut),andwalkedthroughFriedrichroda inthe.directionofthetrain
station.^'Pathsandmeadowswerewet,everythingwonderfullyfresh.A
stretch"ofthemainroadthroughagentlehillylandscape,ofthekind,in
whichHaubindaislocatedandwhichIdearlyloveforthatreason,then
upapaththroughthewoodsandalongamountainridge.'^Therewasa
tree nursery: verysmallfirs andlarger young trees full of drooping
leaves.Thesunsetwasmarvelousaftertherain.Friedrichrodawasveiled

Diary,Pentecost1911 37

36 EARLYWRITINGS

inmistthatglistenedinthesun;thewoodswereirradiatedwithred,and
individualbranchesandtreetrunksalongthepathwereglowing;
Fromincandescentcloudsnewlyrises
Ayoungworld;
Purplishmountainsofmist
Labortogivebirthtogiantbodies;
Gold.eritorrentsburstforth,
Flowfromdensecloudheaven
Throughthelimpidairsofevening
Downtothesilentearth.
Sinkingintorocksandfields.
Glowingveinsofgoldcoursethrough
Thesluggishdepthsoftheearth.

TomorrowHerbertiscoming.'^

April14,1911.Blumenthalarrivedtoday.Thepicturehaschanged.We
wentwalkingwithhim,andtherewaspassingfrictionbetweenStein
feldandme;since previouslywehadbeenon ratherintimate terms,
thewholeexcursionsufferedfromthepresenceofathird.Later,atour
lodgings,IspokewithSteinfeldaboutthcmatter,andIhopethatevery
thinghasbeenstraightenedout.
Fromthismorningdatesthestrongestlandscapeimpressionofthe
tripsofar.Weclimbedaroundonahighmassif,cametomanyarock
witha beautifulvista, includingone<onwhich thesun shonedown
veryhotandwhichofferedaclearviewoftheInse)bergandofalovely
woodedvalley.Beforethis, wehadalwaysmanagedtotear'ourselves
awayfromthe sight,but nowwecould not.go. WesettledIsackand
remainedaquarterhour.Itwas2:15Whenweleft;wehadeatenat1:30,
and Blumenthal was coming at 3:30. On.the way back, which led
through the "monstrous valley bottom" and took longer than ex
pected,IfinallywentonaheadandreachedHerbertatthepostoffice.
Intheeveningweagainwitnessed,inthesameareaasyesterday,
averybeautifulsunset.Ensuingconversation:

I: Yesterdayeveningwewereoutwalkingandsawthisthingtod.
Herbert: Whatthing?
I: Well,sunset.

April 15, 1911. We stayed up talkingand slept late, andso lost the
morninghours. Todaywe were'offat eleven o'clock and;after pro
longeddisagreement,madeittoarockonasteepslopeleading"down
toavalley."Wedescendedandbyaratherrapidmarcharrivedbackin
goodtimeforlunch.Intheafternoon,astrollinthevicinity.Epilogue:
earlytobed.Tomorrowit'stotheInselberg.

Notes
"TagebuchPfingsten 1911"(GS6,232235) waswrittenApril 1911andpub
lishedposthumously.
1.Anna Karenina,published'in1878bytheRussiannovelistLeoTolstoy,
concernsinpartthereligiouscrisisofthecharacterLevinandhispavingrela
tiontonature.BenjaminfinishedthenovelinJuly.Forhiscritiqueofitsnar
rative structure andhis praise of its portrayal of Russian cultureand the
Russiansoul,seeCWB,7,10.
2.Benjamintraveled fromBerlinsouthwestthrough HalleandtheSaale
RivervalleyintotheThuringianForest,awoodedmountainrangeinThuringia
(Saxony)incentralGermany^HispensionwasinthetownofFriedrichroda,
attheriorthernfootoftheforest.
3.AlfredSteinfeld(18931915)wasaschoolmateofBenjamin'sattheKai
ser FriedrichSchool in Berlinand amember at thisperiod ofthe student
readingcircle thatregarded Benjaminas itsleader. Hedied froma kidney
infectioncaughtwhileservinginthearmymedical corps(CWB, 77).Rein
hardsbrunnis knownfor ahandsome countryestatebuilt therebyQueen
Victoria'sfatherinlawonthesiteofamedievalabbey.
4.Jugend(Youth)wasapopular,lavishlyillustratedculturalweeklyfounded
inMunichin1896byafollowerofthearchitectHenryVandeVelde;itlaunched
theGermanartnouveaumovementknownasJugendstil,namedafterthemag
azine.BenjaminwouldlaterdevoteasectionofhisPassagenWerkorArcades

38 EARLYWRITINGS

Project(ConvoluteS) toJugendstil.IheIsraelitischesFamilienblatt (Israelite

FamilyPaper) wasa middlebrowJewishweeklymagazinefoundedin 1898
inHamburg.
5.IheSwisswriterCarlSpitteler(18451924) wasafavoriteoftheyoung
Benjaminandhiscomrades intheyouth movement.See"Sleeping Beauty"
(Chapter6inthisvolume).
6. Yontev is Yiddish for Hebrew jom tov,"holiday." The Haggadah isa
bookcontainingthestoryoftheexodusoftheJewsfromEgyptandtheritual
oftheSeder,acommemorativefeastcelebratedonthefirstnightorthefirst
twonightsofPassoverweek.
7. ProbablyFriedrichSalomon (born1890), astudentat theFree School
Community(seeChapter8inthisvolume)andlateramemberwithBenjamin
ofthe IndependentStudents'Associationat theUniversityofFreiburg. The
nextparagraphmentionsanunidentified"Gottlob."
8.TheLatinphraseinparenthesismeans"eagerfornewthings."
9.Matzohistheflat,brittleunleavenedbreadeatenduringPassover(Pesach).
10.Benjamin washimselfanamateur graphologist.For anindicationof
histhoughtsonthesubject,seeSW2,131134(1928),398400(1930).
11. Simplicissimus was a German satirical weeklyfounded in 1896 in
Munich;ittookits namefromthesatiricalnovel. DerAbenteuerliche Sim
plicissimus(AdventurousSimplicissimus; 1668)by HansJakob vonGrim
melshausen.ContributorsincludedwritersThomasMann,Rainer Maria
Rilke, HermannHesse andgraphicartistsGeorge Grosz,Kthe Kollwitz,
andJohnHeartfield.
12.Benjaminrefers totheLanderziehungsheim Haubinda,aprogressive
andexpensive countryboarding schoolfor studentsof middleschoolge,
foundedin 1901 inThuringia;where hewas enrolledfor twoyears (1905
1906);amonghisteachers wasGustav Wyneken, whoseradical pedagogics
inspiredhisyouthphilosophyandstudentactivisrfi.
13.HerbertBlumenthal,laterBelmore(18931978),wasanotherofBenja
min'sschoolmatesattheKaiserFriedrichSchoolinBerlinandsubsequently
anintimatecorrespondent untilthfe ruptureoftheir friendshipin1917. An
Englishcitizenbornin SouthAfrica,helived inSwitzerland,England, and
Italyinlateryears,workingasawriterandtranslator.

Chapter8

TheFreeSchoolCommunity

fhere,inthepagesofaperiodical,Iventuretocharacterizesonote
worthyan institutionas,theFree SchoolCommunityof Wickers
dorf(nearSaalfeld,inThuringia),Ishouldsaytwothingsattheoutset.
Inattemptingtodelineatethetheoretical,idealcontentoftheschool,
Imustforgoadescriptionoftheactualdailylifeoftheacademiccom
munity, as important as this is in itself to a complete picture ofa
school.Likewise,in theattempttounderscorewhatis positiveinthe
ideaoftheschool,Icannotdrawtheconclusions,towhichIwouldbe
ledbyacomparisonoftheWickersdorfconceptionwiththeprinciples
embodiedintheeducationprovidedbyfamilyandstate.Forthefirst,
Irefer tothe Wickersdorfannualreports and,for thesecond, tpthe
secondyearbookoftheFreeSchoolCommunity.'
TheF.S.C,wasnotbornfromtheneedforapartialreform;itsbat
tlecryisnot"LessGreek,morespotts"or"Nocorporalpunishment,
butarelationofmutualrespectbetweenteachersandpupils."Ifmany
ofthepostulatesofmodernpedagogicsare infactcomprised within
itsprogram, andif, aboveall, afree exhangebetween teachersand
pupils(asopposedtooneregulatedbyofficial authority)isamongits
basictenets,nevertheless whatis essentialtothe institutionisnot to
bedefinedinnarrowlypedagogicterms.Aphilosophic,metaphysical
39

40 EARLYWRITINGS

TheFreeSchoolCommunity 41

thoughtisat itscenterathought that,ofcourse,"is notdependent

onthecosmologica!metaphysicsofanyparty."^
Theargumentis,briefly,asfollows:"Inpursuit,ofitsgoal,human
itycontinuallygivesbirthtoanenemy:its^younggeneration,itschil
dren,theincarnationfits instinctuallife, ofitsindividualwill,the
properly animal part of its existence, its continually selfrenewing
past.Hence,thereisnomoreimportanttaskforhumanitythantoap
propriatetoitselfthisexistence,tointroduceitintotheprocessofhu
man development. This is thefunction ofeducation." School isthe
placewhere itshoulddawnonthechild'sspirit"that itisnotan iso
latedconsciousnessbutthat,fromearlyon,ithasseenandknownby
meansof anobjective spiritholdingsway overit andgoverningit, a
spiritwhosebearer ishumanityandthroughwhichhumanity ishu
manity."Allidealgoodslanguageandscience,lawandmorality,art
andreligionareexpressionsofthisobjectivespirit.Alongandlabo
riousperegrinationhasbroughthumanity,thebeareroftheobjective
spirit,toitspresentlevelofdevelopment.And'theepochin*whichWe
nowarelivingisthemostimportantytinthedevelopmentofthehu
manspirit."The signatureofthisepoch isthenascent emancipation
ofthespirit."Insocialismthespiritconfrontsthemanifolddegiftra
tion ofthe struggle for existence;in evolutionism it recognizes th
developmentallogic oftheworld; in technologythe spirit takesup
thebattlewiththeforcesofnature.Theworldhasbecomobjectofthe
humanspirit,whichformerlywasoverborne"bythepredominanceof
matter."Asiswellknown,theprimaryphilosophicalexponentofthis
viewofthingsisHegel.'
Withthis,thetaskoftheindividualisdetermined."Onemustenter
into the service of this objective spirit and carryout one's dutyby
workingtowardthehighestideals.Intheconsciousderivationofthis
thoughtfromthemetaphysical,thereisareligiousfactor.And,inthe
end,onlythisreligious'consciousnesscanserveasfinalanswertothe
questionabout thepurpose, thenecessityof ateachingwhose abso
lute,supremeobjectiveis nottoarmyoungpeopleinthestrugglefor
existence.
Buttwo importantquestions yetremain. First:Are youngpeople
reallycapable ofsuch seriousconVictions, ofsuch asacred commit

ment?Aconclusiveanswertothisquestionisnotpossible."Whoever
looksonyouth...asmerelyaperiodjofpreparationwithoutvaluein
itself,whoeverlooks onschoolasmerelyapreparatoryexercise pre
ceding the struggle for existence, which is understood.as the real
meaningoflifesuchaonecanhavenoappreciationfanydeepen
ingand sacralizing ofteaching andlearning." Ofcourse, Rousseau
alreadyvoicestheopinionthatat nostageis thehumanbeingmore
receptivetogreatideas, moreenthusiasticallygivento pursuingide
als,thaninthe yersofdevelopment.''The reasonsare obvious.The
interestsofaworkinglife,concernforafamily,havenotyetnarrowed
theyoungperson'shorizon.Andwhatgoestogetherwiththisbufcar
riesevengreaterweight:theyoungpersondoesnttyetknowtheday's
monotony,theuniformityofcustomsconvention,"theeternalYes
terdaythatalwayswasandalwaysreturns"andistheworstenemyof
everythinggreat.^
Wellandgood:letusassumethattheyoungpersoniscapablenot
onlyofunderstandingthetaskbutofactinginconformitywithitina
givencase.Willtheyoung personthenstillbeyoung, stillretainthe
navejoyinlife?Nodemonstrationintheabstractispossiblehereei
ther;alookat theanrtual reports,or,betterstill, avisittothe school
willbemoreconvincing.
Among the most important educational problems tackled by the
F.S.C,isthatofcoeducation.InWickersdorf,unlikemanyotherplaces,
theissue isnotfocusedinthe sexualsphere, although,thisnaturally
playsapart.Butthedecisivequestionprovestobe:Isthereaspecifically
malelrfemalegoalthatshouldgivedirectintolife?
Onmanysideswehearthis questionansweredintheaffirmative,
perhapswithanod toGoethe'swords:"Theboystobe servants,the
girlstobemothers."TothesevoicesDr.Wyneken(thecompilerofthe
yearbook)replies;"Doesthismean,then,thatwhatfillsthetimefrom
twentytofortyyearsofageisalsosupposedtofillthetimefromoneto
twenty?"Heseesherealimitationtospiritualprogress;thewomanis
fromthestartrestrictedtoanarrowfieldofactivity,and"theoldiden
tificationof sxandvocation" effectivelyprecludes anyprogress for
women.We,however,liveatatimewhenagreatchangeistakingplace
in the life, conception, and estimation ofwoman, and it wouldbe

42

EARLYWRITINGS

narrowmindedtoattempt toeducate womentoday"on thebasis of

preconceivedideas"inaccordancewith"adomesticideal thatgrows
more'questionable everyday" orin accordance with"other notions
thatthephilistinesassociatewiththe'eternalfeminine.'
ThisisthestandpointoftheF.S.C,onthequestionofwhetherboth
sexesshould have thebenefit ofthe sameeducation. Andif, against
theseviews,onewerenowtoraisetheundoubtedlyweightyobjection
thatthe predominantlyphysiological significanceof the woman for
hutnankindstandsopposedtosuchaconceptionaswehaveoutlined,
one"foundedonthespiritualdimension, theanswerthenwouldrun:
"Even assumingthat thereal vocation ofwoman isbiological, only
thatparticularwomanwillbemorethananimalorslavewillbehu
manbeing andcompanion tomanwho devotes herselfto such a
vocationbyherselfundconsciously."
Butthe wordsconcerningthe necessityofonecommoneducation
forthetwosexes(inthefirstWickersdorfyearbook) areinformedby
suchafarsightedandnoble ideathatI cannotoritquotingthem at
length:
Youthistheageofreceptivitytotheabsolutevalueoflife,theageof
idealism.Itistheonlyage...atwhichtherecanariseasocialsenti
mentthatdoesnotrestonopportunism,doesnotaspire'tothegreatest
possiblehappinessofthegreatestnumber,butthatlooksonsocietyas
anorganizationfortheadvancementofspirit.Theunityofhumanityin
thespiritwillbepreservedwherevertheyounggenerationisdedicated
toservingthisspirit.Already,inyouth,thetwosexesshouldlearnnot
onlytospeakandunderstandthesamelanguagebuttospeakitwith
eachother.Here,inyouth,theyshouldformthesortofdeep,meaning
fulbondwithoneanotherthatwillsurvivealltheinevitablesepara
tionstocome.Heretheyshouldnotonlyreceivethesamedirectionin
lifebutmutuallyestablishitforthemselves.Here,wheretheyseeeach
otherstrivinganddevelopingthemselvesinthesamedirection,they
willfindinoneanotherthegreatfaithfromwhichalonecanspring
respectfortheoppositesex.Thememoryofhavingoncebeencom
radesinthemostsacredworkofhumanity,ofhavingoncelooked
togetherinto"theValeEidophane,"'theworldofidea,thismemory
willformthestrongestcounterweighttothesocialbattleofthe

TheFreeSchoolCommunity 43

sexessomethingthathasalwaysexistedbutthatinourtimes
threatenstoblazeupandimperilthespiritualandculturalgoodsof
whichhumanityisthedesignatedguardian.Here,inyouth,whenthey
canstillbehumanbeingsinthenoblesenseoftheword,theyshould
alsohaveseenhumanityrealizedonceinawhile.Tofurnishthisgreat,
irreplaceableexperienceistherealpurposeofthecommoncurriculum.

Thereremainsthesexualelement.Itisneitherswornoffnorhushed
upbutvigorouslyaffirmed.Instrivingforthesamegoals,ingaining
insightintonewworldsofknowledgeandthought,insharingexperi
encesona dailybasis,boysandgirls shouldlearnbeforeeverything
elsetorespecteachotherascomrades.Buf"tothenormalboyofsix
tenthegirlisessentiallyasexualphenomenon,"Andthisconscious
nessisnaturalandcannotbecompletelyextinguished.Norshouldit
beextinguished. On_thecontrary:"It givestotherelationship acer
taincoloring,lendsitacharmandtendernessthatonlyashallowped
antcould wishgone;andit ispreciselythissensitivity whichalways
maintainsthat nobledistance whoseworking isthe preconditionof
everylasting...relationship."
Theloftygoalofacoeducationsuchasiscontainedintheprogram
oftheF.S.C,neverthelessrequiresthreethings:physicallyandspiritu
allyhealthypupils,tactfulandresourcefulteachers,and,betweenthe
twogroups,fr,anknesswithoutreserve.'"

Notes
"DieFreieSchulgemeinde"(GS7,913)waspublished,underthepseudonym
"Ardor,"inDerAnfang.VereinigteZeitschriftenderJugend,May1911.
1.TheFreieSchulgemeindewasfoundedin1906byGustavWyneken(see
note2below) andPaul Geheeb,together withMartin Luserkeand August
Halm,in theThuringianvillage ofWickersdorf, someforty milessouth of
Weimar.Theschoolhad separatedormitoriesforboys andgirls,butschool
activitieswere coeducationaland decentralized.The program ofstudy in
cludedphilosophy,thehistoryofreligion,music,andmathematics,together
withdance,theater,andphysicalculture.

44

EARLYWRITINGS

2.Citationsare fromthefirstyearbook of^heFreeSchoolCommunity,

withtheexceptionofonetakenfromthesecondyearbook.Theauthorofthe
pedagogicsectionof theyearbooks isDr. Wynken.The'publisheris Died
erichsinJena.(Benjamin'snote.)TheeighteenyearoldBenjamincitesWyn
eken's essays "Die Idee der Freien Schulgemeinde" (The Idea of the Free
School Community), in Wickersdorfer Jahrbuch 1908, and"Soziale Erzie
hung in der Freien Schulgemeinde"(Social Education in the Free School
Community), inWickersdorfer Jahrbuch 19091910.The citation from the
secondyearbokisthesecondpassagequcftedhere("Inpursuitofitsgoal...").
The educational reformer Gustav Wyneken (18751964) studied theology
and philology in Berlin before taking a teaching position in 1903 at the
Landerziehungsheim Haubinda^ aprogressive countryboarding school in
Thuringia,where Benjaminwasastudent ihhisGermanliterature classin
19051906.Afteranaltercationwiththeschool'sdirector,WynekenleftHau
bindain 1906testablish theFreeSchool Community,fromwhich hewas
forcedtoretirein1910.HeexertedadecisiveinfluenceontheGermanyouth
movementthroughhislecturetoursandwritings,inparticularthroughthe
bookSchuleundJugendkultur(SchoolandYouthCulture;1913),whichcom
binesaHegeliandoctrineofabsolutespiritwitha'Nietzschearrvitalism.He
oversawtherunningofseveraljournalsandwasadvisortothethirdseriesof
theperiodical.DerAfifang(May 1913July1914),forwhichhewasattacked
inconservativenewspapers.Benjaminwascloselyassociatedwithhismentor
duringthisperiodbutbrokewithhimin1915afterWyneken'spublicadvo
cacyoftheGermanwareffort(seeCWB,7576).
3. The German Idealist philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
(17701831),aprofessoratBerlinfrom1818to1831,firstdevelopedhisspecu
lativedialectical conceptof spirit inDie Phnomenologie desGeistes (The
PhenomenologyofSpirit;1807).
4.TheFrenchphilosopherandauthorJeanJacquesRousseau(17121778)
published his ideas about education, which involve a free and reciprocal
"contract"of friendship between pupil and teacher, in the didactic novel
mile:Oudel'ducation(1762).
5.Onthetaskof"spiritualizing"convention,see"DialogueontheReligi
osityofthePresent"(Chapter13inthisvolume).
6.Inaconversationwithhissecretary,thephilologistFriedrichWilhelm
Riemer,in1809,thepoetGoethe"saidthatmenshouldbebroughtuptobe
servantsandwomentobemothers"{GoethesGesprche,citedGS7,558559).
Theremark isechoedbytheSchoolmaster inthe 1809novel, DieWahlver
wandtschaften(part2,chapter7);seeJohannWolfgangvonGoethe,Elective

TheFreeSchoolCommunity 45

Affinities, trans. R. J. Hollingdale (New York: Penguin, 1971), 209:"Boys

shouldbeeducatedtobeservants,girlstobemothers,andallwillbewell."
7;The phrase"EwigWeibliche" occursat theend ofthe secondpart of
Goethe'spoemFaust,publishedin1832.
8.Wynekenreferstothe philosophyofutilitarianism,andspecificallyto
thatof theEnglish juristJerejny Bentham (17481831),who argued, inAn
IntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsand Legislation(1789),thattheobject
oflawistoachievethe"greatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber."
9.The expressionTal Eidophane(the secondterma compoundofGreek
eidos, "form," and phainesthai, "to appear") comes from the poem Der
olympischeFrhling (OlympianSpring; 19001905,rev. 1910), bythe Swiss
writerCarl Spitteler(18451924). OnSpitteler's importanceto theGerman
youthmovement,see"SleepingBeauty"(Chapter6inthisvolume).
10. Attheend ofBenjamin'sarticleare printedthewords, "Fortsetzung
folgt" (To be continued). Since nofurther numbers of the periodical ap
pearedinthe 1911 series,wemust assumethat thecontinuationwas either
neverwrittenorlost.

ThePanofEvening 47

Chapter9

ThePanofEvening

heevening had spread a luminous, pale yellowribbon ofmagic

over the snowcovered mountains and the wooded hilltops be
neath.Andthesnowonthepeaksshonepaleyellow.Thewoods,how
ever,alreadylayindarkness.Theglisteningontheheightsrousedaman
whowassittingonabenchinthewoods,tieraisedhiseyesanddrank
inthestrangelightfromtheheights,lookedlongintoit,untilnothing
morewastobeseenbutthetremulousshining;hethoughtofnothing
morebutonlysaw.Thenheturnedtothebenchandtookupthewalk
ingstickleaning there.He toldhimself, reluctantly,that hehadtore
turntothehotelfordinner.Andhewalkedslowlyalongthewidepath
thatled downtothevalley, watchingwherehe walkedbecause itWas
rapidly growing darker and there were roots sticking up from the
ground.Hedidnothimselfknowwhyhewentsoslowly."Youlookri
diculousandpathetic,stalkingalongonthiswidepath."Heheardthese
wordsclearlyandwithdispleasure.Feelingdefiant,hestoppedwalk
ingandlookedupatthesnowypeaks.Theytoo weredarknow. Ashe
notedthis,heagainclearlyheardinhimselfavoice;onealtogetherdif
ferent,whichsaid:"alonewithme."Forthatwasitsgreetingtothedark
ness.Thereuponheloweredhisheadandwalkedon:againsthiswill.It
seemedtohimthathestillhadtoattendtoavoicewhichwasmuteand
46

wasstrugglingforspeech.Butthatwascontemptible...Thevalleywas
insight...Thelightsofthehotelwerebeckoning.Ashethusgazejiinto
the.graydepthsbelow,hethoughthesawaworkshopdownthere;from
a pressure on his own body, he felt how giant hands were molding
massesofmist,howatower,acathedralofduskwasbeingbuilt."The
cathedralyouareyourselfwithinit,"heheardavoicesayingnow.And
helookedaroundhimwhilehewalked.Butwhathesawseemedtohim
soextraordinary,soprodigious...yes(quitefaintlyhefeltit:sohorri
ble),thathecametoastop.Hesawhowthemistwashangingbetween
thetrees;heheardtheslowflightofabird.Onlythenearesttreeswere
still there. Wherehe hadjust beenwalking, somethingdifferent was
alreadyunfolding,somethinggraythatpassedoverhisstepsasifthey
hadneverbeen made.He understood:ashe traveledhere,something
else was traveling through the woodsas well; there was a spell over
things,makingtheolddisappear,makingnewspacesandaliensounds
outoftheknownandfamiliar. Moreclearlythanbefore, thevoiceut
teredarhymefromawordlesssong:"TraumundBaum."'
Whenheheardthat,soloudandsudden,hecametohissenses.His
eyegrewsharp;yes,hewantedhisvisionsharp:"rational,"cautioned
thevoicci Hefixed hisgazeonthepathand, totheextentitwasstill
possible,madethingsout.Thereafootprint,aroot,mossandatuftof
grass,andattheedgeofthepathalargestone.Butanewfeargripped
himsosharplywasheseeing:it wasnotasat othertimes.And the
morehesummonedallhisstrengthtosee,thestrangeritbecame.The
stonethere bythe pathgrew largerseemedto speak. All relations
underwent a change. Everything particularbecame landscape, out
spread image.^He feltdriven bydesperation toflee all this,tofind
clarityinsuchhorror.Hetookadeepbreathand,feelingresolvedand
composed,lookeduptothesky.Howunusuallycoldtheairwas,how
brightandnearthestars.
Didsomeonecryout?"Thewoods,"soundedavoice shrillyinhis
ears. Helookedat thewoods...Heraninto it,hurledhimselfatall
thetreetrunksonlyfurther,deeperthroughthemist,wherehehad
tobe...wherethere was someone who made everything different,
whocreatedthisfrightfuleveninginthewoods.Atreestumpbrought
himtotheground.

48 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

Therehelayandweptinterror,likeachildwhofeelstheapproach
ofastrangemaninadream.
Afterawhilehegrewquiet;themooncameoutandthebrightness
dissolvedthedarktreetrunks inthegraymist.Thenhepickedhim
selfupandheadedbackdown.

Chapter10

CurriculumVitae

Notes
>

"Der Pandes Abends" (GS7, 639641) waswritten ca. 1911 andpublished

posthumously.
1.Ihatis,"dreamandtree."
2."AlleseinzelnewurdezurLandschaft,zumgroenBilde."

,WalterBenjamin,sonofthebusinessmanEmilBenjaminandhis
wife,Pauline(neSchoenflies),wasborninBerlinonJuly15,1892,
andbelongtotheJewishconfession.'Inthe springof1901,1entered
thefthgradeattheKaiserFriedrichSchool,havinggainedtherequi
sitepreparatoryknowledgein privateinstruction.^Thecourseofmy
schooling proceeded in regularfashion untilthe eighth grade. But
shortlyafter Easter.1904,1hadtowithdraw fromschool, and,after
spending several months without lessons in order to recover my
health,I enteredeighthgradeatDr. Lietz'scountryboardingschool,
Haubinda, neariHildburghausen.'My parents decided on this step
mainlybecauseofmyweakened constitution.My stayofnearlytwo
yearsinDr.Lietz'sschool,where Iwasoneofthebetterpupilsinthe
classesI took,wasofgreatimportancetomenotonlybecauseofmy
physicalrecuperation butalso becauseI receivedthere, above all in
theGerman class, thebroad stimulus thathas subsequentlyguided
myaspirationsandinterests.Mypartialityforliterature,whichuntil
then I had indulged in rather random reading, was deepened and
givensure directionthrough thecriticalaesthetic normswhich the
instructioninstilledinme. At thesametime thisinstructionawoke
myinterestin,philosophy.Onaccountofmyage,suchinfluenceswere
49

50 EARLYWRITINGS

CurriculumVitae 51

lessnoticeablethenthanintheyearstofollow.OnmyreturntoBer
lininthespringof1907,1wasreadmittedonatrialbasistotheninth
gradeattheKaiserFriedrichSchool. Icouldnotenterahighergrade
because Dr. Lietz's institutionhas thecurriculum ofa nonclassical
secondaryschool.Fromthenon,myschoolingagainfollowedaregu
larcourse;atEaster1909Ireceivedtheendoftermcertificateforan
nualservice.
SincemyreturnfromHaubinda,myphilosophicandliteraryinter
estshaveundergoneanaturalsynthesisintheformationofspecifically
aestheticinterests. These I have pursuedpartly inexploration ofthe
theoryofdrama,partlyinreflectionongreatdramaticworksabove
all, thoseof Shakespeare, Hebbel, and Ibsen (withdetailed studyof
Hamletand[Goethe's]Tasso)andpartlyinanintensiveengagement
withHlderlin.^Generallyspeaking,theseinterestshavebeeninstru
mental in myattempt toform an independent judgment in literary
matters.Onthewhole,mypreoccupationwithphilosophyhasbased
itselflessontheclassicsthanonthereadingofgeneralintroductionsto
thisdiscipline,from whichI endeavoredtoobtain anoverviewof its
problemsandofthesystemsofthegreatthinkers.Inaddition,thecon
temporaryconcernwithsocialquestionshasnaturallyhaditseffecton
me,andhereatasteforpsychologyplayedapart.Fromthishascome
myrecentinterestintheworking'ofreligionontheindividualandso
ciety. Withthe aidof Burckhardt'sCivilization of the Renaissance in
Italy,Iundertooktograspanepochintermsofculturalhistory.
Whetheritwillbephilosophyorliteraturethattakesprecedencein
myuniversitystudisissomethingIcannotyetdecide.

examinations(in*suchareasasGreek,Latin,German,andmath)concluding
on March 8, 1912, Benjaminqualified foradmission to a university. Emil
Benjamin(18561926)camefromaprosperousfamilyofmerchants.Bypro
fessionan auctioneer,he wasa partnerin Lepke'sauctionhouse inBerlin,
dealersinartapdantiques,andlaterinvariousothercommercialenterprises.
PaulineSchoenfliesBenjamin(18691930),borntoawealthyandculturally
enlightenedfamilyofmerchants,managedtheBenjaminhouseholdwithits
largedomesticstaff,asthefamilyoccupiedasuccessionofdignifiedresidences
inBerlin'swestend.
2.TheKaiserFriedrichSchool,builtin1900intheBerlinsuburbofChar
lottenburganddirectedbyaneducationalreformer,wasoneofthecity'sbet
ter secondaryschools. Ofthis institution Benjamin claimsto retain not a
singlecheerfulmemory:seehis"BerlinChronicle"(1932),inSW2,601603,
626629;in thisvolume, see"Epilogue" (Chapter 11). Hehad receivedin
structionfromprivatetutorsuntilhewasnearlynine.
3. The Landerziehungsheim Haubinda was founded in 1901 in the
ThuringianForestincentralGermanybyHermannLietz,whohadbeenin
fluencedbythe educationalsystempracticed atthe AbbotsholmeSchool in
Staffordshire, England, which balanced academic with agricuhural work.
HaubindawasoneofthefirstprogressiveschoolsinGermany.Benjaminwas
enrolledtherefor twoyears (19051906),duringwhich hestudiedGerman
literature with Gustav Wyneken, perhaps the most important intellectual
influenceontheGermanyouthmovementintheyearsbeforeWorldWar1.
4. Benjamindiscusses Shakespeare's Hamlet,Goethe'sverse dramaTor
quatoTasso(1790),andworksoftheNorwegianplaywrightHenrikIbsen,in
hisessay"SleepingBeauty" (Chapter6 inthisvolume). Forhisengagement
withthe Germanpoet Hlderlin,see."Two Poemsby FriedrichHlderlin"
(Chapter 30 inthis volume).For hisreflections oi)the nineteenthcentury
GermandramatistChristianFriedrichHebbel,seehisessayof1923,"Calde
rn's El Mayor Monstruo,Los Celosand Hebbel's Herodes und Mariamne:
CommentsontheProblemofHistoricalDrama"(SWl,363386).
5.TheSwisshistorianJakobBurckhardt (18181897)establishedamodel
forculturalhistorywithhismostfamousbook.DieKulturderRenaissancein
Italien(1860),whichtreatstheeverydaylifeofanepoch,itspoliticalclimate
andthethoughtofitsoutstandingminds,asinterrelatedelementsofawhole.
CompareBenjamin'smorecriticalcommentsaboutthisbook,as"almosttoo
factual[sachlich]," inaletterofJuly24,1911,toHerbertBelmore(CWB,11).
6. In April 1912, Benjamin entered the Albert Ludwigs University in
Freiburg,matriculatinginthedepartmentofphilologyasabaseforliterary

Notes
"Lebenslauf" (GS7, 531532) was writtenDecember 1911 and published
posthumously.
1.ThisaccountofBenjamin'ssecondaryschoolingwassubmittedwithhis
applicationtotaketheAbiturorschoolleavingexamination;theapplication
isdatedDecember16,1911(seeGBl,4344).Afteraseriesofwrittenandoral

52 EARLYWRITINGS

Study.Inthefallof1912,however,heswitchedtoBerlin'sFriedrichWilhelm
University,enrollinginphilosophy.Forthenextseveralyears,hecontinued
tooscillatebetweenthe twodisciplines,finally combiningtheminhisdis
sertations,Der BegriffderKunstkritik inderdeutschenRomantik (IheCon
ceptofCriticisminGermanRomanticism;1919)andUrsprungdesdeutschen
Trauerspiels(OriginoftheGermanTrauerspiel;1925).

'Chapter11

Epilogue

twas notwithout hesitationthatwe decidedtoproduce aregular

"humormagazine,"resolvingonaformthat,with itsmoreorless
crudeorpersonalwit,givesonlyadistortedimageofthose"ultimate
truths"manystudentswouldliketospeakaloudtotheirteachers.'But
wewereunableandunwillingtoresistliftingtheveilfleetinglyand
withasfewwordsaspossibleonwhatliesbehindthejoking,satire,
andirony;wewantedtoaddressthedeepersignificanceofthatwhich
the"humor magazinel'lightheartedlyassails onlyin itsincidental
symptoms.Andhencefromall thenigglingandcuttingthingsto,be
foundinthefollowingpageswe wantedtotakeanythingbutalight
heartedmeaning.
Inthisspirit, tobeginwith,wholehearted thankstoourteachers,
who throughout.theperiod of our schooling have repeatedly,given
proofoftheirhardworkonourbehalf.
But next we put.thissimple and serious question: Whathas the
schoolgivenus?Firstofall:knowledge,knowledge,knowledge.Much
ofitmayprove fruitful,but wedonot needtospeak ofthatnow. In
fact, the best of our teachers have always told us: "It is notfinally
knowledge.thatthe schoolshould impartto you."But?Workand
obedience:thisiswhattheschoolwantedtoteachus.
53

54 EARLYWRITINGS

Epilogue 55

OnthesubjectofworkweheardDr.Steinmannspeakinoneofthe
last auditorium lectures, a lecture that marked an epoch.^ Before
teachersandpupilsassembled inthemainauditoriumofaschool,
hespokenotofgeographyortechnologyorthelike,butoftheschool.
He maintained that work isan absolute value, no matter what one
worksfor.Wewouldreplytohimthat, amongyoungpeople,thereis
nomoreimportantquestionthanthatofthegoalofone'swork.
Tothisquestiontheschoolhasprovidednoanswer.Wecansay,on
thebasisofourownexperience,thatallourschoolworkwascontinu
allyaccompaniedbythetormentingfeelingofarbitrarinessandpur
poselessness.Theschoolgaveusnoserious,generallybindingduties,
butonlyinstructionaltasks.Andvisvisthesedailytasks,noliving
senseofdutycoulddevelop;ourschoollifewasgovernedbytheeter
nallybackwardlooking customarynotby thethought ofa tomor
rowtowardwhich ourworkwould beaimed. The ideathat wework
forthegood ofthepeople orofhumanity, thatwe arethe conscious
limbsof agreater body,could notlight ourway.' We shallsum the
matterupina formula,thegravityofwhich wefullyappreciate:The
schoolhasgivenusseeingthatourworkhadnogoalnoideals.For
ideals are goals. (In these thoughts we cannot helphearing there
marksofourteachersonschoolreformremarkssuchas:"schoolre
formfavorstheseparationofschoolfrominstruction,"or"nomatter
howfarwemayadvance,wewillneverreachanythingwithoutwork.")
Wewantnothinglessinthewayofduties;indeed,wewantmore:the
consciousnessthatweourselvesmusttakeourworkseriously.
Theschoolhasgivenusnoidealsorseriousduties.Norhasittrite
phrasegivenus rights. Wecould nomore takeour workseriously
thanwecouldtake ourselvesseriously. Wewerenot allowedtoform
any scholastic community. We were granted numerous freedoms,
wereable todo revisions,were ableto'elect acommittee; ithis re
spect,weprobablyhaditbetterthanpupilsinmanyotherschools.But
allthisisgrace,notrights.Thesethingswereconcessionstofoimida
blecurrentsofpublic opinion,experimentswhich wewere boundto
experienceonlytooclearlyas such.Theywere innovationsthatwere
notrecognizedasproceedingfromthecharacterofthestudentbody.

Andtherefore noneof thesethings couldgive riseto anopen, glad

exchangebetweenteachersandpupils.
Up to now, the best part of our youth hasbeen spent far from
school,far froma schoolthat paysno attentionto thisyouthfulness
andimbuesitwithnoideals,thattakessocalledfoolishpranks,non
senseandchildishbehavior infrontofteachers, tobeexpressions of
trueyouthfulness.
Wewouldregretitdeeplyifillfeeling,orperhapsahostilemodifica
tioninacourseofinstruction,weretofollowasaconsequenceofthese
lines,which werewritten ina spiritofserious reflectionat aremove
frompathos.Andtherecouldbenomorebeautifulconclusiontoour
schooldaysif,notinspiteoftheselinesbutonthebasisofthem,open
exchangeandfrankdiscussionswithourteachers,suchaswehavehad
todowithoutduringourschoolyears,becamepossible.

Notes
"Epilog" (GS7, 1315) was published anonymously in the Bierzeitung der
KaiserFriedrichSchute,spring1912.
1.Ina letterofSeptember6,1913,toa comradeintheyouthmovement,
Benjaminreferstothishighschoolhumor,magazine(Bierzeitung),inwhich
hepublishedhis"Epilogue"ontheoccasionofhisgraduation,as"mygenera
tion'shumormagazine,particularlynoteworthyforthefactthatitwasshown
toteachers.TwofriendsandIhadputittogetherbehindthebacksoftheclass
andat thefarewellbanquet surprisedbothpupilsand teachingstaff"(GBl,
172). It isnotknown whetherthis"farewell banquet"hassomeconnection
withthe"leavetakingceremonyforthosewhohadgraduated,"whichBenja
mintouchesoninrecallingtheKaiserFriedrichSchoolinhis"BerlinChron
icle"of 1932;at thatceremony, a"collision betweena largercollective and
[Benjamin]"tookplace (SW2,602). The"two friends"collaboratingon the
magazineiayhavebeenFritzStrauandFranzSachs,bothofwhomnjen
tion"our humormagazine" inlater lettersto GershomScholem; butErnst
Schoen,wholikewisewritesabouttheBierzeitunginaletterof1955toThe
odorAdorno (citedGS7,559), seemsalsotohavebeeninvolved. Benjamin's

6 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

articleis preservedonlyin theform ofa photocopyofthe single, unnum

beredpageonwhichthetextisprinted.
2.Dr.SteinmanntaughtGreek,Latin,andreligionattheKaiserFriedrich
School.
3."NichtderGedanke,dawirfr,GterdesVolkesoderderMenschheit,
derenbewuteGliederwirsind,arbeiten,durfteunsleuchten."

Chapter12

SchoolReform:
ACulturalMovement

hetacticofallthosewhoservethecauseofschoolreformmustbe
attheoutsettorescue itfromopprobrium,asthoughitwerean
affairforthoseintheknoworanattackmountedbydilettantesonthe
prcifessionalism ofpedagogues.' "School reform isa culturalmove
ment":thisistherstprinciplethatmustbedefended.Italonejustifies
therecurrentpublicclamorforschoolreform,therecurrentcalltothe
peopleto reform the schools..And, onthe otherhand: onlyin this
mottaeanbeheardalltheseriousnessaridallthehopeofthose who
dedicatethemselvestothistask.Onethingfirst!Itwillbesaidinop
position to usj"Whatyou want iscertainly understandable. In our
noisydemocraticage,thereisscarcelyanewidaorawakeninginspi
rationthat isnot immediatelyand insistentlyput upfor the widest
mass circulation; every innovation seeks to be preciselya'cultural
movement,'for thisterm isnotjust anhonorific title buta signof
power."Andagainstthisobjectionithas tobeshownthatschool re
form'ispositioned beyond thescientific thesesof specialists,thatit isa
wayofthinking,anethicalprogramforourtimeswhichsurelydoes
notmeanthateveryonemustbecome aproponentofitbutonlythat
everyoneisexpectedtotakeapositiontowardit.Inshort:theschool
reformmavementbringstoclearandurgentexpressioncertainneeds
57

58 EARLYWRITINGS

SchoolReform 59

ofourtime,which,likevirtuallyallourepoch'sgreatestneeds,belong
to the ethicalcultural sphere. School reform is not less important
thanoursocialandreligiousproblem,butitisperhapsclearer.
Schoolreform canbeconsideraci aculturalmovement inmanyre
spects.Onecouldseeineveryeffortatreformaculturalmovement:"All
thatisnewcontainsvitalenergies,unformedandinferment,butfullof
promise..."Withtheseandsimilarconceptionswemustonceandfor
allmakeabreak.It isassenselessasitisobjectionabletospeakofcul
turalmovementsifonedoesnotknowwhichmovementsadvanceand
whichretardthe culture.We wouldmeeteveryabuseofthepromise
filledand seductiveword withclarity. In thissense, andwithin con
sciouslynarrowedlimits(ourspacehereislimited,too),onlythreeele
mentswillbeindicatedasculturallyvaluableandirreplaceablethree
elementsfundamentaltoanytrulypromisingeffortatschoolreform.
To varySchiller's familiar theme:what doesschool reformmean
andwhydowewant it?^Rudolf Pannwitzhasveryappropriatelyde
finededucationas"propagationofspiritualvalues."'Weembrace"this
definitionandaskonly:whatdoesitmeantooccupyoneselfwiththe
propagation.ofspiritualvalues?
Itmeansfirstofallthatwegrowbeyondourownpresent day.Not
onlythat wethink subspecie aeternitatisbut alsothat, insofaras we
educateourselvesjweliveandworksubspecieaeternitatis.*Wewanta
meaningfulcontinuityinall development,suchthathistorydoesnot
fallapartintheseparatwillsofparticularepochsorevenindividuals,
andsuchthattheongoingdevelopmentofhumanity,inwhichwebe
lieve,nolongerproceedsindullbiologicalunconscibusnessbutrather
followsthegoalsettingspirit.Whatwewant,inotherwords,iscultiva
tionof the natural advance ofhumanity: culture.The expressionof
thiswishofoursis:education.
Buttopropagatevaluesmeanssomethingmore.Notonlytheprop
agationofthespiritual(and,inthissense,culturebecomesaproblem)
butthe propagationof thespiritual: thatisthe secondrequirement.
Thequestionarisesasto thevalueswewish tobequeathourdescen
dantsashighestlegacy.Schoolreformisnotonlyreformofthepropa
gationof values;it becomesat the^ametime revisionof the values
themselves.Thisisitssecondfundamentalmeaningforculturallife.

Thisdouble relationto culturecan beseen clearlyenough inthe

schoolreformlifeofourday.Newmethodsofinstructionandeduta
tionreemerging..Here,itisaquestionofthemodeoftransmission,
arideveryoneknowsthe varietyofdemands thatare made.The call
fortruthfulness'in educationalmethodscould beconsidered urgent.
One experiences it as unworthy if the teacher conveys a piedeof
knowledgewithoutconviction,ifhedisciplinesthechildandeventhe
adolescentwith measures (reprimands,detention) whichhe'himself
doesnottakeseriously, orevenif, withaninwardsmile"thisisfor
hisowngood"hepronouncesamoralcondemnation.Theconnec
tionwiththeculturalproblem isclear.Itisamatteroffinding away
outofthe oppositionbetweennatural, truthfuldevelopment, onthe
onehand,andthetaskoftransformingthenaturalindividualintothe
culturalindividual,orithe otherhand,ataskthatwilljieverbecom
pletedwithoutviolence.
Nevrtheless,italmostseemsasifthereisnostrugglehereascom
paredtotheotherbattlefieldwherevaluesarecontestedthevaluesto
bebequeathedtothenewgeneration.Ttisasavage tumult.Notjusta
fewrmies'ofafew.foes, butgrimvsaged warof allagainst all.To
getherwithshieldandsword(maybeevensomepoisonedarrows),ev
eryoneadornedwith theflagofaparty.The greatadversarieswho in
publiclifeconfrontoneanotherinfreeandopenrivalry,therepresen
tatives of great opposingviewpoints^religious, philosophic, social,
aestheticyieldgroundonthisbattlefieldtochatapionsofsirigledisci
plines ("Greek," "English,""ninthgrade Latin,""tenthgrade Latin,"
"industrialarts,""civics,""gymnastics"). Allverycapable, indispens
ablecombatantsinthemselves,theynonethelessbegetonlyconfusion
solong astheyhave notfound theirplace inthe campof oneof the
greatadversarieslogicallylinkedasthesearetothegreatantitheses,
whosevigorousbattlecryisstifled"wihintheprecinctsoftheschool.
Butthestrongestbondbetweencultureandschoolreformisforged
byyouth. Theschoolis theinstitutionthat preser,Vesthe accomplish
mentsofhumanitywhilecontinuallypresentingthemanew.Butwhat
evertheschoolachievesremainsmeritand.achieyementofthepast,even
ifoccasionally.of therecent past.Visvis thefuture itcan^marshal
nothingmoirethanstrictattentiorrandrespect.Theyoung,however,

60

EARLYWRITINGS

whomtheschoolserves,furnishitwithpreciselythefuture.Theschool
receivesagenerationunsureofitselfineverythingtodowiththereal
andwith conscience,selfabsorbed perhapsand unknowing,natural
anduncultivated(inservicetotheschool,ithastodevelopitself),buta
generatibnatthesametimefuUofimages,whichitbringswithitfrom
thelandofthefuture.Afterall,thecultureofthefutureistheultimate
goaloflheschoolandforthisreasonitmustremainsilentbeforethe
futurethatcomestowarditintheformofyouth.Itmustallowyoung
peopleto act on their ownand consequentlymust restcontent with
conferringandfosteringfreedom.Andsoweseethatthemosturgent
requirementofmodern pedagogyisto createspace forthe emergent
culture.Youthmustlearnbydegreestowork,totakeitselfseriously,to
educateitself:byplacingtrustinsuchyouth,humanityplacestrustin
itsownfuture,intheirrational whichitcanonlyhonor,intheyouth
thatisfilled notjust withthespirit ofthefutureno!but withthe
spiritthatfeelsinitselfthejoyandthecourageofnewculturebearers.
Awakening more and more is a consciousness ofthe unconditional
value,the gaietyandseriousness, ofthisnew youth. Andthere isa
demandthatthisyouth'swayofthinkingshouldspreadtothepublicat
large,shouldbecomeacompassforliviiig.
Doyou understandnow, fellowstudents, whywe turn toyou as
culturebearers?
Youth,newschool,culture:thisisthecirculusegregiuswemustkeep
travelingthroughinalldirections.

Notes
"DieSchulreform,eineKulturbewegung"(GS2,1216)waspublished,under
thepseudonym"Eckhart,phil.,"inStudentundSchulreform,1912.
1.InaletterofJun21,1912,toHerbertBelmore,writtenduringhisfirst
semesterattheUniversityofFreiburg,Benjaminrefertohimselfas"ahero
ofschoolreform"andmentionsthatanessayhewrote,"'SchoolReform:A
CulturalMovement,''willsoonappearinaschoolreformpamphletdirected
atthe students"(CWB, 1516).The pamphletwas producedby theSchool

SchoolReform 6i

ReformUnit oftheIndependentStudents'Associationat theuniversity,the

youthgroupin whihBenjamin tookaleadingpart;itwaspublished inan
editionoftenthousandcopiesanddistributedfreeofchargethroughoutuni
versitiesinGermany.
2. Benjaminalludes to Friedrich Schiller's,famous collectionof letters.
berdiesthetischeErziehungdesMenschen(OntheAestheticEducationof
Man;1795),whichaskshowthecultivationfbeautycanfurthbrthecuhiva
tionofhumanity.
3. Rudolf Pannwitz, Die Erziehung (Frankfurt; Rtten und Loening,
1909),71:"Educatitn [Erziehung] is...thepropagationofvalues...thein
heritance and transmission of spirit." A German philosopher and poet
stronglyinfluenced by Nietzsch, Pannwitz (18811969) was theauthor of
widerangingworks aimedat a renewalof Europeanculture throughco
ordination ofthe arts and sciences. He isbest known for hisbook. Die
KrisisdereuropischenKultur(TheCrisisinEuropeanCulture;1917).
4.The Latinphrase subspecie aeternitatis(under theaspectof eternity)
wasgivencurrencyby theDutchphilosopher BaruchSpinozainhis Ethica
OrdineGeometricoDemonstrata,knowninEnglishasTheEthics(1677),part
5, propositions2336. Seein thisconnection Benjamin's"Dialogueon the
ReligiosityofthePresent"(Chapter13inthisvolume).
5.Literally,"distinguishedcircuit"or"illustriouscycle,"circulusegregius
wouldseemtomean"viciouscircle"here,thoughtherearemoredirectways
ofsayingthisinLatin.

DialogueontheReligiosityofthePresent 63

Chapter13

Dialogueon the
ReligiosityofthePresent

hadlookedupa friendwiththeidea ofclarifying,in aconversa

tionwithhim,somethoughtsanddoubtsaboutartthathadbeenon
mymindforthelastfewweeks.Itwasalreadynearmidnightwhenour
conversationaboutthepurposeofartturnedtothesubjectofreligion.'

1: I'dbegratefulifyoucouldnameformeanyonetodaywhohasa
clearconscienceintheappreciatio'nofart.Iexcludethenaveand
theartiststhemselves.By"nave"Idon'tmeanthosewhobecome
intoxicatedwithamomentaryjoyassooftenhappenswithusbut
ratherthoseforwhomjoyisquitenaturallyasummoningofthe
wholeperson.Suchpeopledon'talwayshavegoodtaste,andI
suspectmostofthemareuneducated.uttheyknowwhattomake
ofart,andtheydon'tgoinforartisticvogues.Andthentheartists:
noproblemheredon'tyouagree?Reflectiononartisaspecialtyof
theirs.
He: Asamanofculture,youbetrayalltradition.We'retrainednotto
questionthevalueofart.L'artpour I'artP
I: Withgoodreasonwe'retrainedthisway.L'artpourl'artisthelast
bastionprotectingartfromthephilistine:Otherwise,everyvillage
mayorwouldbedeliberatingoverthe'rightsofartasoverthepriceof
meat.Butwehavefreedomhere.Tellme,whatdoyouthinkofl'art
62

pourl'art?Orrather,whatingeneraldoyouunderstandbythisterm?
Whatdoesitmean?
He: Itmeansverysimplythatartisnottheservantofthestate,northe
handmaidofthechurch;itisnotevensomethingforthelifeof
children.Andsoforth.L'artpourl'artmeans:onedoesnotknow
whereonewillendupwithitwithart.
I; Ibelieveyou'rerightaboutthat,asfarasmostpeoplearecon
cerned.But,again,notforus.Ibelievewemustfreeourselvesfrom
thishighmysteryofthephilistines,this"artpourl'art."Thesaying
holdsgoodfortheartistandonlyfortheartist.Forusithasanother
sense.Naturally,oneshouldnotgotoartinordertogetbackone's
idlefantasies.Ontheotherhand,wecannotrestcontentwithflat
astonishment.Therefore"l'artpournous!"[artforoursake].Letus
garnerfromtheartworkwhatisvaluableforlife:beauty,knowledge
ofform,andfeeling."Allartisdedicatedtojoy.Andthereisno
moreloftyandimportanttaskthantomakepeoplehappy,"says
Schiller.'
He: Thehalfeducatedwiththeirartpourl'art,withtheirideological
enthusiasmandpersonalindecision,theirtechnological
semiliteracythey'retheleastabletotakepleasureinart.
J; Fromadifferentpointofview,it'sallnothingmorethanasymptom.
We'reirreligious.
He: ThankGodforthat!ifwhatyou'recalling"religion"signifies
mindlessfaithinauthority,ormerelybeliefinmiracles,merely
mysticism.Religionisincompatiblewithprogress.Itswayistypically
toconcentratealldriving,expansiveforcesinasingle,sublime
gravitationalcenterininwardness.Religionistherootofinertia.Its
sanctification.
J; Idon'tatalldisagreewithyou.Religionisinertiaifyoumeanby
"inertia"thesteadfastinwardnessandthesteadfastgoalofall
striving.We'reirreligiousbecausewenolongerhaveregardfor
perseverance.Haveyounoticedhowtheconceptof'"endinitself,"
thislastsanctificationofpurpose,getsdraggeddown?Howevery
singlethingthat'snotclearlyandreliablyunderstoodbecomesan
"endinitself"?Becausewe'resomiserablypoorinvalues,weisolate
everything.Andthenwecan'thelpmakingavirtueofnecessity.Art,
science,sport,sociallifedowntotheshabbiestindividualityit
descends,thisdivineendinitselfEverythingrepresentssomething,
hasitsownmeaning,isunique.

64 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

DialogueontheReligiosityofthePresent 65

TheFriend:* Whatyoudescribehereareactuallythesymptomsofa

TheFriend: Withthedeclineofsocialreligion,thesocialhasdrawn

proudandgloriousdelightinliving.We'vebecomeworldlyno
doubtaboutit,mydearfellowandit'stimethateventhemost
medievalmentalitiesgraspedthefact.Wegivetothings.their
ownproperconsecration;theworldisperfectlycompletein
itself
I: Granted!Andwhatistheleastwecandemandfromourworldli
ness?Delightinthisnew,modernworld.Whatdoesallprogress,all
worldliness,havetodowithreligioniftheyfailtoprovideus.witha
joyful.peace?Ihardlyneedremindyouthatourworldlinesshas
becomeasomewhatgrindingsport.Wearebaitedonallsidesby
delightinliving.Itisourdamnabledutyandobligationtofeelit.Art,
commerce,luxuryit'sallobligatory.
TheFriend: I'mnotblindtoanyofthat.Buttakealookaround.Inour
lifenowwehavearhythmthat,tobesure,haslittleenoughof
antiquityandclassicalcomposureinit.Rather,it'sanewsortof
intensivejoyousness.Howeveroftenitmayrevealitselftobeforced,
it'sthere.We'reaudaciousinoursearchforwhatmakesushappy.We
allofushaveastrangelustforadventuringafterunknownpleasures
andsourcesofenchantment.
I: You'respeakinginaveryindeterminateway,andyetsomething
preventsusfromdisputingyourpoint.Ifeelyou'rebasically
speakingthetruth,atruththat'sfarfrombanalonethat'ssonew
infactthat,eveninjustemerging,itwouldalreadybetoken
religion.Neverthelessourlifeisnotattunedtothispuretone.For
us,theoldreligionshavebeenexplodedoverthecourseofthelast
centuries.ButIdaresaythishasnotbeensoentirelywithout
consequencesthatwecaninnocentlyrejoiceintheenlightenment.
Areligionwouldformerlyhaveboundtogetherpowerswhosefree
workingistobefeared.Thereligionsofthepastconcealedin
themselvesneedand.misery.Thesethingshavenowcometolight.
Confrontedwiththem,wenolongerhavethesecurityourancestors
derivedfrombeliefincompensatoryjustice.Theconsciousnessofa
proletariat,ofprogress,allthepowersthatearliergenerations,in
ordertofindpeace,wereabletoappeaseinorderlyfashionthrough
theirreligiousservicesthesethingscauseusunrest.Theygiveus
nochancetolivehonorably,atleastnotwhereenjoymentis
concerned.

closertous.Itconfrontsusmoreinsistently,oratanyratemore
pervasively.Perhapsmoreinexorably.Andwecomplywithitsoberly
andperhapsrigorously.
I:.ButwhatisCompletelylackingtousinallthisisproperregardfor
thesocial.Yousmile;IknowI'mutteringaparadox.WhatImeanis
thatoursocialactivity,howeverrigorousitmaybe,*isailinginone
respect:ithaslostitsmetaphysialseriousness.Ithasbecomea
matterofpublicorderandpersonalrespectability.Fornearlyallthose
whoareactivesocially,thisactivityismerelyoneaspectofciviliza
tion,liketheelectriclight.Sorrowhasbeenprofaned,ifyouwill
pardonthepoeticexpression.
TheFriend: Ihearyouagainpiningaftervanisheddignity,after
metaphysics.Butlet'strytokeep'intouchwithlife,soberly.Let'snot
loseourselvesintheboundless,orfeelacallingeverytimewesit
downtolunch..Isitabetrayalofcultureif.wedescendsomewhat
fromtheheightsofardentspontaneitytotheselfevident?Letmeput
itthisway:thepreconditionforanycultureisthatthecommandsof
thegodsbecomehumanTaws.Whafasuperfluousexpenditureof
energytoderiveeverythingfromthemetaphysical!
I: Ifonlywestillhadtheconsciousnessofhonorablesobrietyinour
sociallife.Butthat'snotitefther.We'retrappedinaridiculous
middleposition:toleranceissupposedtohaveliberatedsocial
activityfromallreligiousexclusionismandyetitisprecisely
thoseproclaiminganenlightenedsocialactivitywhomakea
religionoutoftolerance,outofenlightenment,outof'indifference
andevenfrivolity.Iwouldbethelasttoinveighagainstthesimple
formsofeverydaylife.Butwhenonceagainthis?normalsocial
activityissurreptitiouslymadethesacredtyrannicalrulefor
individuals,farinexcessofpoliticalorcivilimperatives,theneven
socialismcanbereligion.Andthe"enlightened"becomehypo
critesvisvisreligionortheirownclaims.Inaword:Flower
days.^
TheFriend: Yourthinkingisseverebecauseit'sunhistrical.Somuch
istrue:we'reinareligiouscrisis.Andwestillcan'tdowithoutthe
beneficentptessureofsocialreligiousobligation,howeverunworthy
ofafreehumanbeing.We'venotyetfullyworkedourwayupto
ethicalindependenc.Indeed,thisisthecoreofthecrisis.Religion,

66 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

theguardianofethicalconcerns,hasbeenrecognizedasaform,and
weareonthepointofrealizingourethicalprogramassomething
selfvalidating.Butthisworkisnotyetfinished;therearestill
transitionalphenomena.
I: Thank,God!ishudderattheimageofethicalindependenceyou
conjureup.Religionisrecognitionofourdutiesasdivinecommands,
accordingtoKant.^Whichistosay,religionguaranteesussomething
eternalinourdailylabors,andthatswhatweneedaboveall.Your
celebratedethicalindependencewouldturnmaninto,awork
machine;onegoalalwaysdetermininganotherinendlesssequence.
Thewayyouconceiveit,ethicalindependenceisachimerathe
reductionofallworkto'thetechnological.
TheFriend: Ibegyourpardon,butonewouldthinkyoulivedas
totallyisolatedfrommodernityasthemostreactionaryEast
Prussiancountrysquire.Certainly,thetechnologicalpracticalway
ofconceivingthingshassuckedthesouloutofeverysingleliving
phenomenoninthewholeofnature,andithasendedbydepriving
sufferingandpovertyofasoul.Butinpantheismwe'vefoundthe
commonsoulofallparticulars,ofallthathasbeenisolated.Wecan
renounceallsovereigndivineendsbecausetheworld,theunity,of
themanifold,isthegoalofgoals.Nodoubtit'salmostshamefulto
goonlikethis.Justturntotheworksofour'greatlivingpoets.
Whitman,Paquet,Rilke,andofnumberlessothers}enterifatothe
spiritoftheFreeReligiousMovement;re^dthepagesoftheliberal
press:everywhereyoufindavehementpantheistfeelingtosay
nothingofmonism,thesynthesisofallourform.^Thisistheliving
poweroftechnologylivingdespiteall;namely,thatithasgivenus
the,gloryofthosewhopursueknowledgeand,atthesametime,the
reverenceofthosewhohavecontemplatedthegloriousstructureof
theworld.FordespiteallpursuitofknowledgeamIwrong?no
generationhasyetcontemplatedthehumblestlifeformsasrever
entlyaswehave.Andwhatonceanimatedthephilosophers(from
theearliestlonianstoSpinoza)andthepoets(uptotheSpinozist
Goethe)thisfeelingfornatureaseverywheredivinehasbecome
ourpatrimony.
I: IfIargueagainstyouandIknowthatI'marguingagainstnotonly
youbuttheageitself,fromitssimplesttomanyofitsmostimposing
representativesthenpleasedon'tchalkthisuptotheurgetoappear
interesting.I'mwhollyseriouswhenIsaythatIrecognizeno

DialogueontheReligiosityofthePresent

67

pantheismotherthanthehumanismofGoethe.Inhiswritingsthe
worldappearsdivinethroughout,forhewasairheiroftheEnlighten
mentinonerespectatleast:tohim,onlythegoodwasessential.And
whatinthemouthofanyothernotonlywouldappearinessentialbut
wouldrallyhavebeeninsubstantial,anemptyphrase,becameinhis
mouth^andcontinuesintheformulationsx)fthepoetsgenerallyto
becomesubstance.
Don'tmisunderstandme.*Noone.candisputeanother'srightto
'feelings.Buttheclaimtopossessauthoritativefeelingshas'tobeput
tothetest.AndhereIwouldsaythat,thoughaparticularperson
maysincerelyfeelhisorherpantheism,it'sonlythepoets.who
makeitauthoritativeandcommunicable.Andafeeling,thatis
possibleonlyatthesummitofexpressionnolongercountsas
religion.It'sart,edification,butnotthefeelingthatcangive.our
communallifereligiousgrounding.Andthispresumablyiswhat
religionseekstodo.
TheFriend: Iwon'tattempttorefuteyou,butIwouldlike,ifyoudon't
mind,toindicatetoyoutheenormityofwhatyou'resayingby
pointingtoanexample:thehighschool.Inwhatspiritdoesiteducate
itsstudents?
I: Inthespiritofhurnanismsoitsays.
TheFriend: inyouropinion,wouldourschoolingthereforebean
educationforpoetsandforthosecapableofthestrongestandmost
creativelifet)ffeeling?
<
I: We'reinagreement'here.Really,Imustask,whatisapersonof
normalabilitysupposedtodowithhuihanism?Isthishighly
refinedharmonizationofknowledgeandfeelingameansof
educatingyoungpeoplewhothirstforvalues?Indeed,ishumanism,
ispantheismanythingother,thanamightyincarnationofthe
aestheticinterpretationoflife?Ithinknot.Wemayexperiencein
pantheismthehighest,mostharmoniousmomentiofhappiness
butneveratanytimedoesithavethepowertodeterminethemoral
life.Oneshouldneitherlaughatnorweepovertheworld,butrather
seektounderstandit:pantheismculminatesinthissayingof
Spinoza.'Butpleasenote,.sinceyouaskedmyopinion;thehigh
scholdoesn'tevengiveshapetoitspantheism.Weseldomgoback
directlytotheclassics.Theworkofartthisoneauthenticmanifes
tationofpantheisticfeelingisbanished..And,ifyouwishtohear
stillmore,I'm^^ftheopinionthatthismedicinalpantheismwhich

68 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

ourschoolhasprescribedtousisresponsibleforthereductionof
theconcepttoamerecatchword.
TheFriend: So,intheend,youchargepantheismwithdishonestyas
well.
L Dishonesty?Nq,Iwouldn'tsaythat.ButIwouldchargeitwith
thoughtlessness.ForthetimesarenolongerthoseofGoethe.
We'vehadRomanticismandweareindebtedtoitspowerfulinsight
intothenightsideofthenatural.Atbottom,thenaturalisnot
good;it'sstrange,dreadful,frightening,repugnantcrude.But
weliveasthoughRomanticismhadneveroccurred,asthough
todayweretheveryfirstday.That'swhyIcallourpantheism
thoughtless.
TheFriend: IalmostbelievethatI'verunintoafixedideaherein
yourthinking.Tobehonest,IdoubtwhetherIcanmakethesimple
andyetfundamentalsignificanceofpantheismcomprehensibleto
you.Withsuchdistrustfullogicalrigor,you'llneverunderstand
whatiswonderfulaboutpantheism:namely,thatinitpreciselythe
uglyandbadappearasnecessaryandthereforedivine.This
convictionmakesforanextraordinary^feelingofgroundedness,
thatsenseofpeacewhichSpinozahassoaptlytermedamordei}"
I: Imustconfessthattheamordeiasamodeofknowledge,asinsight,
doesnotaiccordwithmyideaofreligion.Fundamentaltoreligionisa
certaindualism,anintimatestrivingafterunificationwithGod.
Somegreatindividualmayaccomplishthisbywayofknowledge.
Religionspeaksmightierwords,ismoredemanding;itknowsabout
theungodlyalso,evenabouthate.Adivinitythatiseverywhere,a
divinitythatissupposedtoparticipateineveryexperienceandevery
feeling,issimplysentimentalismandprofanation.

TheFriend: You'rewrongifyouthinkpantheismlacks'thenecessary
religiousdualism.Itdoesn'tatall.Isidalittleearlierthatwithall
profoundscientificknowledgetheredwellsinusafeelingofhumility
beforethesmallestlivingthing,evenbeforetheinorganic.Nothingis
moreremotefromusthanschoolboy>arrogance.Tellmenow
yourself:don'twefeelthedeepestsympatjieticunderstandingforall
that'sgoingon?Justthinkofmodern'developmentsinthepenalcode.
Weinsistthatcriminals,too,arehumanbeings.Wedemand
rehabilitationnotpunishment.Thetruereligiousantagonism
pervadesouremotionallifetheantagonismbetweenintellectual
penetrationandahumilitythatIwouldalmostcallresignation.

DialoguontheReligiosityofthePresent 69

I: InthisantagonismIseeonlyskepticism.Ahumilitythatnegates

allscientificknowledgebecause,inthespiritofHume,itdoubts
thevalidityofthelawofcausalitythisrsimilarprofane
speculationis,inmyview,notreligious."It'smerelyemotion
soddenfeebleness.Moreover,ifourhumilityunderminesthe
consciousnessofwhatismostvaluabletous,whicliishowyou
characterizeourknowledge,thenit'snotthesourceofliving
religiousantagonismsomuchasthecuetoskepticalself
laceration.ButI'mwell'aware thatitispreciselythisthatmakes
pantheismsoimmenselycomforting:onefeelsequallycozyinhell
andheaven,inprideandskepticism,insuperhumanstrivingand
socialhumility.For,naturally,withoutabitofunpathetipin
otherwords,painlesssuperhumanstriving [bermenschentum],
itwon'tcomeoff.'WhereCreationisdivine,theLordofCreationis
naturallyallthemoredivine.
TheFriend: Yetthere'sonethingmissing,itseemstome,inallyou're
saying.You'reunabletodescribeformethesublimityofasovereign
knowledge.Andthatisainainstayofourconvictions.
I: Whatthenisit/orus,thisknowledgeofours?I'mnotaskingwhatit
meansforhumanity.Rather,whatexperientialvaluedoesithavefor
eachperson?It'sexperience,afterall,thatwemustaskabout.And
hereIseeonlythatthisknowledgehasbecomeforussomething
customary,somethingmatteroffactwithwhichwegrowupfrom
theageofsixtotheend.We'realwayslullingourselveswiththe
importanceofthisknowledgeforanysortofproblem,for
humanityforknowledgeitself.Butpersonallyitdoesnotconcernus
in\heleast;itleavesuscold,likeeverythingcustomary.Whatdidwe
havetosaywhentheNorthPolewsfirstreached?Asensation,which
wassoonforgotten.WhenEhrlichdiscoveredthecureforsyphilis,it
wasamatterfortheskepticismandcynicismofthehlimormaga
zines.^^ARussiannewspapercommentedthatvicehadnowbeen
givenfreerein,whichcouldonlybedeplored.Inshort/1simplydont
btieveinthereligioussublimityofknowledge.
TheFriend: Thenwhatdoyouhaveleftbutdespair?Doyoubelievein
nothingatall?Areyouskepticalofeverything?
I: Ibelievinourownskepticism,ourowndespair.Ithinkyouknow
w^atImean.Ibelievenolessthanyoudointhereligioussignificance
ofotfrtimes.And,yes,Ibelieveinthereligioussignificanceof
knowledge,too.Iunderstandtheaweandterrorwhichinsightinto

70 EARLYWRITINGS

naturehasbequeathedus,andchieflyIfeelthatweareallstillliving
deepwithinthediscoveriesofRomanticism.
TheFriend: AndwhatdoyoumeanbythediscoveriesofRomanticism?
I; It'swhatIwassuggestingbefore:theappreciationofeverything
frightful,incomprehensible,andobscurethatiswovenintoourlives.
Buttohaverecognizedallthisandsomuchmoreisnotriumph.The
knowledgehasovermasteredus;wearesimplystupefiedandsub
dued.There'satragicomiclawatworkhere,forthemomentwe
becameconsciousoftheautonomyofthespiritwithKant,Fichte,and
Hegel,natureemergedinitsimmeasurableobjectivity;themoment
Kantuncoveredtherootsofhumanlifeinthepracticalreason,the
theoreticalreasonhadtotakeontheinfinitetaskofdeveloping
modernnaturalscience."SoitiswithusnowAllthesocial
moralityweseektoestablishwithsplendid,youthfulzealisarrested
intheskepticaldepthsofourinsights.Andtodaylessthanever
beforedoweunderstandtheKantianprimacyofthepracticalreason
overthetheoretical.
TheFriend: Inthenameofareligiousimperativeyouadvocatean
unbridled,unscientificreformism.Youappeartohavedisavowedthe
sobrietythatyouearlierseemedtoembrace.Youfailtorecognizethe
greatness,indeedthesanctity,oftherenunciatoryobjectivework
beingaccomplishednotonlyintheserviceofsciencebutalso,inthis
ageofscientificculture,inthesocialrealm.Arevolutionaryyouth
fulnesswill,ofcourse,findnoincentivehere.
I: That'scertainlytrue.Giventhepresentstateofourculture,thework
ofsocietyshouldandmustbealignedwithanevolutionarycourseof
actionratherthanwithheroicrevolutionaryaspirations.ButIsay
thistoyou:Woetohimwholosessightofthegoalinallsuchwork,
andwhoconfidentlyentrustshimselftothecrablikeadvanceof
evolution.Forthatiswhat'shappening.Hence,itisnoteverinthe
nameofdevelopmentbutinthe,nameofthegoalthatweemerge
fromthepresenttateofaffairs.And,asthingsstand,wecannot
outwardlyestablishthisgoal.Themanofculturehas'onlyoneplace
thathecankeeppureforhimself,inwhichhecanreallybesubspecie
aeternitatis:that'shisinterior,hehimself'*Andtheoldandbesetting
difficultyisthatweloseourselves.Loseourselvesthroughallthe
gloriousformsofprogressyouextolloseourselves,Iwouldalmost
say,throughprogress.Religions,however,ariseoutofdifficultyand

DialogueontheReligiosityofthePresent 71

need,notoutofprosperity.Andifthepantheisticfeelingoflifeextols
thispurenegativity,thjslosing.ofoneselfandbecomingstrangeto
oneself,asabsorptioninthesocial,th^nitisalie.'
TheFriend: TobesureIdidn!tknowyouwereanindividualist.
I: I'mnotanymorethanyouare.Individualistspromotetheirown
"I"asthedeterminingfactorIalreadysaidthatcultivatedhuman
beings,insofarastheprpgressofhumanityisforthemaselfevident
precept,candonosuchthing.Thisprecept,bytheway,hasbeen
takenupintotheculturesounquestionably,liasbecomesoself
evident,thatitisalreadyempty,harmless,anduselessasafoundation
ofreligionfortheprogressiyemindedButIhayenointentionof
preachingindividualism.Idesireonlythatthemanofculture
comprehendhisrelationtosociety.Ithinkweshouldbreakwiththe
unworthylieaccordingtowhichthehumanbeingiscompletely
fulfilledinservicetosociety,andaccordingtowhichthesocial,that
inwhichweundeniablyliveourlivesat,present,isalsothatwhichin
thelastanalysisdeterminespersonality.
Letusinfacttakethesocialistpreceptseriously,letusconcedethat
theindividualisconstrainedinhisinnerlifeconstrainedand
benighted;fromthisdifficultywere^inanawarenessoftherichness
andabundance,thenaturalbeingofthepersonality.Slowly,anew
gen^ationwilldareonceagaintolookaboutonitsownandnotonly
throughitsartists.Theoppressionanduntruththatnowconfineus
willberecognized.Thedualism.ofsocialmoralityandpersonality
willbeacknowledged.Fromthisdiflicultyareligionwillbeborn.
Andnecessarilyso,becauseneverbeforehasthepersonalitybeenso
hopelesslyentangledinthesocialmechanism.ButIfearthatyou've
notyetentirelyunderstoodmeand{hatyoubeljeveyou'vedetected
individualismwhereI,merelydemandhonestyandnotleastan
honestsocialism,asopposed.,totheconventionaloneoftoday.As
opposedtoasocialismupheldbythosewhodonotfeelquiterightby
themselves.
TheFriend: We'regettingintoanareawherediscussionisalmost
impossible.Youprovidenoevidenceandbaseyourselfonthefuture.
Butlookaroundyouinthepresent.Thereyouhaveindividualism.I
knowyouopposeit.Butpreciselyfromyour.pointofview,Iwould
think,youmustrecognii^eitssinerity.>Jowhere,however,does
individualism.pointtowardyourgoal.

72 EARLYWRITINGS

I: Therearemanykindsofindividualism.Idon'tdenythatthereare

evenpeoplewhocanbealtogetherhonorablyabsorbedinthesbcial,
thoiightheywillnotbethedeepestandbest.'Butwhetherornotthe
seedsofmyexpectationbetter,ofafuturereligiosityliein
individualismisSomethingIcannotatalldecide.Inanycase,I
discernbeginningsinthismovement.Tomywayofthinking,the
heroicageofanewreligion.ThehefoesoftheGreeksarestronglike
thegods;only,theyarestilllackingindivinematurity,divine
culture.That's^howindividualistsappeartome.
TheFriend: Idon'trequirealearnedconstrual.Butshowmewherein
theemotionallifeofthetimesyoufindthesenewreligiouscurrents,
thisindividualisticsocialism,asyoufindeverywheretodaythe
pantheisminpeople'shearts.Tmyselfseenothingtobackyouup.
Wittycynicismandpallidaestheticismarenbttheseedsofafuture
religiosity.
I: Iwouldnothavebelievedyoucapableofdismissing^ourliterature
withthecustomarywitheringglancefromonhigh.Itlooksvery
differenttome.Eventhoughwittyaestheticismisnotthehallmarkof
ourgreatestcreativeachievements,youshouldnotunderestimatethe
penetrating,captivatingpowerthatliesinthishighspiritedness,this
maniaforexposingandoverleapingabysses.Idon'tknowifyou'll
understandmewhenISaythtsuchintellectualwitisatthesametime
forerunnerandfoeofreligiousfeeling.
TheFriend: Ifyoumeanby"religious"asupersaturatedlongingforthe
unheardof,thenmaybeyou'reright.
I: Let'stake,though,asomewhatdifferentviewofthelongingyou
speakof.Doesn'titoriginateinthemightywilltoseeeverything
unmooredthatis,notsopeacefullyandselfevidentlyanchoredin
the"I"asitcustomarilyappearstobe?Thislongingbespeaksa
mysticalindividualisthostilitytowardthecustomary.Thatisits
fruitfulness.Ofcourse,itcanneverhavehadthelastwordon
anything,andhenceitsterminationsarealwayscheeky.Thetragic
naivetofthehighspirited.AsI'said,itkeepsleapingoverthe
chasmsitopensup.Iloveandfearthiscynicismit'ssocourageous
and,intheend,onlyalittletoovaingloriousnottosetitsown
fortuitousnessabovehistoricalnecessity.
TheFriend: YoupaytributetoafeelingwithwhichI,too,amfafhihar
NeoromanticismSchnitzler,Hofmannsthal,alsoThomasMannon

DialogueontheReligiosityofthePresent 73

occasionsimportant,worthyoflove,infactgenuinelysympathetic
anddangerous.'^
I; Actually,itwasnotatallofthemIwantedtospeakbutofotherswho
manifestlydominateourtimes.Oratleasttypifythetimes.WhatI
cansayaboutthemIsaygladly.But,ofcourse,we'reenteringa
boundlessterrain.
TheFriend: Feelingsvergeon,theboundless,andtheobjectofreligion
isinfinity.SomuchIbringwithmefrommypatheism.
7; Blscheoncesaidthatartanticipatesthecollectiveconsciousness
andsphereoflifeof.latertimes.'AndIbelieve,too;thatthose
worksofartthatdominateourepochno,notjustdominateI
believethatthe'worksthatmoveusmostintenselyatafirstencoun
ter,aboveall,Ibsenandnaturalism,thattheseworkscarrywithin
themselvesthisnewreligiousconsciousness.Takethedramasof
Ibsen.Inthebackgroundalwaysthesocialproblemcertainly.But
^ whatdrivestheactionarethepeoplewhomustorienttheirindi
vidualbeingtothenewsocialorder:Nora,Mrs.Alving,and,ifyou
godeeper,Hedda,Solness;Borkipan,Gregers,andmanyothers.'^
And,further,thewaythesepeoplespeak.Naturalismhasdiscov
eredindividualspeech.That'swhat'ssoverygripping,whenwefirst
readIbsenorHauptmann:thatwithourmosteverydayandmost
intimateformsofexpressionwehaveourrightsinliterature,ina
validworldorder."Oursenseofselfisexaltedbythis.Ortakethe
conceptionofindividualandsociety,asitappearsdnSpitteler's
"Heracles',EarthlyJourney.'^"Thisremindsuswhereourgoallies.
Andsurelyit'soneofthemoststirring,rapturouspassagesof
writingihmodernliterature.Asredeemerintheserviceofhuman
ity,Heraclescannot'safeguardhispersonality,notevenhishonor.
Butitisapiercingandjubilanthonestywithwhichheadmitsthisto
himself,anhonestythatinallhissuffering,andpreciselythrough
suchsuffering,ennobleshim.^"Thisistheprecipitousliving
contradictiontothesocialinertiaofourtime.Andhereistobe
foundthedeepest,trulythfrdeepestabasementtowhichthe
modernindividual,punishedwiththelossofsocialpossibilities,
mustsubmit:intheveilingofindividuality,ofallthatwhich;is
inwardlyinmotionandinferment.Iwouldspeaktoyounowof
whatismostconcrete:religionwilltakeitsriseatthisjuncture.It
willonceagainemergefromwhatisenslaved.Buttheclassthat

74

EARLYWRITINGS

todayenduresthisnecessaryhistoricalenslavementistheclassof
literati.^'Theywanttobethehonestones,wanttogiveshapeto
theirartisticenthusiasm,their"loveofthemostdistant"(tospeak
withNietzsche),butsocietyrepudiatesthem;andtheythemselves,
inpathologicalselfdestructiveness,mustrootoutinthemselves
everything"alltoohuman"neededbyonewholives.^^That'sthe
waytheyaretheywhowouldconvertvalues'intolife,into
convention:andouruntruthfulnesscondemnsthemtobeing
outsidersandtotheextravagancethatmakesthemunfruitful.We
willneverspiritualizeconventionsifwedon'tseektoinfusethese
formsofsociallifewithourownpersonalspirit.Andtothatendwe
arehelpedbytheliteratiandthenewreligion.Religiongivesanew
groundingandanewdignitytodailylife,toconvention,whichin
thiswayturnsintocult.Arewenotthirstingforconventionthat
wouldhavespiritual,ritualmeaning?
TheFriend: Ithinkofthepeoplewholeadadisordered,often
enoughunspiritualexistence,inthecoffeehouses,peoplewho
disavoweventhesimplestresponsibilityintheirmegalomaniaand
indolence,andwhoembody,yes,shamelessnessitself:howitisthat
youexpectthenewreligionfromthesepeopleisuncleartome.to
putitmildly.
I: Ididn'tsaythatIexpectthenewreligionfromthembutthatIlook
uponthemasbearersofreligiousspiritinourtimes.AndI'llstickto
this,thoughyoureproachmeahundredtimesforunnecessary
construal.Nodoubtthesepeoplelead,.tosomeextent,themost
ridiculous,depraved,unspirituallife.Buthasn'tsuchwretchedness
sprungfromaspirituabneed,fromlongingfor'anhonestand
authenticpersonallife?Whatelseare.theydoingthanoccupying
themselveswiththeirowntorturoushonesty?Ofcourse,whatwe
makeallowancesforinIbsen'sheroeswon'tdOforusinourown
lives.
TheFriend: Didn'tyouyourselfsaybeforethatthisfanatical,penetrat
inghonestyisdeniedthemanofculture,thatitdissolvesallour
innerandoutercapacities?
I: Yes,andforthatreasonnothingistobefearedmorethnthespread
oftheworldofletters.Butaleaveningis"necessary,afermenting
agent.Aslittleaswewishtobeliteratiinthislastsense,somuchthe
morearethey,theliterati,toberegardedasexecutorsofthereligious
will.

DialogueontheReligiosityofthePresent 75

TheFriend: Religioninvolvesasenseofshame;it'sapurificationand

sanctificationinsolitude.Intheworldoflettersyouseetheblatant
opposite.Hence,itistobeshunnedbypeoplewithasenseof
shame.

I: Whydoyoumakeshamealonetheseatofallholinessandspeakso
littleofecstasy?We'vesurelyforgottenthatitwasbynomeansin
innercalmthatreligiousmovementsoncegrippedwholegenerations.
Thinkofshame,ifyoulike,asarequisitearmoftheinstinctfor
selfpreservation.Butdon'tsanctifyit;itisaltogethernatural.Itwill
neverhaveanythingtofearfromapathos,anecstasy,thatcanendure
andexpand..Andonlytheimpurefireofacowardly,oppressed
pathosonlythat,perhaps,candestroyit.
TheFriend: And,really,theliterarymanstandsunderthesignof
thisshamelessness.Hesuccumbstoit,astoinwarddecay,andis
ruihed.
L YQUshouldn'tatalltakethatforgranted,forhesuccumbstothis
debilitatingpathosbecausesocietyhasbanishedhim,becausehehas
onlythemostpitiableformsinwhichtoliveouthisconvictions.
Whenweagainhavethestrengthtoshapeconvention,togiveit
seriousandworthyforminplaceofoursocialshamworld,thenwe
shallhavethesymptom'ofthenewreligion.Thecultureofexpression
isthehighest,andwe.shouldthinkofitonlyonthebasisofthis
religion.Butourreligiousfeelingsarefree.Andsowefurnish
untrueconventionsanduntrueemotionalrelationswiththeuseless
energyofpiety.
TheFriend: Tcongratulateyouonyouroptimismandyourconsistency.
Doyoureallybelievethat,withallthetroublesthathavedescended
.onsociety,inthisflOodofunresolvedproblems,anewproblematic
oneWhicbyoudonothesitatetonamereligionisnecessaryoreven
possible?Thinkofjust"oneimmenseproblem,thequestion.ofthe
sexualorderinthefuture.
^
I: Anexcellentsugge'stionljomymind,thisispreciselythesortof
questionthatc^nbedealtwithonly.onthebasisofthemostpersonal
. honesty.Asregardsloveandthecomplexofsexualproblems,weshall
x beabletoarriveatafrankassessmentonlyafterwehavedissociated
theseproblemsfromtheirmendaciousamalgamationwithunending
socialagendas.Loveisfirstofallapersonalaffairbetweentwopeople
andabsolutelynotameansiprocreatingchildren;readWasser
mann'sFaustinaonthis.^^Fortherest,Idoinfactbelievethata

76 E A R L Y W R i t l N G S

religionmustbebornfromadeepandalmostunknownneed.And
thatforthespiritualleaders,therefore,thesocialelementisnolonger
areligiouselement,asIalreadysaid.Ihepeopleshouldbepermitted
itsreligion,withoutcynicism.Thatis,thepeoplehavenoneedofnew
formsofknowledgeornewgoals.Icouldwellimaginespeakingwith
someonewhohadanoutlookvprydifferentfromyours.Forhim,the
socialwouldhavebeenanexperiencethatfirstviolentlytorehimout
ofhismostnaveandunbrokenintegrity.Hewouldhaverepresented
themassoftheliving,andhebelongsinthewidestsensetothe
historicalreligions.
TheFriend: Youspeakhere,too,ofhonestyandintegrity.Sowe're
supposedtoreverttothisoutlookoftheegocentricman?
I: Ibelieveyoumisunderstandmesystematically.I'mtalking
abouttwokindsofhonesty.Oebeforethesocialandonethata
personhasaftergainingknowledgeofhissocialbonds.1 abhor
onlythemiddle:themendaciousprimitlVismofthecomplicated
man.
TheFriend: Andnowyoureallybelieveyoucaninstitutethisnew
honestyintheverymidstofthereligiousandculturalchaosin'which
theleadersareinvolved?Inspiteofdecadenceandmysticism,
theosophy,theAdamites,andendlessOthersects?^'*Forinthese
things,too,everyreligionhasitsbitterenemies.Theyconcealthegulf
betweennatvtfeandspirit,honestyandlying,individualand
societyorhoweveryouwishtoformulateit.
I: Sonowyouyourselfdescribemysticismastheenemyofreligion.
Notonlydoesitbridgeovertheprecipicesofthereligiousproblem
aticbutit'salsorespectableandsocial.Butconsidertowhatextent
thiswouldbetrueofpantheismaswell.Ofthenewlyawakening
religiousfeeling,however,it'snottrue.Solittle,indeed,thatinthe
recognitionandspreadofmysticismand'decadenceIevensee
symptomsofthatfeeling.Butallowmetogooverthematterin
moredetail.IalreadysaidthatIcandeterminehistoricallythe
momentofthisnewreligionthelayingofitsfoundation.Itwas
themomentwhenKantexposedthegulfbetweensensibilityand
understandingandwhenherecognizedtheswayofthemoral,the
practicalreasoninalldoings.Humanitywasawakenedfromits
developmentalsleep,andatthesametimetheawakeningtook
fromhumanityitsunity.Whatdidclassicism,do?Itonceagain

DialogueontheReligiosityofthePresent 77

unifiedspiritandnature:itempoweredthefacultyofjudgmentand
producedunitythatwhichcanalwaysbeonlyaunityof.the
moment,ofecstasy,inthegreatvisionaries.Fundamentally,we
cannotexperiencesuchunitynotifwearehonest.Itcannot
becomethefoundationoflife.Itsignifieslife'saesthetichighpoint.
Andjustasclassicism,wasaphenomenonofaestheticreaction,
givenitskeenconsciousnessthatwhatwasatstakew^thestruggle
overthetotalityofthehumani?eing,soIwouldcallmysticismand
decadencealsoreactionaryphenomena.Theconsciousnessthatat
the,eleventhhourwantstobesparedthehonestyofdualism,that
wantstofleepersonality.Butmysticismanddecadenceparryona
hopelessstruggle:theynegatethemselves.Mysticismthroughthe
studiedscholasticecstaticmannerinwhichitgraspsthesensuous
asspiritual,orbothasmanifestationsofthetrusupersensjble.
AmongthesehopelessmodesofspeculationIincludempnism.
They'reaninnocuousintellectualprogeny,I'dsay,butonerequir
inganimmenseexpenditureofsuggestiblementality.Aswe've
alreadymentioned,thelanguageofmysticismisintellectualwit,
or,worsestill,itisdecadenceforme,thesamesymptomandthe
sameunfruitfulness.Itseeksthesynthesisinthenatural.It
commitsthe.mortalsinofmakingthe,spiritnatural,takingitas
selfevident,asmerelycausalinitsfunctioning.Itdeniesvalues
(andtherebyitself)inordertoovercomethedualismofdijty.and
person.
TheFriend: Youknow,howitgoessometimes.Youfollowalineof
thoughtintenselyforawhile,believingyQurselftobei)nthetrailof
somethingunprecedented,andsuddenlyyoufindyourselfstanding
inhorrorbeforeacolossalbanality.That'showitis^vjthme.Ican't
.helpaskingmyselfwhatexactlywe'retalkingabout.Isn'titsomething
terriblyobvious,aforegoneconclusion?Isitevenworthtalking
about;thatweliveinadisjunctionofindividualandsocial?Every
bodyknowswhatitfeelslike,experiencesitdaily.Good,westruggle
untilcultureandsopialismtriumph.Andwiththateverythingis
settled.Yousee,<I'veentirelylostperspective^daproperunder
standingofthematter.
I: It'smyexperience,ontheotherhand,thatonestandsbeforea
profoundtruthwhentosomedegreeonedeepensrspiritualizes,I
wouldsaytheobvious.Andthat'swhat'S^appenedtousinthe

78 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

matterofreligion.Certainly,you'rerightinwhatyou'resaying.But
addacorollary.Thissituationshouldnotbeconceivedasatechnical
necessity,assomethingarisingfromexternalityandcontingency.Let
ustakeitasanethicalnecessity[sittlichnotwendig];letusoncemore
infusenecessitywithspiritandmakeavirtueofit.Certainly,welive
inanexigency[Not].Butourconductbecomesvaluableonlyinsofar
asitcomprehends.itselfethically.Haveweinthatcaseacknowledged
toourselveswhatishorrible,unchecked,inthesubmissionofthe
persontosocialethicalends?No!Andwhynot?Becausethefactof
thematteristhatonenolongerunderstandstheabundanceand
weightinessofindividuality.AssureasIknowpeopleindailylife,I
saytoyoutheyhavelostthebodilysensationoftheirpersonal
spiritualbeing.
Themomentwefindthatagain^^andbowtotheculture'sethical
standards,wearehumble.Onlythendowegetasenseofwhat
Schleiermachercalls"absolutedependence,"asopposedtoaconven
tionaldependency.^ButIdoubtIcanmakethiscleartoyou,
becauseitcomesoutofsuchanewconsciousnessofpersonal
immediacy.
TheFriend: Onceagainyourthoughtstakeflight.Somuchsothatthey
veryrapidlyleavebehindthewholepresentdayproblematic.
I: ThatisthelastthingIexpectdtohear,sinceI'vebeenspeakjngall
eveninglongandallnightlongofthedifliculty[Not] withour
leaders.
TheFriend: FaithandknowledgearethewatchWordsofourreligious
struggles,andyetyoudon'tsayawordabouttheirrelation.Ihasten
toaddthat,frommystandpointofpantheismormonism,this
questionclearlydoesnotobtain.But70willhavecometoterms
withthematter.
I: Yes,indeed,sinceIarguethatreligiousieelingisrootedinthe
totalityofthetime,andknowledgeispartofthat.Ifknowledge
werenotitselfproblematic,thenareligionthatbeginswiththe
mosturgentmatterswouldnothavetotroubleitselfaboutknowl
edge.Andtherehavehardlybeentimesbeforethiswhenknowledge
wasnaturallycontestedasproblematic.Tosuchapasshave
historicalmisunderstandingsbroughtthings.Andthismost
modernofproblems,ofwhichthenewspapersarefull,comesinto
beingbecausewedon'tinquirefromthegroundupaboutthe
religionoftoday.Rather,oneaskswhetherornotoneofthe

DialogueontheReligiosityofthePresent 79

historicalreligionscanstillfindaccommodationinthepresent,no
matterifitsarmsandlegsarecutoff,anditsheadaswell.I'llstop
here,sincethisisafavoritethemeofminethatcouldbedeveloped
inmanydirections.
TheFriend: I'mremindedofaremarkthatWalterCaloncemade:
"Afteraconversation,onealwaysbelievesthe'essentialthing'wasnot
said."^^Perhapsyouhavesimilarfeelingrightnow.
I: ThatIdo.ButI'llsaythis.Ithinkthatinthelastanalysisa
religioncanneverbesimplydualismthatthehonestyandthe
humilityofwhichwespokeconstituteitsethicallyunifying
concept.IthinkthatwecansaynothingabouttheGodorthe
doctrineofthisreligionandlittleaboutitsculticlife.Ihattheonly
thingconcreteisthefeelingofanewandunprecedentedeventual
ity,fromwhich.wesuffer.Ibelievealsothatwehavealreadyhad
ourprophets:Tolstoy,^Iietzsche,Strindberg.^Andthatfinallyour
pregnanttimeswillgivebjrthtoanewhumanbeing.Ihear4a
songrecentlyaratherroguishlovesong.Ibelieveinthereligious
manthewayitdos:
Ifallyourcharmscouldbecapturedoncanvas.
Andaheathenjirincewerethentofindtheportrait.
Hewouldbestowonyouamagnificentgift
Andlayhiscrowninyourhands.
Hisentirekingdomdowntoitsremotestprovince
Wouldhavetoembracethetruefaith.
Throughoutthelanditwouldbewritten:
EveryoneshallbecomeaChristianandloveyou.
Atonceeachheathenwouldbeconverted
AndbecomeagoodChristianandloveyou.

Myfriendsmiledskepticallybutamiablyandaccompaniedmeinsi
lencetothedoor.

Notes
"Dialogber die Religiosittder Gegenwart"(GS2, 1635)was writtenca.
SeptemberOctober1912andpublishedposthumously.

So EARLYWRITINGS

1.Thetwospeakersusetheformalmodeofaddress(Sie)witheachother.
'2.ApplyingKant'sideaofthepureanddisinterestedexistenceOfthework
ofart,theFrenchphilosopherVictorCousinmadeuseofthephrasel'artpour
l'art(artforart'ssake) ihis1818lecture"DuVrai,dubea,etdubien"(On
theTrue,theBeautiful,andthe Good).Theidea waslatergivencurrencyby
suchwritersasThophileGautier.EdgarAllanPoe,andCharlesBaudelaire.
3.These oftquotedlines arefrom thepreface t Die Braut vonMessina
(The Brideof Messina; 1803), adrafna byJohann ChristophFriedrich von
Schiller(17591805).
4.Atthispointinthemanuscript,Benjaminchangedthedesignationfor
theinterlocutor("The Friend")withoutgoingbackandchangingthe initial
form("He").
5.BlumetitagewereorganizedinmanyGermancitiesatthebeginningof
thetwentiethcentury,particularlyin1910and1911,asaphilanthropicactiv
ityinwhichgailyadornedyoungwomenwoulddistributeartificialflowersas
awayofraisingmoneyforthepooranddisadvantaged.Theactivitywascriti
cizedasa sentimentalbourgeoispose of"folkishness."Presumablyat issue
hereforBenjaminiswhatthefirstspeakerinthedialoguecallsthehypocrisy
ofthe"enlightened."
6.Thisistheopeningsentenceofbook4(part1)ofImmanuelKant's Die
Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft (Religion within the
LimitsofReasonAlone;1793).
7.The AmericanpoetWalt Whitmandiedin1892and wasthusnotex
actlya"livingpoet"whenthis dialoguewaswritten.Alfons Paquet(1881
1944)wasaGermanpoet,dramatist,novelist,andtravelwriter,whomBen
jaminwouldlaterencounterincompanywithFlofensChristianRanginthe
1920s.RainerMariaRilke(18751926),thecelebratedAustroGermanlyric
poetand prose writer, was author of Neue Gedichte (New Poems; 1907
1908), Die Aufzeichnungen des Malte Laurids Brigge (TheNotebooks of
MalteLauridsBrigge;1910), andDuineserElegien(DuinoElegies;1923);he
andBenjaminwereinaclasstogether(onpi'eColumbianMexicanculture)
inMunichin1915. Liketheworkof thesethreewriters, theFreeReligious
Movement(DiefreireligiseBewegung),organizedinmidnineteenthcentury
Germanytopromotethevaluesofenlightenmentandtoleranceinreligion,
wascriticaloftraditionalChristiandualism;itadvocatedapantheisticview
of the world. One of its adherents, the zoologist and philosopher Ernst
Haeckel(18341919),wasthefounderoftheDeutscher Monistenbund(Ger
manLeague ofMonists; 1906), whichsimilarly arguedfor theoneness of
natureandspirit.

DialogueontheReligiosityofthePresent 8i

8.Ionia, anancientregion ofwesternAsia Minoralongthe coastofthe

AegeanSea,wascolonizedbyGreeksettlersbefore1000B.C.andinthesixth
centuryp.c.was thebirthplaceofthepreSocratic philosophersThaesai)d
An^ximander,bothof Miletus,andHeraclits ofEphesus.Baruch Spinoza
(16321677) wasa Dutchphilosopher ofPortugueseJewish pai^ntageand
themosteminentexpounder ofpantheism;amonghisworksare Tractatus
TheologicoPoliticus (1670) and ,Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata,
knowninEnglishasTheEthics(1677).ThepoetJohannWolfgangvonGoethe
(17491832)cametoknowSpinoza'sEthicsin17731774,andhelatersingled
outSpinoza,togetherwithShakespeareandtheSwedishbotanistLinnaeus,
ashavinghadadecisiveinfluenceonhisdevelopment(letterofNovember7,
1816,toCarlFriedrichZelter).
9.Thepassage inquestioncomesfromchapter1 (paragraph4)ofSpino
za's unfinished Tractatus Politicus (PoliticalTreatise; pub. 1677):"Human
actionsIhavestrivenneithertomocknortolament,noryettoexecrate,but
tounderstand."
10."Feelingofgroundedness"translatesHeimatgefhl.Spinoza'sfamous
phrase,amordei intellectualis(the intellctualloveof God)is foundin the
Ethics,part5,propositions3233.
11.TheScottishphilosopherand historianDavidHume(17111776),the
author of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748) and Dia
loguesConcerning Natural Religion (1779), inaugurateda skepticalempiri
cismbyarguingthatthereisnoknowledgebeyondtheimpressionsofexperi
enceandthat,inparticular, thereisnonecessarycausalconnectionamong
mattersoffactbutonlycustomaryassociationsthatmayalter.
12.TheNorthPolewasfirstreachedbytheAmericanexplorersRobertE.
PearyandMatthewHensonondogsledgein1909,thesame.yearthataspe
cificremedyfor syphiliswasdiscovered bytheGerman bacteriologistPaul
Ehrlicl},(18541915),joint recipientof the1908 NobelPrize forphysiology
andmedicine.
13.ImmanuelKant(17241804),'JohannGottliebFichte(17621814),and
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (*17701831) are, with F. W. J. Schelling
(17751854),theforemostrepresentativesofGermanIdealistphilosophy.The
ideaoftheautonomousspirit,whichhasanepistemologica!,amoral,andan
aestheticaspect,develops^utofKant'spostulatethatthehumanselfisnotan
objectbutanactivity,andthatitisselfconstitutinginawaythatanobjectis
not.
14.In Europeanphilosophy, thephrase subspecie aeternitatis(under the
aspectofeternity)originateswithSpinoza(Ethics,part5,propositions2336).

82 EARLYWRITINGS

15.ArthurSchnitzler(18621931)wasanAustrianplaywrightandnovel
istwhosemelancholy,satirical,andoftencontroversialworkswereconcerned
withsexual relationship,love, anddeath. Hugovon Hofmannthal (1874
1929),theAustHanpoetandplaywrightandamemberwithSchnitzlerofthe
avantgardegroupYoungVienna,was,earlyon,associatedwiththeconser
vativeaestheticismofthecirclearoundthepoetStefanGeorge;helaterpub
lished Benjamin'sessay on Goethe's Elective Affinities inhis journal Neue
Deutsche Beitrge (19241925) and corresponded with Benjamin. Thomas
Mann(18751955),therecipientoftheNobelPrizeforliteraturein1929and
aproponentofanantiromantichumanisminhislaternovelsandessays,at
the beginning ofhis career publishedfiction distinguished by a refined
morbidityanddemonicirony.
16.WilhelmBlsche(18611939)wasaGermanwriterwhopopularized
the theories of Darwin and natural history and who,inhis treatise Die
naturwissenschaftlichenGrundlagen'derPoesie (TheScientific BasisofPo
etry;1887), soughttocombinea naturalistaesthetics witha newreligious
approachtolife.
17. The Norwegianpoet andplaywright HenrikIbsen (18281906) has
beencalledthefatherofmoderndrama.Mentionedherearethemainchar
actersinsomeofhisbestknownplays:Nora inADoll's House(1879), Mrs.
AlvinginGhosts(1881),HeddainHeddaGabler(1890),SolnessinTheMaster
Builder(1892),BorkmaninJohnGabrielBorkman<1896),andGregersinThe
WildDuck(1884).

18.The Germanwriter GerhartHauptmanh (18621946),published be

tween 1889and 1912a seriesofplays,including DieWeber (TheWeavers;
1892),thatwerecelebratedfortheirstarkbutsympatheticnaturalism.Hewas
awardedthe Nobel Prizeforliterature in 1912. See"Thoughts onGerhart
Hauptmann'sFestivalPlay"(Chapter20inthisvolume).
19."Aphrodite:Herakles' Erdenfahrt"isthe titleofthefifthsong inthe
fifthpart("Zeus") ofCarl Spitteler'sepic poem"Derolympische Frhling"
(OlympianSpring; 19001905.rev 1910).Benjamin's mentor,GustavWyn
eken,refers to theSwiss writerSpitteler (18451924),winner ofthe Nobel
Prize for Literature in 1919, asone of the"greatst artistsof our ge," in
SchuleundJugendkultur,3rded.(Jena:EugenDiederichs,1919),157.Formore
onSpitteler,see"SleepingBeauty"(Chapter6inthisvolume).
20."Honesty"here translates Ehrlichkeit, whichis aderivative of Ehre,
"honor." and can also mean "honorableness, "integrity," "authenticity."
Wynekenmakesemphaticuseoftheterminhiswritings.

DialogueontheReligiosityofthePresent S3

21.On"theliterati,"seeBenjamin'sletterofSeptember11,1912,toLudwig
Strauss(GBl,6364).
22.Inpart1ofFriedrichNietzsche'sAisoSprachZarathustra(ThusSpoke
Zarathustra;18831884,1892),ZarathustraexhortshisUstenerstoturnaway
fromwhatis"alltoohuman"fromNciisien/ieb,.loveofone'sfellowm^n
andloveofwhatis nearestandtolearnthe FernstenLiebe,loveofwhatis
mostdistantandloveofthefuture("VonderNchstenliebe").
23. JakobWassermann (18731934),a popularGermannovelist andes
sayist,pubhshedFaustina:EinGesprchberdieLiebe(Faustina:ADialogue
onLove)in1912.
24."Adamite"was aname takenbyvarioushereticaland radicalChris
tiansectsthattypicallyrejectedcivil,moral,andsocialconstraintsinanat
tempttogaingracethroughspiritualandphysicaldisrobing.
25.Benjaminwrites"vonneuemfinden,"whichsuggests"discoveranew."
Theprecedingphraseis:"dasKrpergefhlihrergeistigenPersnlichkeit."
26. The German theologian and philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher
(17681834),sometimes calledthe "fatherof modernProtestant theology,"
arguedinDiechristliche Glaube(TheChristianFaith;18211822, rev.1830
1831)thatitisnotreligiouscreed,theletterofScripture,orrationalistunder
standingthat isthe sourceof lawbut ratherreligious feeling,the senseof
"absolutedependence"on aGod wholivesand worksin us.Benjamin will
laterrefertoSchleiermacher's"sterilepsychology"(CWB,109[correcteddate
ofletterisFebruary28,1918]).
27.WalterCal, NachgelasseneSchriften(Berlin: Fischer,1920), 329.Cal
(18811904)destroyedmostofhispoeticandphilosophicworkbeforecom
mittingsuicide. HisPosthumous Writingsaroused considerable intereston
theirinitialappearancein1907.
28.The Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy(18281910) developedin hislater
yearsan outspokenand widelyinfluential Christiananarchism, whichled
himtorejecttheauthorityofthechurchandoforganizedgovernmentand
tocondemnprivateproperty. InworkssuchasAConfession (1?82)andThe
Kingdomof God Iswithin You(1894), hepropoundedhis faithinnonresis
tancetoevilandinthemoralperfectibilityoftheindividual.Benjaminlater
referstothefailureof"theTolstoyanspirit"instudentcommunities(see"The
LifeofStudents."Chapter31inthisvolume).ThephilosopherFriedrichNietz
sche(18441900)arguedthroughouthiswritings,andmostpointedlyinDer
Antichrist(1888), fofa selfconsciouslymodern,"dionysian"religiositythat
transcendstheUneareschatologyofchurchdoctrine.TheSwedishplaywright

84 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

andfictionwriterAugustStrindberg(18491912), amasterofpsychological
naturalismanda forerunnerofexpressionismin thetheater, experienceda
religiouscrisisinthemid1890sthatresultedinaChristianmysticalfaithin
suffering;theexperiencefoundexpressioninhisautobiographicalnovelIn
ferno(1897), inthethreepart dramaTo Damascus(1898, 1904),andinthe
aphoristicZonesoftheSpirit(19071912).

Chapter14

QuietStory

Relatedontheoccasionofmymother'sbirthday^
Anexp^esstrainwascrossingarainyregion.Inathirdclasscarsata
student;hewasreturningfromSwitzerland,wherehehadspentafew
expensiveandrainfilled4ays.Withacertaintendersolicitude,helet
hisfeelingswander,thinkingtosummonupa;mildboredom.Sharing
theyellowrailwaycompartment,.besidesanelderlyman,wasawoman
inhersixties.Ihestudentstaredmercilesslyatherforaminute,then
stoodupand,w;entslowlytowardthecorridor.Helookedthroughthe
glasspanesofthecompartmentsandcaughtsightofafemalestudent
fromhis universitywith whomhe wasenamoredsilently upuntil
now,as.washistendencyinthesemattersattheearlystage.Andashe
lookedather,hecouldnothelpfeelingthatthis,wasnatural.Withthe
airof manwhosebehaviorhasben irreproachable,hereturnedto
hispompartment.
At ninethirty that evening, the train pulled into the university
town.Thestudentgotoffwithoutlookingback.Whenamomentlater
hesawthefemalestudentluggingablacksuitcaseinfront ofhim,he
couldonly approveof thistransparent situation. Allmemoryof the
rainy,<iaysinS.witzerlanddisappeared.
Ss

86 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

QuietStory 87

Hewasinnohurrytofollowherthroughtherailroadstationthis
youngwomanwithwhomhewasinlove("inlovedespiteeverything,"
heremarked"tohimself).DoubtlessshewouldgotowaitWithhersuit
caseatthetramstop. Andthereshewas,infact,standingwithafew
othertravelersinthe drizzlingrain.The stretcarcame:nothisline,
henoticed. Butnothing moredisagreeable thanwaiting inthe rain.
Thefemalestudentboardedatthefront,andtheconductorstowedher
heavysuitcase.Thedarkmassofthissuitcasehadsomethingfascinat
ingaboutit.Howghostlyitseemed,juttingupfromtheplatform!As
the streetcar began to move, the student stepped onto the forward
platform.^
Theyweretheonlytwo.Thepeltingoftheraininhisfacewasop
pressive.Shestoodnexttohersuitcaseenvelopedinabulkyraincoat,
likeanoversizedlaprobe,inwhichshelookedquiteugly. Thestreet
cartraveledquickly,fewpeoplegettingon.Itenteredanoutlyingdis
trictthat waspracticallya suburb.Annoyance camerainingdown
inthe student,like adrizzle fromswollen clouds.Slowlyhe worked
himselfupintoafury.Hefelthatredfor theagencythathadrunthis
tramlineintoaremotepartoftown.Hatredforthesedarkenedstreets
withwindowsinwhichlightswere burning.Ardent,undyinghatred
for the vile, inopportune rainyweather. He wrappedhimself inhis
overcoatand resolvednot to speak, nota word. For he wasnot the
slaveofthiswomaninthemonstrousmackintosh.Ohno!
Thestreetcar wasmovingvery quickly. Asovereign feelingover
camehim,andheconceivedtheideaofapoeticcomposition.
Thenthere wasnothing moreon hismind thanthe thought:I'd
liketoseejusthowfarshe'sgoingtotravel.
Two minutes later the streetcar stopped. Th ladystepped down
andthe conductorreached forher suitcase. TheJealous rage ofthe
youngmanblazedup.Heseizedholdofthesuitcasewithoutaword,
steppeddownfromthecarandbeganfollowingher.Hehadadvanced
a hundredpaces behindher when, notingan elasticgesture ofher
head,hethoughthewouldaddressafewwordstoherconcerningthe
hourandtheweather,asthoughinapology.
Atthatmomenthesawthegirlstopbeforethedoorofahouse.He
heardthe keyturning inthe lock,got alook intothe darknessofa

hallway,andjusthadtimetohandthesuitcaseovertothefemalestu
dentwithaninaudible"Goodevening"beforethedoorwasclosed.He
heard it beingbolted from inside. Withhis hands deep inhis coat
pockets,hemadeoffintherainydarknesswithlongstraightstrides,
asinglewordreverberatinginhishead:"BaggageMan."

Notes
"StilleGeschichte"(GS7, 295296)waswritten ca.fall 1911or fall1912 and
publishedposthumously.
1.ThebirthdayofBenjamin'smotherPauhnefellinOctober.
2.Evokedhereisatypeofearlystreetcar(elektrischeBahn)consistingof
anopenplatformwithalanternroof.

EstrangedLand 89

Notes
Chapter15

EstrangedLand

ESTRANGEDLANDisfullofprovinces.
Iheblindfeelingsgobeggingthere;
Theytotter,asinhighrooms.
PlanetoftheI!
Symbolic
Mobility,asyouplungewordlesslytowardemptiness.
Andwhereyoufall,eonsbecomespace;
Glaringfiguralitywillsurgeroundme.
Gnawingthoughtshaveconsignedallzones
Totheir"nonetheless"and"barely."
Rationality,decomposing,emitslastodors
Whileitscolorfullybandedcurses,
Wingsbeating,havegrownrigid
Atthecoreanddecamped.
Blindnesshasagodlikeback
Andcarriesthemanofhymnsoverwoodenbridges.^

88

"EntfremdetesLand" (GS7, 569)was writtenca. April 1913 and published

posthumously.
1.Thispoem wasincluded, withouttitle, inaletter ofApril29, 1913,to
HerbertBelmore.Benjaminprefaceditwiththewords:"SoyouwillseethatI
amdoingeverythingIcaninthrowingyouthesescrapsofexperience,Iam
enclosing a kindof 'poem'which you can just as well take formadness"
(CWB,19).ThereisarhymeschemeinthesecondstanzaoftheGerman.The
earlier translation by Manfred R. Jacobson and Evelyn M. Jacobson was
consulted.

TeachingandValuation 91

Chapter16

TeachingandValuation

I.
The relationof teachingto values, toliving values ofthe present,
comesto lightin twoareas aboveall: inGerman literatureand in
history.'Inthe teachingofGerman, itwillbe primarilyaquestion
ofaestheticvalues,whereasintheteachingofhistoryitwillbeethi
calvalues. For themoment, wemay leave it at that. We ask:does
theteachingingeneral (andthereforetheschool) makevaluations,
andtowardwhatgoalisthisvaluationoriented?Wedonotwish to
claim that all of the followingcases are typical. But we maintain
thata workingsystem isobligedto excludecertainextreme possi
bilities. A few of these possibilities may be indicated without
commentary:
Inaneleventhgradehighschoolclass,anumberofpoemsbyWal
thervonderVogelweidearereadintheoriginal.^Theyaretranslated
andsomearecommittedtomemory.Severalclasshoursarerequired
forallthis.What thepupilsretainfromthesehours,asfarasinsight
intoaestheticsisconcerned, isthecontinuallyreiteratedobservation
oftheteacherthat,incontrasttoHomer,WalthervonderVogelweide
makesnouseofepithets.
ti
$

90

Some observations characteristic of the aesthetic standpoint on

Goethe:"Goetheis ingeneralquite realistic;youjust haveto under
standwhathemeans."Or:"ThedistinctivefeatureofGoethe'sworksis
that eveiy.wordhas its significance, and indeed onethat is usually
beautifulandapt."
Or:inanadvancedclass,theNibelungenliedisreadintranslation,
andthenin theoriginal;one ortwo passagesareassigned ashome
work and get summarized in class.^ After the translation is gone
throughinthismanner,theteachermakesuseofthereader,whichthe
pupilsalsohavebeforethem,toread thepoemaloudintheoriginal,
translatingitinpart,andinpartcommentingonftonthebasisofin
dicationsprovidedbythetranslation.Suchaprocesslastsscarcelyless
thanhalfthescholasticyear;andwiththatthereadingofthisliterary
workisconsideredcomplete.Notasinglewordisdevotedtotheinter
pretationofthecontents.''
Something similar canbe seen in the school's,handlingof Her
mann and Dorothea?Hour after houris spentworking together in
classtoprepareoutlines(which,however,alwaysaccordwfthwhatthe
teacherhasinmind).Hereisoneoftheseoutlines:
CANTO4:EUTERPE

I.Themotherseeksherson
a)onthestonebench
b)inthestable
c)inthegarden
d)inthevineyard
e)intheforest
II.ThemotherfindshersonunderJthepeartree
III.Conversationbetweenmotherandson
1.Hermann'sdecision
. a)Theplightoffellowcitizens
b)Theproximityoftheenemy
c)Hermann'sdecisiontofight
2..Themother'sexhortation
3.Hermann'sconfession
4.Jhemother'splanofreconciliation

92 EARLYWRITINGS

TeachingandValuation 93

Everysuchplotschemeissupposedtobelearnedbyheartathomeand
thenrecitedwithconnectingdetailsfromthetextifpossible,several
timesinoneclassperiod.Thetreatmentofthepoemincompositions
involvessuchtopicsas:"TowhatextentisthefirstcantoofHermann
and Dorotheaan expositionofthe entirepoem?" (Notehow, inthe
absenceofanyintellectualpenetration,theschoolssooftenresorttoa
technical mutilation of poetic works!) And:"To what extent is the
thunderstorm in Hermann and Dorothea symbolic?"What was re
quiredjip,thiscompositionwasarepresentationofthestormassym
bolicresolutionofthetensionsinformingthe epic,andaboveall the
erotictensionbetweenthelovers(!).
Novaluationofthe poemismadeduringthe instruction.Butfor
mostofthepupils itdoesnot havetobe made;thetitleof thepoem
alreadyturnstheirstomach.
MinnavonBarnhelmisoutlined.
Egmontisoutlined.^Asample:

Wehave tarllidwithout interruption.Andwe wouldremarkonly

this:wheresuchteachinggoeson,there willbe,oneimagines,a cer
tainnumberofpupilswhotakeqestions^ofliteraturesetiously.
Theteachingisnotconcernedwithaseriousrelationtotheworkof
art.Theworkisexhaustivelyanalyzedintermsofitsplotandperhaps
ofitsform,butitisneversubjecttoareallyfruitful^andthatmeans
comparativeanalysis;thecriteriaarelacking.Asa'residt,thelitera
tureoftheclassicalperiod (whichisbyandlargetheobjectofstudy)
appearsto mostofthepupils asanarbitrarygame foraestlieticians,
something lackingany real connection tolife; it appar infiriitely
aridtoanyonewhocanfillhistirilewiththings"moreuseful."
Butthisstateofaffairsbecomestrulycalariiitouswhenitisaques
tionofmodernart. Perhapsthati'ssaying toomuch,hoWever, forin
mostcasesitiSnotatallaquestionofmodernart.Here,thewordsof
ateacher inaclass forhigh.school^eniormayserveasanexample:
"WeshallgonofurtherthanKleist.Nothingmodernwillberead."A
presentdayGermanpoetorartistoughttositinsometimeonaGer
man literature class and har how modern art is spoken of there
(moreover,theconcept"modern"intheseclassesisverybroad;there
arenogreatoppsingcurrents).Fromtheheightsofthelectern,aman
can say ridiculous andvacuous things about the Secession:"These
peoplewanttopaintonlywhatisuglyandtryfornothingbutthegreat
est possible verisimilitude."' There is no contradicting this. Where
modernityisconcerned,ifwe mayfroncespeakofit, everythingis
permitted[stehtallesfret]."IbsenifIseethatmonkey'sfaceagain...!"
(remarkdfateacher).'"
Wheremodernityisconcerned,therearenotraditional,whichis
tosay,valid,judgments.Publicopinindoesnotyetexertanypres
sure, and everything is"a matter of taste"; the school recognizes
noresponsibilityhereto itsownpresentday.Perhapsnowhere else
do we see so clearly how incapable the school isof independent
valuation.
Thus,theschoolproducesa consensusamong theeducated, who
adopttheliterarycredothatGoethe andSchillerarethegreatestpo
ets,butwhoturnawayboredfromtheirdramasand'thinkofmodern
artasanobjectofmockeryorirresponsiblegossip.

EGMONTAND HISSECRETARYDISCUSS:

I.Officialbusiness
a)political
b)military
II.Intrigues
a)concernswithmoney
b)admonitionofCountOliva
Weconcludethisblacklist,whichno doubteverypupilcouldadd
toatwill,withsomecharacteristiccommentsofateacher,elucidating
thecompositionassignment. Apupilbelieves thatathesishe issup
posedtoargueisincorrectandbacksthisupcogentlywiththeteacher.
Heistoldinresponsethatthecompositionsareprimarilyexercisesin
style;thethemestreatedinthemarenotsoimportantthatthepupils
havetosuffer pangsofconscienceiftheywrite somethingtheycon
sidererroneous.Itisinkeepingwithsuchaviewthattheteacher,on
returningthe compositions,always hasthe samething tosay about
sharplycontrasting value judgments madeby different pupils:"We
canlivewiththat."

94 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

TeachingandValuation 9s

Somethinganalogousistheruleintheteachingofhistory.Thereis
averysimplereasonthatnovaluationcanbemadehere.Politi'calhis
torydoesnotadmitofvaluation,andthereisnoculturalhistoryfor
innerhistory,whichbeginstoplayanevergreaterroleintheteaching,
isnotyetculturalhistory.Thelatterrequiresa pointofview.Butthe
perspective'onourcultureastheoutcomeofmillenniaislacking.Ex
ceptforscatteredfacts,thisteachingissilentaboutthedevelopmentof
law,"oftheschool,ofart,.ofethics,ofthemodernpsyche.Anobjective
observermightwellwonderwhetherthiswayofteachinghistorypro
videsapictureofcultureordoesnotratherconstituteaculturalscene
itself! Atone pointonly isthe teachingofhistoryengaged invalua
tion:it isthe momentwhen SocialDemocracy appearson thehori
zon."Butwhat powerofpersuasioncan avaluationhave thatmani
festlyoccurs notfor the sake ofknowledge (inwhichcase it would
occuronacontinualbasis)butforreasonsofexpediency?
Fromthisangle, theteaching ofhistorydisplaysthe mostunjvel
comeaspect.Eitheritcomesdowntoapiousreiterationorregurgita
tionof unrelatedor superficiallyrelated factsof allkinds, orelsea
consciousattemptismadetoapproachthe"culturalperiods."In that
case a parade of catchwords from literary history commences, to
getherwithafewfamousnames;or,inplaceofafreeandgreatvalua
tion,themostsmallmindedjudgmentofsomehistoricalfactisven
tured.Thequestionisasked:WasNapoleon'sefforttosubjugateRussia
justified or not? And such questions are debated endlessly in the
classroom.
Wehavecalledattentiontothosesubjectsofthemodernsecondary
schoolinwhich valuationseems tobemost immediatelywarranted.
But the classical secondary school still has its humanistic values,
whichdeserveaplacebeside theculturalvaluesofthepresent.'^This
matterwillbeaddressedinasecondarticle.

tion,ortoadvocateanewdistributionofthesubjectmatter.Itismuch
more difficult toenter the listsagainst thoughtlessness, to combat
the unintellectual and unspiritual. In fact,it is impossible: these
thingscanonlybedemonstrated.Intheprecedingarticle,weunder
tookthis^hanklesstask withregard tothe teachingof historyand
Germanliterature; The task isstill more daunting with respect to
subjectsintheclassicalcurriculum.Wedonotatallknowwhatthis
studyof classical antiquityaims at (whereas wehave atleast some
ideaof the.goalof instructioninGerman andhistoryin amodern
school).
Weconfesstoharboringatbottomgreatsympathyfortheclassical
education{die humanistischeBildung].Wloveitwithakind"ofstub
borndefiance,forweseeinitaneducationalvisionthathaspreserved
initselfa.nobleserenityandremainedimmune tothe frenziedDar
winianutilitarianismofthe restofourpedagogy. Whenwereadthe
proceedingsofthe"FriendsoftheClassicalSecondarySchool,"how
ever,welearntoour astonishmentthat,amidgeneralapprobation,it
isaffirmedthatknowledgeoftheGreeklanguage isofgreatutilityto
doctorsandlawyers.Moreover,thespeakerrecallswithgratitudethe
yearsin which..., andtherefollowthosephraseswherebyone who
hasbeen through itall himselfnow sleeksback hishair andwinks
downatthe"youngsters."
Thistone,withwhichagentlemancomfortablylaudsthat"idealistic
frameofmind"andknowledgeofmanyforeignwordswhichtheschool
has"supplied"him,is toussomethingdreadful. Thispompoussenti
mentalitythatafterfortyyearsstillhsthefirstlinesoftheOdysseyre
soundingatthefamilydinnertable(betweenthefishandthemeat)and
stillensures thatthe mastrof thehouse knowsthe grammarof the
apodosisbetter thanhis"son whois aseniorin highschoolthis all
painsus."Wefindthefamiliarrelationsbetweenphihstinismandthe
classicalsecondaryschoolhighlysuspect,andwefeelthat,becauseour
fathershavesointimatelyconjoinedallsortsofdustysentimentswith
Plato andSophocles, itistherefore incumbenton ustofree ourselves
fromsuchfamilyatmosphereatthesecondaryschool.
Nevertheless,wehavea presentimentsomeofusperhapseven an
ideaofwhatoursecondaryschool[Gymnasium] shouldbe.Itwillnot

II. OntheClassicalSecondarySchool
It is relatively easy to polemicize against mistakes and lapses in
teaching,toattackaparticularpointofviewinformingtheinstruc

95 EARLYWRITINGS

TeachingandValuation 97

beaschool inwhich(in thebestofcases) Hellenismisunderstoqdjn

Winckelmann'ssensefor"noblesimplicityandcalmgrandeur"have
longsincebecomestockintrade ofthebetterfinishing sciiools.''*Our
secondaryschoolshouldrefertoNietzscheandhistreatiseOntheAd
vantageandDisadvantageof HistoryPDefiant,trustinginayouththat
followsthisphilosopherenthusiastically,itshouldsweepawaythepetty
modernpedagogicreformersinstead ofbecomingmodernisficitself
andtrunjpetingtoallcornersanewhiddenadvantageoftheinstitution.
TheclassicalGreekworld,inthis secondaryschool,willnotbeafabu
lousrealmof"harmonies"and"ideals"butthatwomandespisingand
manlovingGreeceofPericles,aristocratic,withslavery,withthedark
mythsof Aeschylus.' Ourhumanistic secondaryschool shouldlook
thesethingsin theface.Then Greekphilosophymightalsobe taught
thereasubjectnolessproscribedatpresentthanthereadingofWe
dekind.'^Tobesure,onenowlearnsfromahandbookthatThaescon
sideredtheprimal substanceto bewater, whileHeraclitus thoughtit
wasfire andAnaxagoras the os.whereasEmpedocles fastenedon
loveandhate(and threwhimselfintoMountAetna)and Democritus
onthe atoms, andthat theSophists underminedtheancient faith.'
(Such teaching belongs with that which discredits philosophy the
most.)
Wesaidthatweknoworhaveapresentimentofaclassicalsecond
aryschoolwecouldlove.InthisschoolGreeksculpturewouldbemore
than a dirty cardboard reproduction that periodicallyhangs inthe
classroomforfourweeks.Sucha secondaryschoolcouldatleasthelp
us.Thepedagogueswillnodoubtwonderwhytheyshouldcreateforus
aschoolthatwouldnecessarilybehostiletothepresentday,undemo
cratic,highspirited, andwouldallow noeasycompromises withthe
modern secondary school, or the technical school, or other non
classical institutions. But if in the name of the two millennia since
Christwearenotpermittedtohavesuchaschool,thenwewilltakeour
leave,calmlyandgravely,fromthesecondaryschool[Gymnasium],
But no more of this desiccated humanism! Now, in our reading
hours,wehaveaestheticismwithoutaestheticeducation.Chatterabout
sphrosunwithoutaninklingoftheimmoderatenessofancientAsia.

PltonicdialogueswithoutareadingoftheSymposium(initsentirety,
gentlemen,initsentirety!).'
Weconfessitonceagain:wedonotknowwhattothinkwhenpre
sentedwiththisclassicaleducatioiloftoday.Fromagivenbookonthe
classicswereadthe"bestpassages";onlytheheadoftheclasscann
derstand Greekwithout a"crib"; onlyhabitual grindsdevote them
selvesvoluntarilytoclassicalstudies.Wepupilswhowaitwjthinhave
hadquiteenoughoftliehypocrisythatcoverslackofspiritandlck
ofjudgmentwiththemantleof"Greekharmony"!
Blacklist:
AproposofHorace:"Weh^vetoreadHoraceinthisclass.Itdoesn't
matterwhether welike itor not;it's onthe syllabus."^"Remark ofa
teacher.
Inresponse toan objectionraised against aline ofreasoning in
Cicero:"Wearenotheretodevelopourownopinions;wewanttoknow
whatCicerosays."^'
Onthesubjectof"classicalart":oneday,inahighschoolclass',the
subjectof arthistory isintroduced, thoughafter severalweeks the
instructionceasesas suddenlyasit hadbegun. Explainsthe teacher;
"Everyweek,Ihavetogiveacertainnumberofclasshours;forawhile,
I hadone houra week left over,and soI includedart history. Now
thingsarebackinorder."
Ateachertoapupilinhislastyearataclassicalsecondaryschool:
"Pleasedon'tthinkthatanyone believesthisenthusiasmofyours for
theancientworld."

Note^
"UnterrichtundWertung" (GS2,3542) waspublishedintwo parts,under
thepseudonym"Ardor,"inDerAnfang.Zeitschrift derJugend,MayandJuly
1913.
1.Thefirstpartofthisessayonsecondaryeducationappearedasthelead
articleintheopeningnumberofthethirdseriesoftheperiodicalDerAnfang

p8 EARLYWRITINGS

ThatBenjaminoriginallyintendedtopublishtheessayinadifferentcontext
isindicatedbyhisletterofSeptemberII,1912,toLudwigStrauss,astudent
atthe UniversityofBerlin:"Iam workingwithtwofriends onaseriesof
essays which...criticize the presentdayschool establishment. Many ex
amples and facts. We're<planning to publish these essaysin pamphlet
f o r m . . . , butt hisisn'tcertainyet
Thesubjectsinclude:teachingand
valuation,teachingandeducation,the^collectivelifeofpupils,relationsbe
tweenteachersandpupils,schoolandidealism,schoolassignments,andso
forth.Theauthorialtone:dispassionateorsatirical"(GBl,.6465).Thepam
phlet publication planned by Benjamin and two friends (probably Franz
SachsandHerbertBelmore)didnotmaterialize.Itisnotknownwhetherthe
essay"TeachingandValuation" was'alreadydrafted bySeptember 1912or
merelyprojected.
2.Walthervonder"Vogelweide(ca.11701230) wasthemostcelebratedof
theMiddle HighGerman lyricpoets. He is theauthor of thewellknown
lyric,"UnterderLinden."
3.TheNibelungenliedisaMiddleHighGermanepicpoem.writteninthe
earlythirteenthcenturyandbasedonthelegendsofSiegfriedand'theBur
gundiankings.
4. "Auf den inneren Gehalt wird schlechterdings mit keinem Worte
eingegangen."
5.Hermann und Dorothea(1797),by JohannWolijgangvon Goethe,is a
verseepicinninecantos, eachcantobearingas titlethenameofoneofthe
nineMuses.Benjamincitesanoutlineofcanto4,whichisentitled"Euterpe"
(Museoflyricpoetryandmusic).
6.MinnavonBarnhelm(1767)isacomedybytheGermanwriterGotthold
EphraimLessing.
7.Egmont(1788)isahistoricaldramabyGoethe.
8. Heinrichvon Kleist (17771811) wasa Germandramatist andshort
storywriterwhoanticipatedbothnaturalistandexpressionisttendenciesin
modernGermanandFrenchliterature.
9.TheGermanSecessionmovementwasfoundedinMunichin1892as
a protestagainst nineteenthcenturysalon artand withina fewyears had
spread to Dresden, Vienna, and Berlin. It was initiallydistmguished bya
ruthlessandexpressiverealism.
10. The Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen (18281906) isconsidered
thecreatorofmodern,realisticprosedrama.HisworkisdiscussedinBenja
min'sessay,"SleepingBeauty"(Chapter6inthisvolume).

TeachingandValuation 99

'11.TheSocialDemocraticPartyofGermanycoalescedinthe1860sunder
theleadershipofthesocialists August"FerdinandBebel andWilhelmLieb^
knecht,eventuallyadoptingamoderatereformist.policy.
12."Classicalsecondaryschool"translateshumanistischeGymnasium,
asecondaryschoolwithmphasisonLatinandGreek.Itisdistinguished
from "modern secondary school," the Realschule (such as the Kaiser
Friedrich),whichincludesinstructioninmodernlanguagesandscientific
disciplines.
13.Theapodosisisthemainclauseofaconditionalsentence.
14. JohannJoachim Winckelmann(17171768) wasaGerman arthisto
rianwhodecisivelyinfluencedtheriseofneoclassicisminthelateeighteenth
century. His Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums (Historyof Ancient Art;
1764) presents theart of classical Greece,broadly understoodin termsof
"noblesimplicityandcalmgrandeur[edle EinfaltundstilleGre],"asexem
plaryforaesthetics.
15. The philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (18441900) took issue with
Winckelmann(seeprecedingnote)inhisfirstbook.DieGeburtderTragdie
(TheBirth ofTragedy;1872),whichevokesadissonant"Dionysian"dimen
sioninGreektragedyas integraltotheconsonant"Apollonian"dimension.
HistreatiseVomNutzenundNachteilderHistoriefrdasLeben(OntheAd
vantageandDisadvantageofHistoryforLife;1874)ispartofhisbookUnzeit
gemsseBetrachtungen(UntimelyMeditations;18731876);thetreatisemounts
acritique ofnineteenthcentury historicism,arguing thathistory mustbe
interpretedfromoutofthe"highestenergy"oftheinterpreter'sownpresent
dayapositionfundamentaltoBenjamin'sthinkingthroughouthi?career.
16.Periclesruled Athensfrom460B.C. tohisdeathin429,fostering the
artandliterature ofthecitywhilesuccessfully pursuingthePeloponnesian
WaragainstSparta. TheAtheniandramatist Aeschylus(525456 B.C.)took
thehorrificstoryofAgamemnon,Clytemnestra,andtheirchildrenassubject
inhistrilogy,theOresteia.
17Frank Wedekind^18641918)created asensationinhisdaywith the
plays Erdgeist (EarthSpirit; 1895) and Die Bchse der Pandora (Pandora's
Box;1904),whicharecenteredontheamoralfemmefataleLulu.
18.Thaies,Heraclitus,Anaxagoras(whousesthetermnoustomean"cos
mic mind"), Empedocles, and Democritus were prominent pre^ocratic
Greekphilosophers.TheSophistswere professionalfifthcenturyB.C.Greek
philosophersandteachers, latervilifiedbyPlato asirresponsiblemanipula
torsofrhetoricanddialectic.

100

EARLYWRITINGS

19.IheGreeksphrosun means"selfcontrol,moderation."Plato'sSym
posium(ca.385380B.C.),oneofhisgreatestdialogues,concernsthenature
oflove.
20.QuintusHoratius Flaccus(658B.C.), theRomanlyricpoetandsati
ristoftheageofAugustus,isauthorofArsPoetica.
21.MarcusTulliusCicero(10643B.C.),thestatesmanandphilosopher,is
rememberedasRome'sgreatestorator.

Chapter17

Romanticism:AnUndelivered
AddresstoStudents

omrades!Wheneverinthepastwehavethoughtaboutourselves,
ourselves not as individuals but as a community, as youth, or
wheneverwehavereadabouttheyouth,wehavealwaysdonesowith
theidethatyouthisromantic.Thousandsofgoodandbadpoemssay
so,andfromadultswehearthattheywouldgiveanythingtobeyoung
again.Itisallarealitywemayfeelatcertainmomentswithastonish
mentandjoy:whenwehavedonegoodworkorclimbedamountain,
built somethingor read anexciting narrative. Atsuch momentswe
feelmuchasIdidwhenonedayIrememberbeingonastairstepat
thetimeit suddenlyenteredmymindthat"I'mstillyoung"(I was
perhapsfourteen,andwhatmademesohappywasthatIhadreadof
anairship).
Ycfuthissurroundedbyhope,love,andadmirationcomingfrom
thosewhoarenotyetyoung,from thechildren,andfromthosewho
are nolonger able tobe youngbecause theyhave lost theirfaith in
somethingbetter.Wefeelthis:thatweare representatives;eachofus
standsforthousands, justasevery richmanstands forthousandsof
proletarians andevery person oftalent for thousands ofthe untal
ented.Wefeel thatweareyouthbythegrade ofGod,ifwecanputit
thisway.
101

102

EARLYWRITINGS

And nowlet usimagine thatwe areat ayouth convention,with

hundredsorthousandsofyoungparticipants.Suddenly,Ihear heck
ling:"Claptrap!Rubbish!"AndIlookoutattherowsofbenchesandI
see,next tothehandfulof hotheadswho interruptme, hundredsof
peoplepracticallyasleep. Oneortwodraw themselvesupalittle but
don'tseemtopayattentiontome.
Thensomethingoccurstome:
"Ispokeof'youthbythegraceofGod';Ispokeofourlife,asitisin
thetradition,inliterature,withadults.ButtheyouthtowhomIspeak
fallasleeporgetangry.SomethingisrotteninthestateofDenmark.'
AndIamgratefulforyoursleepandyouranger,becauseitisofthein
thatIwantedtospeak.Iwantedtoask;Whatdowethinkofromanti
cism?Dowepossessit?Doweknowit?Dowebelieveinit?"
Ripplesoflaughterandasingleimpassioned"no."
"Thenwe renounceromanticism? Weaim tobe perhapsthefirst
soberyouth?"
Again,a resounding"no,"from which threeor fourvoices quite
clearlyaresetoffbytheir"yes."ThenIgoontosay:
"You have given me your answer, and I myself shall answer all
thosewho believethey havebeforethem atimelessyouth, eternally
romantic,eternallysecure,wendingitseternalwayintophilistinism.
Wesaytothem:youdeceiveusasyou deceiveyourselves.Withyour
paternalairs andyour unctuousflatteries, yourob usof conscious
ness.You lift us upinto rosy.clouds untilwe havelost theground
beneathourfeet.Thenyoulookforwardallthemoretoayouth that
sleepsinnarcoticindividualism.^Philistinismparalyzesus,sothatit
alonecandominatetheage;ifweallowourselves,however,tobepara
lyzed bythe idealizing narcoses, then we shall quicklysink in our
turn,andthisyouthwillbecomethenextgenerationofphilistines."
Idon'tknow, comrades,but Ifear thisputsme ontheside ofro
manticism.Notoftheromanticism,notofanytrueromanticism,but
ofoneverypowerfulanddangeroustheverysame,infact,thatdis
solvesSchiller'schaste,cosmopolitanclassicismintoapoetryofcom
placencyfor bourgeoisfidelity andfor parti(^j,arism.'But Iwant to
takeamomenttolookintothisfalseromanticism.Itstickstouswher
everwego,yetis nothingbutthegreasygarmenta solicitousphilis

Romanticism:AnUndeliveredAddresstoStudents

103

tinism throws over us so that we shall be unrecognizable even to

ourselves.
Ourschoolisfulloffalseromanticism.Whatwe^retoldofdramas,
orofheroesinhistory,ofthetriumphsoftechnologyandscienceitis
all untrue.We receive itoutside aspiritual context.These things
which,weare told,aresupposedtocontributetoour formationare
eternallyisolatedfects, andculture accordinglya luckycoincidence;
someschoolsmaynotevenbefarenoughalongtopresentitas"lucky."
Forwhendoweeverlearnoflivinghistorythatwhichleadsthespirit
tovictory, thatin which thespirit makesthe conquestsit itself pre
pares?Theylullustosleep,makeusdullandidle,whentheykeepsilent
abouthistory:thedevelopmentofscience,thedevelopmentofart,the
developmentof thestate and ofLJaw. Inthis way, thereligion of the
spiritandallfaithinitwastakenfromus.Thiswasthefalseromanti
cism:thatweweresupposedtoseesomethingextraordinaryinevery
thinginfinitelyparticular,insteadofinthedevelopmentofthehuman
beirig,inthe historyof humanity.Thus,one producesan unpolitical
youth,eternallylimitedtoart,literature,and.experiencesoflove.being
inthese thingsalso unspiritualand dilettantish.''Thefalse romanti
cism,comrades,thisgrbtesqueisolation fromhistoricaldevelopment
towhich wehave beensentenced, hascausedmany of usto become
blas;manyhave hadto believeinwhatis negligibleforsolong that
theirbeliefitselfhasbecomeforthemnegligible.The^ackofidealsin
ouryoungpeopleisthelastvestigeoftheirhonesty.
Thuswehave it,comrades:theeducationofagenerationofyouth
whichone isolates,with spasmodicendeavors,fromthe real,.which
onemuddleswitharomanticismofobjectivity,aromanticismofide
als,thingsinvisible.WewishtohearnothingmoreofHellenismand
Germanism,ofMosesandChrist,ofArminiusandNapoleon,ofNew
tonandEuler,untilweareshownthespiritinthem,thefanaticalac
tiverealityinwhichtheseegesandthesemenhadtheirbeingandin
whichthirideaswererealized.
Thus,wehavetheromanticismofschoojculture,whichforusmakes
everythinguntrueandunreal.
Wetherefore,comrades,beganimpetuouslytoconcernourselves
with ourselves. We became the muchmaligned, individualistic

104 EARLY WRITINGS

Romanticism:AnUndeliveredAddresstoStudents 105

supermanyouth.Itwasreallyno wonderthatwe wentalongjubi

lantlywiththefirstonewhosummonedustoourselves,tothespirit
and to honesty. This was certainly FriedrichNietzsche's mission
amongtheyouthoftheschools:toshowthemsomethingoftheto
morrowand yesterdayandiodayof educationaltasks. Theycould
not handleit. Andthey have turnedthis idea alsointo a pose,as
theyhavebeenrepeatedlyconstrainedtodo.
NowIshallspeakof whatissaddestof all.Wewhowanted tobe,
withNietzsche,aristocratic,different,true,beautifulwehadnoorder
inthistruth,noschooloftruth.Evenlessdowehaveaplaceforbeauty.
Wehavenowayofaddressingoneanotherinthefamiliarformswith
outsounding vulgar.We havebecome soinsecure asa resultof the
eternalposeofidealismwhichtheschoolforcesonus,asaresultofits
mustypomp,thatwe nolonger knowhowtobeboth nobleandfree
withoneanother.Rather;,freeandignoble,ornobleandunfree.
Weneedabeautifulandfreecommunity,sothattheuniversalcan
bearticulatedwithout becomingcommonplace.We donot yethave
thispossibility;wewanttocreateitforourselves.Wearenotashamed
tosaythatwestillhavetobetritewhenwetalkaboutthisyouth.(Or
elsewehavetoadoptanunworldlyacademicattitudeoranaesthetic
posture.)Wearestillsouncultivated inallthatwehaveincommon
thathonestyandintegrityseembanal.
Itismuchthesamewhentheeroticandweallfeelhowmuchcan
dorisneededherebreaksoutofthedarknessinwhichitisconcealed:
Thatschoolboysrompatthecinema(oh,what'stheuseofbanning
mdvie theaters!);that cabaret shows, good enough tostimulate the
jadedsexual appetiteoffiftyyearolds, areserved upto youngstu
dents!"Intheeroticrealm,wheretheyouthatleastthematureyouth
between theages of twentyandthirtyought toset the tone, this
youthallows itselfto beclosed innd suffocatedby senileand per
versewaysofbehaving.Wehavelongbeenaccustomedtooverlooking
thedelicate and,if you will, prudishsensitivity^ofyoung people in
sexual matters.The big city launches its attacksonthem day and
night.Butonewouldratherpretendnottoseethantocreatesociabil
ityamongtheyouth.^Afternoonsinwhichyoungpeoplemightdome
togetherandliveintheireroticatmosphere,insteadofformingade

pressedandridiculousminorityatthefestivitiesofadults.(TheSym
posiumisnotreadintheschool;andwhenEgmontsaysthathevisits
hisbelovedatnight,hepassageisstruck.)^
Nevertheless,there isone consolation:however unseemlyit isto
callattentiontoit,theeroticstill'takesitscourseandcometobein
secretthough,ratherthanfreelyandopenly.
Thatistheoldromanticism,keptalivenotbyus,notbythebestof
us,butbythosewhowouldinclcateinusanunfruitfulblindadher
encetowhatexists.Andincontrasttothis,comrades,isanewroman
ticism,quiteundefined, quitefaroff, whichI havenonetheless, as
I hope, indicated. A romanticism characterized by an attitude of
opennesswhichweshallattainforourselvesintheeroticrealmwith
thegreatestdifficulty,andwhichfromtherewouldemanateoutward
andpervadeourdailyexistenceandallourdoings.Aromanticismof
truth,whichwouldrecognizespiritualconnections,thehistoryofla
bor,andwhich wouldtransform thisrecognitionintoliving experi
encesothat,inthe'mostunromanticandsoberway,onemightactin
accordancewithit.
Thisisthe newyouth:soberandromantic. Butwedonot believe
thatthis romanticisnican bedispensed with,that itcould everbe
comeantiquated,outmoded.Whatisneveroutmodedistheromantic
willtobeautyitheromantic willtotruth,theromanticwilltoaction.
Romanticandyouthful:forthiswill,whichtothematuremanmaybe
necessityandlongpracticedactivity,inuseventuatesspontaneously,
originarily,unconditionally, andturbulently. Alwaysit givesto his
toryitsethicalstamp,anditgivesititspathos,thoughnotitscontent.
Andifhere,attheclose,youlookaroundonceagain,youwillper
hapsrecognize,with somethinglikeastonishment,whereyoureally
stand:atapointwhereromanticism hasreturnedtothe rootsofev
erything good, true, and beautifulroots thatare unfathomable.'
Wherethenarcoticimperative,"Wine,women,andsong,"isnolon
gera rallyingcry ofsensualists. Wherewine canmean abstinence,
womenanewerotics,and songnota taverndittybuta newstudent
anthem.
ButIshallconcludenow,asIawaittheaccusationwhichIdonot
fearofhavingrobbedyouthofitsideals.

106

EARLYWRITINGS

Notes

Chapter18

"Romantik:EinenichtgehalteneRedeandieSchuljugend"(GS2,4247)was
published,underthe pseudonym"Ardor,"inDer Anfang.Zeitschrift derJu

MoralEducation

gend,June1913.
1.BenjaminquotesShakespeare'sHamlet,1.4.90.Hetakesupthecharac
terofHamletinhisessay,"SleepingBeauty"(Chapter6inthisvolume).
2.Theproblemofindividualismisdebatedin"DialogueontheReligiosity
ofthePresent"(Chapter13inthisvolume).
3.The poet,dramatist,andcritic FriedrichvonSchiller(17591805) be
cameaniconofGermanclassicisminthecenturyafterhisdeath.Themeaning
of"particularism"(Partikularismus)isindicatedinthefollowingparagraph.
4.Oh"dilettantism,"compare"StudentAuthor!'Evenings"(Chapter27in
thisvolume).
5.Arminius(17?B.C.A.D. 21)wasaGermannationalherowholiberated
theGermansfromRomanruleinA.D.9.LeonhardEuler(17071783),aSwiss
scientist,wastheauthorofworksonmathematics,mechanics,hydrodynam
ics,astronomy,optics,andacoustics.
6. Benjamin'sterm, bermenschenJugend,makes reference tothe con
ceptof thebermensch, thesupermanwho overcomestraditional human
ism,inFriedrichNietzsche'sAlsoSprachZarathustra(ThusSpokeZarathus
tra;18831884,1891).
7."Sociability amongthe youth"translates eine jugendliche Geselligkeit
(literally,"ayouthfulsociability"),whichrecallsKant'sfamousformulaUng
esellige Geselligkeit (unsocial sociability), inhis essay"Idee zueiner allge
meinenGeschichteinweltbrgerlicheAbsicht"(IdeaforaUniverslHistory
withaCosmopolitanIntent;1784[fourththesis]).
8.Plato'sdialogueonlove,theSymposium(ca.385380B.C.), concernsin
part homoerotic relations. Egmont (1788) is ahistorical drama by Johann
WolfgangvonGoethe.
9. Thegood, thetrue, andthe beautifulare thehighest ideasin Plato's
metaphysics.

nemaybetemptedtocutshortalltheoreticaldebateconcerning
moraleducationwiththeblanketassertionthatmoralinfluence
isaji altogether personalaffair thateludes everyschema and norm.
Whetherornotthiscontentioniscorrect,thefactremainsthatmoral
educationisdemandedassomethinguniversalandnecessary;andso
longasthisdemandismadeonatheoreticalbasis,itmustalsobein
vestigatedtheoretically.^
Inwhatfollows,anattemptwillbemadetoconsidermoraleduca
tioninandforitself.Thequestionis notwhetherarelativeimprove
mentcanbeachievedinaninadequatereligiouseducationbutinwhat
waymoraleducationisrelatedtoabsolutepedagogicdemands.
Webase"ourselveson thediscourseof Kantianethics (forin this
question an anchorage in the philosophical is indispensable). Kant
distinguishesbetweenmoralityaildlegality,atonepoint puttingthe
matterthus:"Itisnotsufficienttothatwhichshouldbemorallygod
thatitconformtothemorallaw;itmustbedone/orthesake4}fthelaw
[urn desselben willen]."iWith thisisgiven atthesame timeawider
determinationofthemoralwill:itis"freeofmotives,"uniquelydeter
minedbythemorallaw,thenorm"dogood."

107

io8 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

MoralEducation lop

TwoparadoxicalthesesfromFichteandfromConfuciusthrow
lightonthistrainofthought.
Fichtedeniestheethicalimportanceof a"conflictof duties."^ He
ostensiblygiveshereonlyaninterpretationofourconscience:if,inthe
fulfillmentofoneduty,weareobliged todisregardanother,then we
mayfindourselvesina,sotospeak,technicaldifficulty,butinwardly
wefeelnoguilt.Forthemorallawdemandstheaccomplishmentnot
ofthis orthat materialact butof whatis'ethical. Themoral lawis
normnotcontentoftheaction.
AccordingtoConfucius,themorallawharborsadoubledanger:
thewiseman holdsittoohigh andthefooltoolow.^That istosay,
theempiricalrealizationofmoralityisneverspecifiedintheethical
normandsoitisanoverestimationofthenormtobelievethatan
empiricaldirectiveiseverdirectly givenin it;but Confuciusturns
againstthefool withhis teachingthat,however legalit maybe,an
actacquiresmoralvalueonlyif itwasmorallyintended.Thus we
come back to Kant and his famous formulation:"Nothing in the
worldindeed nothing even beyond the worldcan possibly be
conceivedwhichcouldbecalledgoodwithoutqualificationexcepta
good
Thisproposition, rightlyunderstood, conveys thesub
stanceofthe Kantianethics,whichaloneconcerns ushere."Will,"
inthisconnection,signifiesnothingpsychological.In.thepracticeof
hisscience,thepsychologistreconstructsapsychologicalation,and
thewill,understoodascause,constitutesatmostafactorinthema
terializationofthisactio.Forthemoralphilosopher,whatmatteis
isthemoralcharacteroftheaction,anditismoralnotinsofar,asit
arisesfromanygivenmotivesbutinsofarasitproceedsfromtheone
ethicalintention;thehumanwillgraspsitsobligationinrelationto
themoral law,and itsethicalsignificanceextends nofurtherthan
this.
Wehave herea consideration thatseems wellsuited toform the
pointofdepartureforreflectiononmoraleducation.Confrontingus
istheantinomyofmoraleducation,whichisperhapsonlyaparticular
caseofageneralantinomy.
Theaimofmoraleducationistheformationofthemoralwill.And
yetnothingismoreinaccessiblethanthismoralwill,sinceinitselfitis

nopsychologicalentitythatcouldbetreatedbysomemeans.Thereis
noguaranteethatwewouldreallyencounterthemoralwillassuchin
anyparticularempiricalinfluence.Thelevertopperatemoraleduca
tionislacking.Justasthepure,theonlyvalidmorallawisinaccessi
bly,sofortljefidjicatoristhepurewillalwaysoutofrange.
Graspingthisfactinitsfullimportistheprerequisiteto^theoryqf
moraleducatiop.Itfollowsnecessarilythat,sinetheprocessofmoral
educationisppposedinprincipletoeveryrationalizationandschema
tization,itcanhavenothingtodowithanytypeofinstruction.For
in instructionwe possess the fuij^iamentally rationalized n^eans of
education.Weshallcontentourselvesherewiththisdeduction,soas
below toflesh it out in considering the actual practice of moral
education.
Istheconclusion towardwhich wearemovingperhapsthebank
ruptcyofmoraleducation?Thiswould bethecaseonlyifirrational
ismmeant.thebankruptcyofeducation.Irrationalismmeans merely
thebankruptcyofanexactscienceofeducation.Andtherenunciation
ofascientificallyclosedtheoryofmoraleducationseemstousinfact
theconclusion warrantedby thesereflections. Nevertheless,inwhat
followsanattemptwillbemadetodelineatethepossibilityofamoral
educationasanintegralwhole,althoughwithoutsystematicclosurein
theparticulars.
HeretheprincipleoftheFreeSchoolCommunity,theprincipleof
ethicalcommunity,appearsfundamental.Theformthatmoraledu
cationassumesjnitisreligiosity.Forthiscommunityexperiences,on
acontinuallyrenewedbasis,aprocessinitselfthatengendersreligion
and that awakens religious,contemplation, a process we mightcall
"crystallizingthemor^al."^ Aswehave seen,themorallawisimmea
surablyfar removedfrom everyempirically determinedmoralcon
cern(as somethingempirical).And yetthe ethicalcommunitycon
tinuallyexperiencesthetransformationofthejiormintoanempirical
legalorder.Thepreconditionforsuchalifeisfreedom,.whichmakesit
possible for thelegal tobe adjusted to thenorm.Itisthrough this
norm, however, that wefirst attain theconcept of community.The
reciprocityof moralseriousness (intheconsciousness ofcommunal
obligation)and ratificationof morality(in theorder ofcommunity)

no E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

appearstobe theformativeprincipleofethicalcommunity;Butasa
religiousprocessitresistsanycloseranalysis.
We arethus presented witha peculiar reversalof contemporary
opinion. Whereas everywhere today there are voices insisting that
morality and religion are essentially independent of each other, it
seemstousthatitisfirstofallinreligion,andonlyinreligion,thatthe
purewillfindsitscontent.Theeverydaylifeofanethicalcommunity
hasareligiouscharacter.
Thesetheoreticalandpositiveobservationshavetobemadebefore
acritiqueof theexistingmoraleducation canbe undertaken.More
over,inthecourseofsuchcritiquewemustnotlosesightofthisother
wayofthinking.Tosayitaltogetherdogmatically:thegravestdanger
ofmoraleducationisthemotivatingandlegalizingofthepurewillor,
inotherwords,thesuppressionoffreedom.Ifmoraleducationreally
hasasitsgoaltheethicalformationofstudents,thenitisfacedwithan
impossible task.Should itchoose tostay withthe universallyvalid,
thenitwouldnotgetbeyondwhathasbeensaidhere,beyondcertain
Kantiandoctrines.Themorallawcannot begraspedmore nearlyby
meansoftheintellect,whichistosay,ina universallyvalidway.Fot
whereitreceivesitsconcretecontents,itisdeterminedbythereligios
ityoftheindividual.Tooversteptheboundariestherebyestablished,
tobroachthestillunformedrelationof theindividualtomorality,is
something'proscribedbyGoethe'sdictum:"Thehighestexcellencein
maniswithout form,and oneshould beware of givingit anyform
otherthanthatofthenobledeed."Whotoday(outsidofthechurch)
stillpermitshimselfthe roleof mediatorbetween humanbeingand
God?Or whomightintroduce thisroleintoeducation,if,aswesus
pect,itisthecase thatallmoralityandreligiosityoriginates insoli
tudewithGod?
Thatmoraleducationhasnosystemthatithassetitselfanunre
alizabletask:thisisatwofoldexpressionofoneandthesamesituation
ofgroundlessness.'
Hence,nothingfurther remainsthanfor ittoconduct apeculiar
sortofcivicinsteadofmoraleducation,inwhich everythingnec
essarybecomesoncemorevoluntaryandeverythingatbottomvolun
tarybecomesnecessary.Onethinksonecanreplacemoralmotivation

MoralEducation

iii

withrationalisticexamplesandfailstonoticethathere,too,morality
isalreadypresupposed.'"Thus,onemakesacaseforloveofone'sfel
lowmentoachildatthebreakfasttable,describingtohimtheworkof
allthose towhom heowes hishappiness.It maybe regrettablethat
childrenoftengainsuchinsightsintolifesolelythroughmoraleduca
tion.But demonstrationsof thissortmake animpressiononly ona
childwhoalready knowssomethingofsympathyandfellowfeeling.
Onlyincommunity,notthroughlessonsinmorals,willhelearnthese
things.
Moreover,itmaybeassumedthatthe"specificenergy"ofthemoral
sense,ofthemoralcapacityforempathy,increasesnotwithreception
ofmotivations,ofa particularcontent,biitonlywithacting.Thereis
thedangerthatthecontentwillgreatlysurpassthemoralsensitivity
andbluntit.
Lackingasitdoesthegenuinelyethicalmotivation, moraleduca
tionismarkedbyacertainunscrupulousnessinitsmethods.Notjust
rationalisticexplanationsbutalso,andaboveall,psychologicalinduce
mentsmustcometoitsaid.Nodoubtonerarelygoessofarasaspeaker
atthe.BerlinCongressforMoralEducation,whoamongotherthings
recommendedappealing totheegoism ofpupils (inwhich caseitis
surelylegalityratherthanmoraleducationthatisatstake).Butlike
wiseeveryappealtoheroicvalor,everyinvocationandcommendation
oftheextraordinary,insofarasitendsinemotionalexaltation,remains
aliento thesteadinessof themoral temper.Kantnever tiresofcon
demningsuchpractices.Inregardtopsychology,thereisthefurther
dangerofasophisticalselfanalysis,inwhicheverythingappearsnec
essary,havingacquiredgeneticratherthanmoralinterst.Whatisto
begainedbyanalyzingaridenumeratingthetypesoflies,asoneeth
icsteacherproposes?
Torepeat: theauthenticallymojal isinevitablycircumvented.Let
usciteanothercharacteristicexample,taken,liketheprecedingone,
fromFoerster'sJugendlehre}^ Ayoung manis physicallyattackejiby
hiscompanions."Foersterargues:Youhitbackinor4ertosatisfyyour
instinctofselfpreservation.Butwhoisyourmostunrelentingenemy,
againstwhomdefenseisneededmostofall?Yourpassion,yourdrive
toretaliate.Hnce,inthefinal a,nalysisyoupreserveyourselfinsofar

112

EARLYWRITINGS

asyoudonothitback,insofarasyourepressyourinnerdrive.Thisa
candidatefor psychologicalreinterpretation.inasimilarcase,a bdy
attackedbyhisclassmts'is'ledtobelievethat,ifhedoes notdefertd
himself,hewillultimatelybevictoriousandtheclasswillleavehimin
peace.But referencetothe outcomehas nobearing atallOn ethical
motivation.The basicdeterminant of themoral is'renunciation,not
motivationthroughselfinterest,noranyutility.'^
Space islacking to multiply these glimpsesinto the minutiae of
praxis,which iscertainly notwithout itsmoral perils.We shallsay
nothingof thetechnical analogiesto ethics,of themoralistic treat
ment of thefnost insipid things.In conclusion, thefollowing scene
fromaclassin*handwriting.Theteacher asks:"Whatbadthingswill
likelybedonebfsomeonewhornakesnorealeffortto'keephisletters
within the designated lines but continually spills over them?" The
classissupposedto havecomeupwithan astonishingvarietyofan
swers.Isthisnottheworstsortofcasuistry?Nothinganylongercon
nectssuch(graphological)concernswithmoralsentiment.
Furthermore,thistypeofmoral instructionisbyno meansinde
pendent,asit issaid tobe,of reigningmoralconceptions,that is,of
legality.Onth'econtrary:thedanger ofoverestimatinglegalconven
tionis palpable,since^theinstruction, withits rationalisticand psy
chologicalgrounding,canneverencounter ethicalthinkingbutonly
the empirical, the prescribed. Often, in this situation, ostentatious
good conduct assumesextraordinary importancein theeyes of the
studeiit.Thesoberconceptofdutyisallbutlost.
Shouldone,however, despiteeverything,and againstbetter judg
ment,stillwantmoraleducation,thenoneseeksbutdangers.Danger
oustodayareholongerthearchetypallyChristianantitheseseither
"goodevil"nor"spiritualsensual"but the"sensualgood"and the
"spiritualevil," the two forms of snobbism. In this sense, Wilde's
DorianGraycouldbemadethebasisofamoralteaching.^^
If,therefore,moraleducationisveryfarfromsatisfyinganabsolute
pedagogicdemand,itneverthelesscanandwillhaveitssignificanceas
transitionalstage.Notsomuchbecauseitrepresents,aswehavesen,
ahighlyimp6rfectlinkinthedevelopnlentofreligiouseducatiori,*but
becauseitbrirjgstolightthedeficienc/inpresentdaymethodsofin

MoralEducation

113

struction.Moraleducationcombatsallthatisperipheralandwithout
convictioninourschooling,theintellectualisolationofourstudies.It
willtherefotebeamatternotofmasteringtheculturalmaterialfrom
theoutside,asistheusualtendencyofmoraleducation,butofgrasp
ingthehistoryoftheculturalmaterial,oftheobjectivespirititself.In
thisregard,onemjisthopethatmoraleducationrepresentsthetransi
tion toa neweducation in history,in which,then, thepresent also
wouldfinditsculturalhistoricalrelevance.

Notes
"Der Moralunterricht" (GS2, 4854) was published in Die Freie Schulge
meinde,July1913.
'1.Thistext,thefirst Benjaminpublishedunderhisownname,appeared
inaquarterlyjournaleditedbyhismentorGustavWyneken,withwhomhe
hadstudiedin19051906atthecountryboardingschoolHaubinda.Hedis
cussesthearticleinaletterofAugust4,1913,toCarlaSeligon:"Inthisessay,
I trytoexplainthat thereiS nocertaintyofamoraleducation,becausethe
purewillthatdoesgt)odforthesakeofgoodcannotbeapprehendedwiththe
meanstheeducatorhasavailable./1believethatwemustalwaysbeprepared
for the fact thatno onenow or inthe future willbe influencedand van
quishedinhissoul,theplacewhereheisfree,byourwill.Wedonothaveany
guaranteefor this;we alsoshould notwant oneforthe goodissues only
fromfreedom.Inthefinal analysis,everygooddeedisonlythesymbolofthe
freedom of the individual who accomplished it
Journals don't change
anyone'swill
[TheyoutKjournal] Der Anfangis onlya symbol. Every
thingit is,beyond thatwhich isinternally effective, isto beunderstood as
grace,assomethingncomprehensible
Inhistory...moralprogresswas
thefreeactofonlyafewindividuals
NowpleasekeepinmindthatIam
farfrombeingfinished withthislineofthought,andthatitappearedneces
sarytomeonlyinordrtoliberateourideafromeverythingUtopianyettri
umphXiVer'themostbrutalaspectofreality"(CWB,52).
2.ImmanuelKant,FoundationsoftheMetaphysicsofMorals,trans.Lewis
WhiteBeckXIndianapolis:BobbsMerrill,1959),6(preface).Regardedtoday
asthe foremostthinker ofthe Enlightenment,Kant (1724rl804)published
hisGrundlegungzurMetaphysikderSittenin1785.

114 EARLY WRITINGS

3.SeeJohann GottliebFichte,'Das Systemder Sittenlehre nachden Prin

cipienderWissenschaftslehre(TheSystemofEthicsasBasedontheScienceof
Knowledge:1798),paragraphs2324.TheGermanIdealistphilosopherFichte
(17621814)groundedhismoralphilosophyintheconceptofduty.
4.SeeK HungMing,ChinasVerteidigunggegen europischeIdeen. Kri
tischeAuftze(China'sDefenseagainstEuropeanIdeas:CriticalEssays),trans.
Richard'Wilhelm(Jena: EugenDiederichs, 1911),6364:"Confucius Says:'I
knowwhythereisnoVealmorality.Thewise,intheirintellectualpride,gotoo
far,andthefoolsdon'tgofarenugh.'"Confucius,orK'ungFuTzu(ca.551
479B.c.), wasa Chinesephilosopherandscholar whowanderedfor adozen
yearsfromstatetostateteaching;hisprecepts,laterrecordedintheAnalects,
concernmorals,thefamilysystem,socialreforms,andstatecraft.Inaletterof
November21,1912,toLudwigStrauss,Benjaminmentionsthewidelynoticed
translationofthevolumebyKuHungMing,remarkingontheauthor's"radi
calculturalwill"andhistranscendenceofpartypolitics(GBl,77).
5.Kant,FoundationsoftheMetaphysicsofMorals,9 (section1).
6.SeeBenjamin'sessay,"TheFreeSchoolCommunity"(Chapter8inthis
volume).
7.Benjamin'stermisGestaltgewinnungdesSittlichen.
8.JohanhWolfgangvonGoethe,ElectiveAffinities,trans.R.J. Hollingdale
(London:Penguin, 1971), 206(part 2,chapter 7).The writerGoethe (1749
1832)publishedhisnovelDieWahlverwandtschaftenin1809.Thequotedpas
sage,spokenbytheschoolmaster,followshisstatement;"Thesenseofthedi
vineoughttobeaccessibletouseverywhere,eveninthemostcommonplace
surroundings;itcanaccompany uswhereverwe areandhalloweveryplace
intoatemple.Iliketoseefamilyprayersconductedinthesameroomwhere
thefamilyusuallyeatsandassemblesfor socialoccasionsanddancing."The
passageprecedestheschoolmaster'sdiscourseoneducation.
9."...esistderzweifacheAusdruckdergleichen,verfehlbarenGrundlage."
10."Nor couldonegive poorercounsel to^moralitythanto attemptto
deriveitfromexamples.Foreachexampleofmoralitywhichisexhibitedto
memustitselfhavebeenpreviouslyjudgedaccordihgto principlesofmo
ralitytoseewhetheritisworthytoserveasan.originalexample,thatis,as
amodel.Bynomeanscoulditauthoritativelyfurnishtheconceptofmoral
ity"(Kant)[Benjamin'snote].SeeFoundationsoftheMetaphysicsofMorals,
25(sectioir2).
11. FriedrichWilhelm Foerster,Jugendlehre. EinBuch fr Eltern, Lehrer
undGeistliche(DoctrineofYouth:ABookforParents,Teachers,andClerics;
1911).Alifelongpacifist,Foerster(18691966)taughtpedagogyandphiloso

MoralEducatio;! iis

phyatSwissandGermanuniversitiesandwastheauthoralsoofChristentum
undKlassenkampf(Chii^tianityandClassWarfare;1905).
12. "Die Grundstimmuiigdes Sittlichen ist Abkehr, nicht Mtivierung
durchdeneigenennochberhaupteinenNutzen."
13.Benjamin refersto Jhe^Pictureof DorianGray(1891),a philosophical
novelbythe IrishwriterOscar Wilde(18541900);setina worldofcynical
hedonism,ittellsof amanwhotradeshissoul forthsemblance ofeternal
youth.InaletterofJune21,1912,toHerbertBelmore,Benjaminremarksthat
Wilde'snovel"isperfectandadangerousbook"(CWB,16).

"Experience"

Chapter19

"Experience"

nourstruggleforresponsibility,webattlesomeonewhoismasked.
The maskof theadult iscalled "experience."Itis expressionless,
impenetrable,everthesame.Theadulthasalreadyexperiencedevery
thing;youth,ideals,hopes,woman.Itwasallillusion.Oftenwefeel
intimidatedor embittered.Perhaps heis right.Whatcan ourretort
be?Wehavenotyetexperiencedanything.'
Butletusattempttoraise themask.Whathasthisadultexperi
enced?Whatdoeshewishtoprovetous?Thisaboveall;he,too,was
onceyoung:he,too,wantedwhatwewanted;he,too,refusedtobe
lievehisparents,butlifehastaughthimthattheywereright.Saying
this,hesmilesinasuperiorfashion:thiswillalsohappentousin
advancehedevaluestheyearswewilllive,makingthemintoatime
ofsweetyouthfulpranks,ofchildishrapturebeforethelongsobriety
ofserious life.Thus, thewellmeaning, theenlightened. Weknow
otherpedagogueswhose bitternesswill noteven concedetousthe
brief yearsof "youth;"serious andgrim, theywant topush usdi
rectlyintolife's drudgery.Both attitudesdevalue and destroyour
years.Moreandmoreweareassailedbythefeeling:ouryouthisbut
abriefnight(fillitwithrapture!);itwillbefollowedbygrand"expe
rience,"theyearsofcompromise,impoverishmentofideas,andapa
116

117

thy.Such islife.That is what adults tell us,and thatis what they

experienced.
Yes,that istheirexperience,thisonething,neveranythingdiffer
ent:themeaninglessness,oflife.Itsbrutality. Havetheyever encour
agedustoanythinggreatorneworforwardlctoking?Oh,no,precisely
because these are things one cannot experience. All meaningthe
true,thegood, thebeautifulisgroundedin itself.What,then, does
experiencesignify?^Andhereinliesthesecret:becauseheneverraises
hiseyestothegreat andmeaningful,thephilistinehastaken experi
eneeashisgospel.Ithasbecomeforhimthewarrantoflife'scommon
ness.Buthehasnevergraspedthatthereissomethingotherthanexpe
rience,thattherearevaluesinexperienceablewhichweserve.
Whyislifewithout meaningorsolacefor thephilistine?Because
heknowsexperienceandnothingelse.Becausehehimselfisdesolate
andwithoutspirit.Andbecausehehasnoinnerrelationshiptoany
thingotherthan.thecommonplace,theestablishedroutine.
We,however,knowsomethingdifferent,whichexperiencecannei
thergiveto usnortakeaway: thaithere,istruth,evenifall previous
thoughthasbeeninerror.Or:thatfidelityshallbemaintained,evenif
noonehasdonesoyet.Suchwillcannotbetakenfromusbyexperi
ence.Yetareourelders,^yiththeirtiredgesturesandtheirsuperior
hopelessness,rightaboutonethingnamely,thatwhatweexperience
willbesorrowfulandthatonlyintheinexperienceablecanweground
allcourageandmeaning?Thenthespiritwouldbefree.Butagainand
again life would'dragit down, becauselife, thesum of experience,
wouldbewithoutsolace.
Wenolongerunderstandsuchquestions,however.Dowethenstill
leadthelife ofthose whoareignorant ofthespirit? Whosesluggish
egois buffetedbylife likewaves againstthe rocks? No.Each ofour
experienceshasitscontent.Weourselveswillgiveitcontentfromout
of ourspirit.He whoisthoughtlessacquiesces inerror. "You will
nverfindthetruth!"heexclaimstotheresearcher."Thatismyexpe
rience."For theresearcher, however,error is merelyan aidto truth
(Spinoza).^Experienceismeaninglessanddevoidofspiritonlyforthe
spiritless.To onewhostrives, experiencemaybe painful,but itwill
scarcelyleadhimtodespair.

"Experience"

118 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

Inanyevent,hewould neverobtuselygiveupandallowhimself
tobelulledtosleepbytherhythmof thephilistine.For thephilis
tine;you willhave noted,only rejoicesin everynew meaningless
ness.Heremainsin theri^ht.He reassureshimself:spiritvdoesnot
really exist.Yet noone demandsstricter subordination or sterner
"reverence"inthepresenceof"spirit."Forifheweretopracticecriti
cism,hewouldhave tocreateaswell.'That hecannotdo.Even the
experienceof spirit,which he undergoesagainst hiswill, becomes
forhimspiritless.
Tellhim
Heshouldhonorthedreamsofhisyouth
Whenhebecomesaman.''

Nothingissohatefultothephilistineasthe"dreamsofhisyouth."
(Andsentimentality isoften theprotectivecoloring of thishatred.)
Forwhatappearedto.himinthesedreamswasthevoiceofthespirit,
callinghim,too,inhistime,asit.doeseveryone.Youthisforhimthe
eternallyalarming reminderof thesethings. Thereforehe battlesit.
He tells young people of that gray, overwhelming experience and
teaches them to laugh at themselves. Especially since "experience"
withoutspiritiscomfortable,ifalsohopeless.
Again:we knowa differentexperience. Itcan behostile tospirit
and destroy manyblossoming dreams. Nevertheless, it is the most
beautiful,mostuntouchable,mostimmediate,becauseitcanneverbe
withoutspirit whilewe remainyoung. Alwaysone experiences'only
oneself,asZarathustrasaysattheendofhiswanderings.^Thephilis
tinehas his"experience"; it is theeternal oneof spiritlessness.The
youthwillexperiencespirit,andthelesseffortlesslyheattainstoany
thinggreat,themorehewillencounterspiriteverywhereinhiswan
deringsand inevery person.When hebecomes a man,the youth
willbecompassionate.Thephilistineisintolerant.

119

Notes
"Erfahrung"(GS2,5456) waspublished,under thepseudonym"Ardor,"in
DerAnfang,October1913.TranslatedbyLloydSpencerandStefanJost.
1.Ina letterofJune23, 1913,to HerbertBelmore, Benjaminannounces:
"YesterdayIwrotehere[inFreiburg]narticle,'Erfahrung.'Possiblythebest
thingI'veyetwrittenforDer Anfang."Ina secondlettertoBelmorewritten
onthisdate,hesays,quotinghisfriend'sletter:"'Thelesswearetroubledand
confusedbythoseawful"personal"experiences...'You'llfind outjusthow
wellthatexpressesmyownviewwhenyoureadmyessay'Erfahrung.'"Afew
weekslater,onJuly17,hewritestoBelmore:"Pleaseread'Erfahrung.'...Ifit
isnotgoodenough,andifitcanbeimproved,pleasesendittomewithyour
comments
[Georges]Barbizon[editor ofDerAnfang],whohasaccepted
it,isnotatallcritical.Iwanttoremainwhollyreceptivetoartandphilosophy
forquitesometime,perhapsuntilIhavewrittenanovella.Aboveall,Idonot
wanttowriteforDerAnfang"(CWB,32,34,4445).Theessay"'Erfahrung'"
was,infact,thelastofBenjamin'swritingstoappearinDerAnfang.Hecasts
aretrospectiveglanceatthisessay,anditsmilitantidealism,inanotewritten
probablyin1929:"In anearlyessay Lmobilizedall therebellious forcesof
youthagainsttheword'Erfahrung.' Andnowthiswordhasbecomeabasic
elementinmanyofmythings.NeverthelessIhaveremainedtruetomyself.
Formyattackbrokethroughthe wordwithoutdestroyingit. Itreached the
centerofthematter"'"(GS2,902).Intheessay,Benjaminusesbotherlebenand
erfahren to mean "experience," without explicitly distinguishing between
thesetermsashewilldoinhislaterwork.
2.The Dutchphilosopher BaruchSpinoza (16321677) definederror
asincompleteor fragmentaryknowledge;seehisEthica OrdineGeometrico
Demonstrata,knowninEnglishasTheEthics(1677),part2,proposition35.
3."DennwrdeerKritikbensomssteerjamitschaffen."
4.BenjamincitesFriedrichSchiller'shistoricaldramaDonCarlos(1787),
4:21:42874289.
5. Reference is tothe beginningof part 3of Friedrich Nietzsche's Also
SprachZarathustra(ThusSpokeZarathustra;18831884,1892),whichBenja
minevidentlyquotesfrommemory:"Manerlebtimmernursichselber."The
textreads:"manerlebt endlich nurnoch sichselber (ultimately,oneexperi
encesonlyoneself).

ThoughtsonGerhartHauptmann'sFestivalPlay

121

II. Hauptmann'sFestivalPlay
Chapter20

Thoughtson
GerhartHauptmann'sFestivalPlay

I. "HistoricalSense"
Humanityhasnotyetawakenedtoasteadyconsciousnessofitshis
toricalexistence'.Onlyfromtimetotimehasitdawndonindividu
alsandon peopfesthat theywerein theserviceof anunknown fu
ture,andsuchillumination couldbe thoughtof ashistoricalsense.
Butthepresentdayunderstandsbythistermsomethingverydiffer
ent,andthosewhoaremostanimatedbythefeelingofafuture.task
[Aufgabe] itreproacheswitha"lackofhistoricalsense."Thatiswhat
it calls the sense for the conditioned as opposed to the uncondi
tioned,for.thegiven as opposed tothe projected [Aufgegebene],So
strongisthe"historicalsense"atthepresenttime,thissenseforfacts,
for restrictionand discretion, thatourtime is perhaps particularly
poor in genuine"historical ideas." It calls them for the most part
"utopias"and letsthem founder on the"eternal laws" of nature.It
rejectsthe taskthat cannotbe comprehendedWithin a reformpro
gramandthatdemandsanewmovementofspiritsandaradical'new
seeing.Atsuchatime,theyoungcannotbutfeelalienatedandpower
less.Fortheydonotyethaveaprogram.Hence,GerhartHauptmann
wasforthemaliberator.'
120

A puppetshowon thesubjectof Germany'snationalliberation.The

puppetsspeakin rhymingverse.^ Thestage ofthe puppettheater is
Europe;historyneverflsifie'disfrequentlycondensed.Thewarof
1806isa WarFury, Napoleon'sdownfallmerely thefadingof apic
ture.'Philistiadescomesforward"andinterruptshistory.^Whatdoes
thismean? Isit a"clever idea"? No,ithas aprofound andrevealing
significance.Itisnotfactsthatmake1813great,anditisnotpersons
either.Aspersons,certainly,thesepuppetsarenotgreatbutprimitive.
Theirlanguagehasnosolemnity,nothingimmortalizediniambs.But
theyspittheirwordsoutorsearchforthemorletthemgo,aspeoplea
hundredyearsagowouldhave done.Soitisnotevents, notpersons,
notlanguage thatin itself bearsthe meaning.But thefacts arear
rangedbythespirit,thepuppetsarecarvedinthwdoftheiridea,
andthelanguageisalwayssearchiiigfortheidea.Forwhatidea?Let
usask ourselveswhether, a hundred yearsago,we would not have
numberedamongthosearrogantlymockingcitizens,simplybecause
wehadnotmanagedtoget aproperanswerto,thisquestion.'Forthe
"newGermannation"was noprogram;it wasonly aGerman idea.
Notfullygraspedbyanyofthese^people,innoneofthirwordsclearly
articulated,thisideaw^s glowingly,aliveineachof theirdeeds;itis
thespiritalsoofthisplay.Beforeit,Jiumanbeingsarepuppets(with
outcharacter or personalidiosyncrasies), puppetsin thegiip of an
idea.Theversesweepsalonginaccordancewith,thisidea:asthough
peopleweretokeeptalkinguntilmeaningwasbornfromtheirwords.
Amongthosetakingpartwerealsoyoungpeople,whowereasthor
oughlyconfusedandthoroughlyenthusiasticasthejrleaders.
Butalreadytherewerematureandfarsightedpersonsamongthem,
too.Thus,the"FirstCitizen"saystoBlcher:
Letmeoncehearthattheworldconquerorisperdu,
andIwillverygladlysingyoursong.
Shouldyousucceedinhuntinghimdown,
theneverythingchangesovernight;
Ishallcertainlynotgetmyhacklesupthen

122 EARLY WRITINGS

andnolongerbeNapoleonic.
Asthingsstandnow,Iwillendup
ontherightside,onceagain.'
And to theyounger generation peoplespeak today just asthey did
backthen:
Loudmouthed,immatureschoolboys,
takeyourprimerandgettoclass...
Wha^!Fritz?Youhere?Myownson?...
Pretentiousbabble!Puerilenonsense.
Someoneanswersthem:
Oyouservilesouls!HowIhateyou.
Inert,insensible,sluggishmass.
Athick,slimymust,unfermented,
unclarifiedwithoutanyfire.
Nosparkrouses,nraypenetratesyou,
nospirit,buteverykickkeepsyouinline.
Iftownspeopleandstudentswhotalkthiswaytodayhadlivedahun
dredyears ago,they would havespoken nodifferently. Forit isndt
knowledgebutdispositionthatdeterminestheirhistoricalaction,and
dispositionsstaythesamethroughtheages.
Attheconclusionofthestruggle,Hauptmannhasplaced thefesti
val,anditisherethattheclamoroussoulofdailyexistenceisfirst'given
formandlanguage.^TheGermanmothertakesonGreekfeatures,for
thefestivalsignifiesentryintotherealmofculture;thestrugglerfierely
pavedtheway.
AtheneGermaniaspeaks:
AndthereforeletuscelebrateEros!Thereforethisfeast
honoringthelovemadeflesh,thelovethatworks
inthespirit!Andfromoutofthespiritonceagain
inwordandtone,inmetalandstoneconstructions,
inmeasureandorder:inallactandaction.

ThoughtsonGerhartHauptmann'sFestivalPlay

123

Whatisgainedinthestruggleisnothingbutfreedom.Itistheprime
necessityin^aworldofcompetingpowers.Inthe'festival;thedayand
its unconscious activitycan attain consciousness in.thespirit.The
festivalcelebrates peace asthehidden meaningof thestruggle.The
peacegainedthroughstruggle'willbririgdulture.

III. YouthandHistory
Schoolandhomedismissourmostseriousideasasmerephrases.Our
fearof theteacher is,as itwere, symbolic;he continuallymisunder
standsus,graspsonlytheletterofwhatweareabout,notthespirit.We'
aretimidinthepresenceofmanyadults,becausetheytakegreatpains
tohearwhatwesaybiitneverunderstandwhatwemean.Theypedanti
callytakeissuewiththoughtsthathavescarcelycrossedourminds.
Nowweknowthat'lackofclarityisnoreproach, thainoonewho
willedwhatwasserioushadaprogramreadyforthecuriousandthe
skeptical.Tobesure,weare lackingin"historicalsense."Butall the
samewefeel"ourselvestobe relatedbyblood tohistorynot tothat
whichispastbutto'thatwhichiscoming.,Weshallneverunderstand
thepastjvithoutwillingthe.future.
Schoolmakesusindifferent;itwojuldhaveusbelievethathistoryis
thestrugglebetweengoodandvil,andhatsoonerorlater,thegood
prevails.Sooneneedbeinnohurrytoact.Thepresentmomentitself,
sotospeak,hasnoactuality;timeisinfinite.Tous,however,history
seemsasternerandcruelerstruggle;Notforthesakeofvaluesalready
establishedforthesakeofgoodandevil.Rather,westruggleforthe
verypossibilityofvalues,whichisconstantlythreatened,andforcul
ture,whichlivesinperpetualcrisis.Forateverypreseritmomentthe
oldvaluesgrowolder;whatwasmomentumbecomesinertia,and,what
wasintelligence becomesstupidity. Moreover,the greatesthistorical
goodfreedomgetslost'. Frpedonj, however,is not a program but
onlythewilltosi^ch,adisposition.
Historyisthetugglebetween}:he,spiritedandtheinert,between
thoseorientedtowardthefutureandthose orientedtoward thepast,
betweenthefree andtheunfree.Theunfreecanalwaysdisplay tous

124 EARLY WRITINGS

ThoughtsonGerhartHauptmann'sFestivalPlay 125

thecanonoftheirlaws.Butwewillnotyetbeabletogiveanametothe
lawunderwhichwestand.Thatitisjamatterof^utyissomethingwe
feel.Inthisfeelirig,youthwillhavecourageforthatwhichtheothers
considerphrasemaking.It willtakeaction thoughotherscall itcon
fused.Youthisconfused likethespiritof history,whichshinesforth
onlyinthefestival.
We are grateful to Gerhart Hauptmann for a youthful sense of
struggleandfestival.

broadbasedandlivelytreatment....HadItakenmoretime,alotoftheessay

Notes
"GedankenberGerhartHauptmannsFestspiel"(GS2,5660)waspublished,
underthepseudonym"Ardor,"inDerAnfang,August1913.
1.The dramatistandnovelist GerhartHauptmann (18621946) inaugu
rated the naturalist movement in German literature withhis playon the
Silesian weavers' revolt of 1844, Die Weher (The Weavers; 1892).^He was
awardedtheNobelPrizeforliteraturein1912.HisFestspielindeutschen Re
imen(FestivalPlayinGerman Rhymes;1913),a puppetplay,waswritten at
theinvitationofthestudentbodyattheUniversityofBreslau,whowereseek
ingacontributiontothecentennialcelebrationofthesocalledWarsofLib
erationof 1813.Thefirst performanceoftheplay, whichdisappointedboth
nationalistandsocialistcontingents,tookplaceonMay31,1913,inBreslau;it
wassoonafterwardwithdrawnfromthe programbyorder ofstateauthori
ties.InaletterofJune23,1913,toHerbertBelmore,Benjamincommentson
the situation:"[I refer to] Hauptmann's youthful and divine drama com
memoratingthecentenaryofNapoleon'sfall....Ihavenotbeensospiritu
Thebanningoftheplay
allymoved,ouplifted,byartforaverylongtime
issomethingbeautifulandgratifying:Ican'timagineamorehistoricallyap
propriateinsightintoitsgreatness.Withitsbanning,apiecenotonlyofthe
pastbutalsoofthepresenthasbeenrationalized[rationalisiert]. .Tomor
rowillwrite[myarticleonHauptmann'sFestspiel].Ihavealreadynotdthe
directionmythoughtswilltake:"IheCentennialFestspiel,orYouthandHis
tory.'IthinkIhavesomeessentialthingstosay."InaletterofJuly17toBel
more,written afterhe hadcompleted thearticle onHauptmann, Benjamin
expressesregretthathe"didn'tlettheessaysettleawhilelongerbutimmedi
atelysentitoff,"adding,"Mypersonalinvolvement...keptmefromamore

wouldcertainlyhaveturnedoutbetter"(CWB,32,44;seealso3738).
2.Knittelverse(Knittelmeans"rhyme"),anirregularrhymingverseform
that waspopular withfifteenth andsixteenthcentury Germanpoets and
laterrevivedbyGoetheandSchiller.
3.In1806,theFrenchEmperorNapoleonBonaparte(17691821)achieved
militarydomination overGermany In 1813,however, hisarmies werede
featedat the"Battle ofthe Nations"in Leipzig,and laterthat yearhe was
forcedtoabdicate.Heraisednewarmiestwoyearslaterbutwasfinally over
thrownatWaterloo inJune 1815andexiledtotheislandofSaint Helenain
theSouthAtlantic.TheWarFury(Kriegsfurie)isHauptmann'sadaptationof
theavengingwingedgoddessesofGreekmythologyknownastheFuries.
4.Philistiadesisaninventedfigure ofGreekyouth,whoactsasakindof
commentating masterofceremonies at intervals in Hauptmanns play. In
lateryears,writingaboutthe"epictheater ofBertoltBrecht,Benjamin will
againhighlightthedeviceofinterruption(seeSW2,585).
5.BenjaminreferstotheshiftingscenesofHauptmann'sFestspiel:follow
inganaccountofPrussiandefeatsatJenaandAuerstedtin1806,theGerman
IdealistphilosopherJ.G.Fichteisintroducedinacademicgown;hedeliversa
lengthymonologueontheneed forGermansto throwofftheyoke ofalien
culture,whic,hinturnprovokesargumentsbetweenpa'triotic students,who
takehiswordstoheart,andcautioustownspeople.
6.Theconfrontationbetween studentsandcitizens iscappedbythe ap
pearance of seventyyearold Gebhard Leberecht von Blcher (17421819),
Prussianfield marshal'inthe'Napoleonicwrs,whodeliversarousingcallto
arms.
7.InthefinalsectionofHauptmann'splay,amourningGermanmotheris
transformedintoa GermanAthena;bathedinmystic illumination,sheex
hortsher listenersto pursuethe pathof loveand peaceand toforge unity
betweenpeoples.Herpleaisfollowedbyagrandprocessionoffigures from
allclassesandprofessionscelebratingUniversalgoodwill.Attheend,Athene
GermaniachantsapaeantoEros.

TheAviator i2y

Chapter21

TheAviator

heemptymarble tablesreflected theglareof arclamps.Gnter

Morlandwas seatedbefore acaf.The coldgrenadirie madehis
teethache.Fromwithincamethepiercingsoundofviolins,asthough
brightspiritualvoiceswererushingexcitedlytoaclose.
"Whydidyousleepwithawoman?Itwasagirlitwasaprostitute.
OGnter,youwerepure."
Anoldwomatiwassearchingfussilyforaplaceamongtheempty
chairs. Gnter eyed her small body intently. She was so thin, you
could'twistoffherneck.Thewaitercheatedhimwhenhepaidthebill.
Heflunghimselfintothestreamofpeopleontheboulevard.Every
evening,theskywasmilkybrown,thesmalltreesquiteblack,andthe
entrances to the nightclubs dazzling. Jewelers' shops held a special
fascinationforhim.Withthegoldhandleofhiswalkirigstickpropped
againsthiship,hewouldremainstandinginfrontofthedisplaywin
dows.For minutesata time,hecontemplated thehatsatamilliner's
andpicturedthemontheheadsofrougedandpowderedladies.
Hewas hitby agust ofperfume comingfromfour women.They
were jostlingtheir waythrough thepassersby, andGnter followed
themwithoutcaring toconcealhisaction.Welldressed menturned
tolookat thesewomen;newsboys calledafter themraucosly.Hiss
126

ing,anarclampflared andlit upthehair ofa slenderblonde.They

pressedupagainstoneanother.Astheywheeledabout,Gntercame
toward them with unsteadysteps. The girlslaughed. He passed by
them stiffly, and oneshoved him with her arm, makinghim burn.
Suddenly,heappearedinthetransparencyofamirrorfullofglancing
lights.Thegreennecktiewasglowing; itsatwell.But hesawhimself
unstrunginthemidstofthelights.Hisarmsweredangling,hisface
lookedflat andred,and histrousershungindeep folds.Shamehad
seizeduponhisbodyinalllimbsatonce.Inthedepthsofthemirror
loomedastranger.Gnterfledwithheadlowered.
Thestreetshademptiedandvoicesrangoutsharply,especiallynow
thatitwas dark.Gnter Morlandwas amazedthat inthese twenty
fourhourshehadnotyetsuccumbedtosomewastingillness.Hegave
awideberthtootherpeopleandnonethelesskepttheminsight.
Towardeleventhat evening,hefound himselfina squareandno
ticeda crowdof peoplewith headsupturned lookingat thesky. An
airplane,black and sharpedged in the pinkishhaze,was making'a
circleoflightoverthecity;itseemedyoucouldhearitslowrumble,but
theaviatorremainedinvisible.Itkeptanevencourse,almostwithout
accelerating.Theblackwinghoveredcalmlyinthesky.
WhenGnterturnedaround,hehad tosharpenhisgazeinorder
todistinguishtheprostitutehehadsleptwith.Shedidnotnoticethe
lookofhischildisheyesasheconfidentlytookholdofherarm.^

Notes
"DerFlieger"(GS7,643644)waswrittenca.1913andpublishedposthumously
1.Thisshort storycannotbedated withcertaintyandisperhaps afrag
ment.IheeventsdepictedmayhavebeensuggestedbyatriptoParisBenja
mintookinMay1913inthecompanyoftwostudentfriends, duringwhich
happarentlyhadhisfirstsexualexperiencewithawoman.'whomhemeton
theParis streets. (Seethe twoletters excerptedin HansPuttnies andGary
Smith,Benjaminiana[GiesSen:Anabas,1991],135.) Benjamin'susagehereof
the loan'words Caf and Boulevard could indicate a Parisian setting. The
storyissimilarinstyleto"DeathoftheFather,"writtenca.June1913.

DeathoftheFather 129

Chapter22

DeathoftheFather:
AShortStory

uringthejourney,heavoidedmakingcleartohimselfthemean
ingofthat telegram;"Comeimmediately.Turn forthe worse."
Hehad leftthe vacationspot ontheRiviera towardevening,'in bad
weather.Memoriesenvelopedhimlikemorninglightbreakinginona
lingeringreveler;sweetandShameful. Indignantly,hebecameaware
ofthenoisesofthecitywhosemiddayhewasentering..Thereseemed
tobeno waytorespond totheimportunitiesofhis birthplaceother
thanto becomevexed. Buthe feltin atwitter thevoluptuousnessof
stolenhourswithamarriedwoman.
Therestoodhisbrother.An electricshockrandownhisspine;he
hated thisblackcladfigure. His brothergreeted him hastilywith a
sorrowfullook.Acarwaswaiting.Theridewaspunctuatedwithaclat
tering.Ottostammeredoutaquestion,evenasthememoryofakiss
sweptoverhim.
Siiddenlythemaidwasstandingonthestaircaseinthehouse,and
hebrokedownasshetookhisheavysuitcasefromhim.Hehadnotyet
seenhismother,buthisfatherwasalive.Therehewasbythewindow,
sittingbloatedinhisarmchair...Ottowentuptohimandgavehim
hishand."Idon'tgetakissfrom.youanymore.Otto?"hisfatherasked
gently.Thesonflunghimselfonthefather,thenranoutandstoodon
128

thebalconyandbawledintothestreet.Presentlyhegrewwearywith
cryingand'begandreamilytorememberhisschooling,hispracticum
years,'histriptoAmerica.
"Mr.Martin." Hequieted himselfand feltashamed, nowthat he
knewhisfatherwasstililiving.Onhearinghimsobagain,thegirllaid
her hand on his shoulder. He looked up mechanically and saw a
healthyblondebeing,refutation ofthesickman hehadtouched.He
feltathome.
Inthe busiestquarter oftown laythelibrary, whichOttovisited
regularlyduringhistwoweekstay.Eachmorningheworkedforthree
hoursonadissertationwithwhichhehopedtoobtainhisdoctoratein
politicaleconomy. Inthe afternoonshe wasthere again inorder to
studytheillustratedartjournals.Helovedartanddevotedmuchtime
toit.Intheseroomshewasnotalone.Hewasongood'termswiththe
dignifiedemployeewhocheckedoutthebooks.Andwhenhelooked
upfromhisreadingwithafrown,hismindgoneblank,henotinfre
quentlyencounteredafamiliarfacefrom'hishighschoolyears.
Thesolitudeofthesedays,.whichheneverfailedtomakeusof,did
himgood,afterhisrecent weeksontheRivierahadmarshaledevery
nerveintheServiceofapas'sionatewoman.Inbedatnighthesought
theparticulars ofher body,,orit pleased himtosend herhis*weary
sensualityinbeautifulwaves.Hseldomotherwisethoughtofher.If
he happenedto besitting acrossfrom awomanin thestreetcar, he
wouldmerelywrinklehisbrowimpressivelywhilewearinganempty
expression, a gesture with which he aimed to acquire unassailable
solitudeforsweetidleness.
Theactivityof thehouseholdwas regularlyappliedto thecareof
thedyingmn;itdidnottroubleOttoatall.*Butonemorninghewas
wakenedearlierthan usualandledbeforethecorpseof hisfather.It
wasbrightin theroom.Infrontof thebedhismotherlayina heap.
Hersori,however,feltsuchpowerthathegraspedherunderthearm
andsaidinafirmvoice;"Standup.Mother."Onthisday,asalways,he
wenttothelibrary.Hisgaze,when itskimmedoverthewomen,was
even emptier and more impassive than at other times. When he
boarded the streetcar, he,hugged close the satchel containing two
pagesofJiiswork.

DeathoftheFather

yo EARLYWRITINGS

Butfrbmthisdayonwardheworkedwithlesscertainty.Deficien
ciesbecameapparent;'fundamentalproblems, whichuf) untilthen
he had regularly glossed over, began to preoccupy him.His book
orderingswouldsuddenlyloseallreason.Hewassurroundedbypiles
ofperiodicals,inwhichhemadeabsurdlypainstakingsearchesforth
mostunimportantpiecesofinformation.Whennotabsorbedinread
ing,he neverlostthe feelingof aman whoseclothes aretoo bigfor
him.Ashetossedtheclodsofdirtintohisfather'sgrave,itdawnedon
himthattherewasaconnectionbetweentheburialservice,theend
lesslineofacquaintances,andhisownblankmind."Thisallhashap
penedsooften.Howtypicalitis."Andashewentfromthegravewith
thegroup of mourners,his grief hadbecome likesomething olieis
usedtocarryingaround,andhisfaceseemedtohavebroadenedwith
indifference.Hewasirritatedbythequiettalksthatwentonbetween
hismother andbrother, asthe threeof themsat aroundthe dinner
table.Theblondegirlbroughtthesoup.Ottocasuallyraisedhishead
andlookedintoherunwarybrowneyes.
In thisway Otto often brightened up the petty predicaments of
thesedaysof mourning.Onceitwaseveninghekissed the^irlin
thhallway.His motherwould always receiveheartfeltwordswhen
shewasalonewithhim;forthemostpart,however,sheconferredwith
his"olderbrotheraboutbusinessaffairs.
Ashereturnedfromthelibraryoneafternoon,itoccurredtohim
thatheshouldtakehisleave.Whatmorewastheretokeephimhere?
Hehadstudyingtodo.
Hefound himselfalone inthe house,so hewentinto hisfather's
study,aswashiscustom.Here,onthedivan,thedeceasedhadunder
gonehisfinalhours.Theblindshadbeenrolled downbecauseitwas
hot,andthroughtheslitsshonethesky.Thegirl.cameandputsome
anemonesonthewritingtable.Ottostoodleaningonthedivanand,
as she passed by,'he silently drew her to him. She pressed herself
againsthim,andtheylaydowntogether.Afterawhile,shekissedhim
andstoodup,withouthisholdingontoher.
Hisdeparturecametwodayslater.Heleftthehouseearly.Nextto
himwalkedthegirlwithhissuitcase,and Ottotalkedoftheuniver
sitytownandhisstudies.Butonpartinghemerelygaveherhishand,

131

forthe railroadstationwascrowded."What wouldmyfathersay?

hethought,asheleanedbackandexpelledthelastbitofsleepfromhis
bodyinayawn.^

Notes
"DerToddesVaters:Novelle"(GS4,723725)waswrittenca.June 1913and
publishedposthumously.
1.Kaufmannsjahre, acourseofstudyforpostsecondaryschoolstudents
that provides supervised practical application of previously introduced
theory.
2. Benjamin's letter of June 7, 1913, to Herbert Belmore, describeshis
original planfor thisshort story(hisfirst designatedas such):"Thisafter
noonIbegan tocomposea shortstorywiththefine title,'Deathofthe Fa
ther.'Outline: soonafter thedeath ofhis father, ayoung manseduces the
maid.Then;howthesetwoeventsmergeandoneweightbalancestheother
(thegiri'spregnancy)./ThesubjecfmatterisfromHerrManning'slife,which
Iamlearningaboutduring'theweehoursofthemorning,sporadicallyandin
termsofoneof anotherofitsendlessdimensions"(CWB,31). OttoHarald
AlfredManning(18921915)wasanEnglishcitizenstudyingpublicfinance
attheUniversityofFreiburg,whereBenjaminwasenrolledin1912and1913.

Romanticism:Replyofthe Unsanctified

Chapter23

Romanticism:
Replyofthe"Unsanctified"

133

marksthemasromantic.Thespiritofyouthwillawaken mall;they
will nolonger leadseparate liveswithin theschool."Romanticism"
thenwillnleantheworkingwilltoanewyouthandtoitsschool.
Aspiritualrealitywillopenup.Onlythenwillyouthbelieveinart
andhistory;poetsandheroesareawarrantforthefutureschool.And
thisyouththatfaithfullyservesthetruespiritwillberomantic.
Butwedistr\istthosewho intoxicatethemselveswithaspiritthey
donotserve.Theyaretheunbelievingones.

Notes
"RomantikDieAntwortdes'Ungeweihten'"(GS2.47)waspubhshed,under
thepseudonym"Ardor,"inDerAnfang,September1913.
1.ThispiecewaswritteninresponsetoapublishedattackonBenjamins

tisawkwardtoargueagainstasermon.Thefollowingremarksare
thereforeintendedtoaugmenttheearlierstatement.'
WewanttheWeltshmerzatlasttobecomeobjective.^Artshould
notbeanopiateforthewillthatsuffersundersomepainfuldispen
sation;itstandstoohighforthat,inourview(andpubertyisnotto
beameliorated throughlyric poetry).To besure, theteacher con
cedestousthesortofromanticismforwhichartisanarcotic:letthe
youngimmerse themselves in an innocuousand generalized past
(Schiller and Goethe, Hlderlin and Lenau, Rembrandt, Bcklin,
and Beethoven); a torrent of feelings will render them harmless.^
From thisschool romanticism [Schulromantik],which reduces the
spirittoastimulant,wehaveawakened.Hyperionmayspeakforthe
soulsof manybutthey aresleeping souls.'*For them,heroes and
poetsareaflockofbeautifuldreamfigures towhichtheyclingsoas
nottowakeup.
NoSchillerorHlderlinwillcometoouraid.Norarewehelpedby
ayounggenerationthatremainsabsorbedinitsfavoriteauthorsand
letstheschoolbeschool.Ifitshouldfinally openitseyesandrecog
nize itself, this generation will see how much cowardice and un
boundedlassitudewasinit.Thenyoungpeoplewillfeelthescornthat
132

essay"Romanticism"(Chapter17inthisvolume):"RomantikdieMeinung
einesanderen[Romanticism:AnotherOpinion]"appearedintheSeptember
issue of Der Anfang under the pseudonym "Hyperion." Benjamins title
makesreferencetothisattack:"Ardorasks;'Dowepossessromanticism? ...
Andathousandvoices passionatelycallback'No!7 ButI andmanyothers
answerwithaburstofenthusiasm:'Yes!Wepossessit;wecarryitwithinus
asasacredtrust.Wefeelitinthesombersoundsofnature,inthemysterious
chordsofBeethoven'smusic. Andit speakstouswith ahundredvoicesin
thewordsofthepoets,whobear intheirheartsthesacredfire ...SoArdor
comes10theconclusionthat,forusyouth,realityandromanticismmeanthe
samething. Andheevidentlydoes notsuspect thatallromanticism would
cometoanendifthatweretrue. /Romanticismiseverythingdarkandmys
teriousthatwe donotseebut onlysurmise...Neverwillwe allowourro
manticismtofall intounsanctifiedhands [ungeweihtenHnden]; neverwill
wegiveupourlongingforfaroffrealms"(citedGS2,898899).
^
2. "Wir wollen, da endlich der Weltschmerz gegenstndlich werde.
CoinedbytheGermanRomanticwriterJeanPaulinhisposthumouslypub
lishednovelSelina (1827),thetermWeltschmerz(world pain)waspopular
izedbyHeinrichHeineinthe1830s.OriginallysuggestingByrnicdiscon
tentandmelancholy,ithasbeenadoptedasaGermanisminmanylanguages
tomean"sadnessovertheevilsoftheworld,especiallyasanexpressionof
romantic pessimism" (American Heritage Dictionary). Compare the

134

EARLYWRITINGS

Baudelaireanmotifoftaediumvitae(tediumoflife)inBenjamin'sPassagen
Werk(ArcadesProject).
3.Benjaminrefers tosomeoftheartistsmentionedby"Hyperion"inhis
article:theGermanpoets FriedrichvonSchiller (17591805),Johann Wolf
gang von Goethe (17491832), Friedrich Hlderlin (17701843), and the
HungarianbornNikolausLenau(NikolausNiembschvonStrehlenau;1802
1850);theDutchpainterandetcherRembrandtvanRijn(16061669)andthe
SwisslandscapepainterArnoldBcklin (18271901);andtheGermancom
poserLudwigvanBeethoven(1770827).

Chapter24

YouthWasSilent

4."Hyperion"remarksthat,incriticizing"Ardor's"brandofromanticism,
hefeels"secure intheknowledge thatI speakforthe soulsofmany" (GS2,
898).

DeclicatedtotheTglicheRundschau
Nowisthetimetostandfirm.Wearebynomeansgoingtoallov/our
selvestobeovercomebythefactoftheFreeGermanYouthCongress.'
To besure, weexperienced a new reality:two thousand uptodate
youngpeoplecometogether,andonHighMeissnertheonlookersaw
anewphysicalyouth,anewtensioninthefaces.For us,thisisjusta
pledgeofthespiritofyouth.Excursions,ceremonialattire,folkdances
arenothingnewandintheyear1913stillnothingspiritual.
Wein ourselveswould rathernot greetthe YouthCongress with
enthusiasm untilthecollective spiritha,s beenas fullyimbued with
thewill toyouth.asonlycertain individuals^re today.Until then,
wewillcontinue,inthenameofyouth,toweightheYuthCongress
againstthedemandsofthespirit.
Thefollowingscene occurredduringthe meetingof delegateson
theHanstein.^Aspeakerconcluded:"...withasalute,tofreedomand
toGermannationality!"Avoice:"Andtoyouth!"Thespeakerhastily
correctedhimself:"Andtoyouth!"
Therewasworse.Wh^entheprizesforsportswerebeingawarded,the
namIsaacsohnwasannounced.^Laughterrango,ut fromaminority.
135

136 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

SolongasoneofthosewholaughedhasaplaceamongtheFreeGer
manYouth,itwillbewithoutnobilityandyouthfulness.
ThisYouthCongressprovesit;onlyafewunderstandthemeaning
oftheword"youth."Thatfromyouth aloneradiatesnewspirit,the
spirit. They still seek their feeble, ratiohalized pretexts for self
discovery;racialhygiene oragrarianreform orabstinence [fromal
coholand nicotine].Hence thepowerhungry coulddare todefile
thefestivalof youthwith partyjargon.Professor Dr.Keilcried out;
"Raiseyourweaponshigh!"'Twomencametothedefenseofyouth;
Wyneken and Luserke, both from the Free School Community.^
Wynekenpromisedtoorganizehisforcesintosomethinglikeawall
aroundyouth,vulnerable asit istoall thepressures ofan election
rally.Forthisstrugglewemayconfidentlylooktothestudentsfrom
Wickersdorf,whointheirwhitecapswereawelldefinedtrooponthe
Meissner.
Youthwassilent.Iftheyshoutedtheirhurrahs,itwasmoreinsup
jiortofthechauvinistKeil'sspeechthanof Wyneken'swords.Itwas
dismayingtoseethementertainedbytheavuncularAvenarius.^That
theseyoungpeopletoleratejovialbonhomieistheworstofall.That
theyshouldalloweveryknowing,"selfpossessed"wittorob them
ofthesacredseriousnesswithwhichtheycametogether.Thattheygo
alongwithsmilingconvivialityinsteadofmaintainingdistance.This
youthhasnotyetfoundtheenemy,thebornenemyitmusthate.But
whoamongthosethatassembledonHighMeissnerhasexperienced
that? Where was the protest against familyandchool we had ex
pected?Herenopoliticalslogan pavedtheway foryouthfulfeeling.
Has the way therefore remained untrodden? Here everything was
still to be done. And here should be revealed what is youthful
indignationattheparentalhomethatdullsthemind,indignationat
theschoolthatpunishes thespirit.Youthwas silent.Ithas notyet
hadtheintuition beforewhich thegreatgecomplex breaksdown.
Thatmightyideology;experiencematurityreasonthegoodwill
ofadultsit was not perceivedat theYouth Congressand was'not
overthrown.
ThefactoftheYouthCongressremainstheonethingpositive.Itis
enoughtobringustogetheragainbetter preparednextyearandso

YouthWasSilent 137

for all theyears tocome,until at.some future Free GermanYouth

Congressyouthspeaks.

Notes
"Die Jugend Schwieg"(GS2, 6667) was published, under thepseudonym
"A[r]dor,"inDieAktion,October18,1913.
1.RegardedtodayastheclimacticeventoftheantebellumGermanyouth
movement,theFirstFreeGernjanYouthCongress(ErsteFreideutscheJugend
tag) tookplace October 1012, 1913, on Mount Meissner and neighboring
MountHansteininKassel,centralGermany.Afewdaysearlier,Benjaminhad
givenatalk,"EndsandMeansofStudentPedagogicGroupsinGermanUni
versities,"ataschoolreformconferenceattheUniversityofBreslau(seeGS2,
6066),andheevidentlystoppedoffinKasselonhiswaybacktoBerlin,where
hehadbegunhissecondsemesterofuniversitystudies.Theproceedingsofthe
MeissnercongressweredescribedintheNovemberissueofDerAnfang,inan
articlebythejournal'seditorGeorgesBarbizon(Georg Gretor);thereportis
printedinfullinGS2,909913.WalterLaqueurhasdevotedachaptertothe
eventinhisYoungGermany:AHistoryof theGermanYoUthMovement,2nd
ed. (New Brunswick, NJ; Transaction Books, 1984), 3238 (At the Hohe
Meissner").Benjamin's dedicationofhisessayto theTgliche Rundschau,a
conservativeBerlin newspapercritical oftheyouth niovementand itsadult
sponsors,ispresumablyironic.Hispublishingvenuehere.DieAktion,wasthe
infliipntial journal of a politically radical Expressionism; it was edited by
FranzPfemfert,whowasalsothepublisherofDerAnfang.
2. The convention began, on a rainy Friday night, with a contentious
meeting of delegates from the various participating youth groups on the
groundsofthe ruinedcastleatopMount Hanstein.Thenext day,the scene
shiftedtoMountMeissner, renamed"HighMeissner"fortheoccasion,and
theweatherimproved.
3.ErnstKeilwasanAustriansecondaryschoolteacherandarepresenta
tiveoftheAustrian"Wandervogel"group.
4.See"TheFreeSchoolCommunity"(Chapter8inthisvolume).Theedu
cationalreformerGustavWyneken(18751964),afounderoftheFreeSchool
CommunityinWickersdorf,Thuringia,andacentral influenceontheGer
man youth movement, was Benjamin's teacher at the country boarding

138

EARLYWRITINGS

schoolHaubindain 19051906.Benjaminultimatelybrokewithhismentor
in1915 afterWyneken'spublic advocacyoftheGermanwar effort.Martin
Luserke(18801968)helpedfoundthe FreeSchoolCommunityandbecame
itsdirectorafterWynekenwasforcedtoleavein1910.
5.FerdinandAvenarius (18561923)waswell knownastheeditorof the
journal Der Kunstwart (The Guardianof Art).On thelast dayof theFree
GermanYouthCongress,afterastirringaddressbyGustavWyneken,hede
liveredtheconcludingremarksandjokedabouthisownstoutness.Heended

Chapter25

ConversationonLove

with"Seeyouagainnextyear!"Thecongresswasnotrepeated.
6.Allusion toFranzPfemfert's laudatoryarticleontheYouth Congress,
"Die Jugend spricht!" (Youth Speaks!), which appeared in Die Aktion the
week before the publication of Benjamin's critique. See note 1, above, on
Pfemfert.

Agathon: Youweresayingrecently,Sophia,thatthereisonlyonelove.'
HowamItounderstandthis,sincethere'sloveofone'sspouse,love
ofone'sfriend,love'ofchildrennottomentiontheothers!Arethese
allvariousformsofthesamebasicmatter?Orisntitperhapsthecase
thatloveisalreadyinitselfsomethingmanifold,andourpoor
languagehastorestcontentwithonewordfor'diversityofthings?
Vincent: Thereisonlyonelove,Agathon.Spousesloveeachother
withthesameloveasfriends,asmotherandson.Wheredifferences
becomeapparenthere,somethingelsehasenteredthepicture:
marriagefriendshipmotherhood.Itsnotintheirlovethat
spouses,friends,orparentsaredifferentiatedonlyinthatother,
superveningfactor.
Sophia: Andwhatseemtousdifferingexpressionsoflovearejustex
pressionsofsomethingthatgoes'togetherwithloveorinitstrain.
Sexualwillisnotlove,anymorethanmotherhoodislove.
Agathon: Andfriendship?Intellectualandspiritulpursuits?
Vincent: Ifyou'veeverfeltyourloveforafriendgrowstrongerand
rnoreintimateafterthetwoofyoulearnedsomethingnewtogether,
thenyouknowthatfriendshipisnotlove:lovecannotaugmentitself.
ButIcanpursueknowledge,orIwanttopursueknowledge,only
withsomeoneIcouldalsolove;onlysomeoneIlovecanbecalledmy

139

140

ConversationonLove 141

EARLYW R I T I N G S

friend.Marriage,friendship,motherhoodtheycanallexistintheir
purityonlywherethereislove;yettheyarenotthemselveslove.
Agathon: Youstriploveofpersonalrelations.Yourlove,itseemstome,
ischarity,loveofone'sfellowman.^
Vincent: Charityhasnothingincommonwithlovefortheonewhois
closesttous;loveforoneperson,onewhoisours,isentirelydifferent
fromloveofourfellowman.Thelatterreposesinouibreastwithout
longing,asgoalperhaps,butnotasdesire.Lwe,however,isalwaysa
longing.
Sophia: Andthereseemstomenothinguntowardinthefactthatlove
alwaysseeksthesameforms.Howshouldsomethingeternaland
invariableshowitselfasconstantlyvaried?Ihemomentofhighest
friendshipforyouandyourfriendtakestheformofakiss.Herethere
areonlydegrees,notdifferences.Thinkofamotherwhoseesherson
freedfromsomeprotracteddanger.Whatisthereatlasttorelieveher
overfull,longtormentedheartbutakiss?Whatremainstoa
marriedcoupleatapartingthatcanmeaneternalseparation?No
wordnoferventgazebutfromakissisbornthelastfarewell.
Agathon: Andarethererightsinlove?Aretheproprietaryrightsof
spouses,theauthorityofthemother,even,therightofafriendtofeel
jealousifthereissucharightarethesethingsgroundedin
marriage,motherhood,orfriendship,orinlove?
Vincent: Lovehasnoproprietaryrights.Whatstandswrittenisnot:
Youshallnotloveyourneighbor'swife.'But:Youshallnotcovet....
Marriageconfersrights;lovedoesnot.
Sophia: Whenthemothergivesorders,shedoessoasamother,notas
onewholoves.Shecanpunish,butnotbyrelinquishinglovehow
couldsheceasetolove!No,butbyshuttingherloveupwithinherself,
deprivingitofexpression,untilhersonhasagainbecomeworthyof
hismother.
Agathon: Andjealousy?Dowehavearighttoenvyothersthepres
ence,thepossessionofabelovedbeing?
Vincent: That'snotjealousy.Dropthejugly.word"envy"yes;andthen
wemayyearnforthenearnessofoneloveHthisisindeedpartofthe
Inngingwespokeof,thelongingforbodilynearness.Jealousyis

distrust.
Sophia: Here,Ibelieve,wemustfirstofallspeakofwhatisproperlythe
solerightoflove:expression.Thereisnolovethatwouldnotbe

constantlyimpelledtobecomevisible.Otherinfluencesmayforthe
momentactasJiindrancebutlovealwaysseeksto.revealitselftothe
beloved.
Agathon: OughtIsustainitinthisimpulse?Thequestionarisesasto
whetherIshouldn'tratherpreventitfromexpressingitself.Isntthere
adangerhereofoverindulgence?
Sophia: Ifyoudenyitthis,takefromititssoleright,thenitdies.
Vincent: Buthowcouldyou,Agathon,wanttokeepthisfromlove,
sinceyouyourselffeellove.Whatisittobeoverindulged?Itisno
longertotakesomethingpreciousforprecious.nolongertodesire
whatwasformerlydesired.Tothehungry,however,nofoodisboring.
Agathon: Butunrequitedloveshouldn'tonetondemnittosilence?
Vincent: Thereisunrequitedinfatuation,Agathon,butisthere

unrequitedlove?...
Sophia: And.Agathon,heretherecouldbejealousy:ifwestifled
expression.Thesilencethatisnotanimatedtheconstrained,
impressedsilenceengendersdistrust."Ifyoureallyloveme.open
yourarmsandyourheart!"...Buttheloverstandsthereobstinately,
withfoldedarms.Howshouldlovenotgoastrayinaweakperspn
whenitseesitssolerightunfulfilled!Wherewantonselfwillhas
takenthisrightfromit.trustbeginstowaver,andjealousyfirst
becomespossible.
Agathon: Takecare,Vincent,that,alongwiththerightnottodeclare
mylove,youdon'tdeprivemeofthepossibilityofwooing.Towhat
endwouldIthenwoo?InordertowinsomeonewhomIalready
possess,ofwhoseloveIamalreadysensible?
Vincent: Wooinghasinviewnotlovebutthedeclarationoflove.
Indeed,thereadinessfordeclaration.Inwooing,youstruggleagainst
twoadversariesoflove:indolenceanditsopposite,thefearof
overindulgence.
Agathon: Canonelovemany?
Vincent: Manyormorethanonewhat'sthedifferenceinthiscase.
WheredoIfind anylimitifthisdifferencenolongerobtains?You
maylovemanyInthemomentofdeclaration,however,youloveonly
one.
Agathon: Thismaybethereasonthatthereisnoloveinconversation.
WhenI'minlove,IthinkonlyofmyselfandtheoneIlove.In
conversationImustbeabletothinktheworld.

142

EARLYWRITINGS

ConversationonLove

143

Vincent: Sayinsteadof"whenI'minlove""whenIdeclaremylove,"

Symposium,ontheessentialonenessofallbeauty.BenjaminreferstoPlato's

andI'll.agreewithyou.Loveissomethingimrnanent;youlovethis
onetimeandalways'

dialogueonlove, associatingitwith Luke17:21, inaletterofSeptember15,

1913,toCarlaSeligson(CWB,54),quotedintheintroductiontothisvolume.
2."Charity"translates Nchstenlibe,literally,"love ofwhat isnearest,"

Agathon: Whatdoyoumeanby"always"?Thatloveiseternal?Orthat
it'snotpossiblesometimesnottolovesomeonewhomoneloves?

Sophia: Botharetrue,itseemstome.Loveisacontinuum.Idon't
alwayshavetothinkofmybeloved.ButwhenIthinkofhimthen
alwaysinlove.And:loveiseternal.Whatwouldbestrongenoughto
demolishitsbeing?

Agathon: WhatifIcametolovetwopeoplewhohatedeachother?
Sophia: Youcannevercometolovetwopeoplewhohateeachother.If
youlovethesepeople,thentheyloveyt)inreturn,andhatredwould
havetoyieldbeforethisonegreatthingtheyhaveincommon.Were
itnottoyield,thenlovewasnotanywherepresent.
Agathon: Andwhatifloveforathirdpersonfirstengenderedthishate?
Vincent: It'snotreallypossible,Agathon.Thatwouldn'treallybelove.
Love,afterall,engendersgoodness.Nothatredwhichisalways
somethingevildirectedagainstsomeonegood.

Sophia: Lovebetters.Whoeverpossesseslovemustbecomebetter.
Hereallareloversmothersandfriends.Fortheywishtoseethe
belovedprosper.
Agathon: Thenonlygoodpeoplecanlove,Sophia.

Sophia: Notsowhoisgood?Buttrulytheonlypeoplewhocanlove
arethosewhowanttobegood.

Agathon: Andalsowantthebelovedtobegood.
Vincent: It'sthesamething.

Notes
"GesprchberdieLiebe"(GS7,1519)waswrittenca.fall1913andpublished
posthumously.
1.Thethreespeakersusethe familiarmodeofaddress(du) withonean
other. Comingfrom theGreek, thename "Agathon"means "the virtuous
one"and"Sophia"means"wisdom."InPlato'sdialogueonlove.TheSympo
sium,thepoetAgathonis thehostofthephilosophical drinkingparty.So
phia'saffirmationofthe onenessofallloverecallsSocrates'position, inthe

"love ofone's neighbor."See "Dialogue onthe Religiosityof the Present"

(Chapter13inthisvolume)onNietzsche'sdistinctionbetweenNchstenliebe
andPernstenLiebe,"loveofwhatismostdistant."
3."LiebeisteinImmanentes,duliebsteinmalundimmer"

TheMetaphysicsofYouth 145

IL
Chapter26

TheMetaphysicsofYouth

THECONVERSATION
Whereareyou,Youth,thatalwayswakesme
Promptlyinthemorning?Whereareyou,Light?
HLDERLIN'

I.
Eachday,Hkesleepers,weuseunmeasuredenergies.Whatwedoand
thinkisfilledwiththebeingofourfathersandancestors.Anuncom
prehendedsymbolismunceremoniouslyenslavesus.Sometimes,on
awaking,werememberadream.Inthiswayrareflashesofinsightil
luminatetheruinsofourenergy,heapsofrubbletimehaspassedby
Wewereaccustomedtothespirit,aswearetotheheartbeatthaten
ablesustoliftloadsanddigest.
The'contentofeveryconversationis knowledgeofthepastasthat
ofouryouth, andhorror inconfrontingthe massiverubblefields of
thespirit.Wenever beforesawthesite ofthesilentstruggle waged
bythe"I"againstthefathers.Nowwecometoseewhatwe haveun
wittinglydestroyedandbroughttoanend.Theconversationlaments
lostgreatness.

144

Conversation gravitates toward silence, and the one who hears is

aboveallonewho issilent.Thespeakerreceivesmeaningfromhim;
thesilentone isthe unappropriatedsourceof meaning.To himthe
conversationliftswordsasvessels, jugs.Thespeakersinksthemem
oryofhisstrengthinwordsandseeksformsinwhichthelistenerre
veals himself For thespeaker speaks in order tobe converted.He
understandsthelistenerdespite hisownwords:understands thathe
addresses someone whose features'are indelibly serious and good,
whereashe,thespeaker,blasphemeslanguage.
Buteven ifheshould orgiasticallynlivenanempty past,thelis
tenerunderstandsnot wordsbut thesilenceof theone present.For
despitehisflightofspirit^ndtheemptinessofhiswords,thespeaker
ispresent;hisfaceisopentothelistener,andtheeflfortsmadebyhis
lips are visible. The listener holds the trueianguage in readiness;
wordsenterhim,andatthesametimeheseesthespeaker.
Whoverspeaksentersthelistener.Silenceisborn,then,fromthe
conversation itself Every great man has only one conversation, at
whoseedge thesilentgreatness waits.In thesilence,energywasre
newed:thelistenerledtheconversation totheedgeoflanguage,'and
thespeakercreatedthesilenceofanwlanguage,he,itsfirstauditor.

III.
Silenceistheinnerfrontierofconversation.Theunproductiveperson
nevergetstothefrontier;heregardshisconversationsasmonologues.
Fromconversationheturnsto6nterthediaryorthecaf.
Silence haslong reigned in the upholstered rooms. Here hecari
makesomenoise.Hegoesamongtheprostitutesandthewaiterslikea
preacheramong thefaithfulhe, theconvert of hislatest conversa
tion. Now heismaster of two'languages, question and answer. (A
questioneris'someonewhonevrinhisentirelifehasgivenathought
tolanguage,but nowwantstodo rightbyit. Aquestioner isaffable
towardgods.) Theunproductivepersonbreaking inon thesilence

146 EARLY WRITINGS

amidthosewho areactive,thinkersand womenasksaboutrevela

tion.At theend hefeels exalted, he remains unbowed.Hisflowing
wordsescapehim;helistens,enrptured,tohisvoice.He hears"nei
therspechnorsilence.
Buthesaveshimselfbyfleeingintotheerotic.Hisgazedeflowers.
Hewishes toseeand hearhimself^andfor thatreason hewishes to
gaincontrolofthosewhoseeandhear.Thereforehepromiseshimself
atidhisgreatness;heflees,speaking.Butalwayshesinks'down,anni
hilated,beforethehumanityoftheother; alwaysheremainsincom
prehensible.Andthegazeofthesilentpassesthroughhim,searching
outonewhowillcomeinsilence.
Greatnessistheeternalsilenceafterconversation.Itistotakethe
rhythmofone's ownwordsin theemptyspace.Ihegeniushasalto
gethercursedhismemoryingivingitshape.Heisforgetfulandata
loss.Hispasthasalreadybecomefateandcanneverberevived.Inthe
geniusGodspeaks,andlistenstothecontradictionoflanguage.
Tothechatterer,geniusseems anevasion ofgreatness. Artis the
bestremedyformisfortune.Theconversationofthegenius,however,
isprayer.Ashespeaks,thewordsfallfromhimlikecloaks.Thewords
ofthegeniusmakenaked,andarecoveringsinwhichthelistenerfeels
clothed.Whoeverlistensisthepastofthegreatspeaker,hisobjectand
hisdeadstrength.Thespeakinggeniusismoresilentthanthelistener,
justasonewhopraysismoresilentthanGod.

IV.
Thespeakerisalwayspossessedbythepresent.Thus,heiscondemned
nevertoutterthepast,whichisnonethelesswhathemeans.Andwhat
hesayshaslongsinceembracedthemutequestionof thesilentone,
andhergazeaskshim whenhewillcome totheend..Heshoulden
trusthimselftothelistener,sothatsljemaytakehisblasphemybythe
handandleadittotheabyssinwhichthespeaker'ssoullies,hispast,
thedeadeldtowhichhestrays.Buttheretheprostitutehaslongbeen
waiting.Foreverywomanpossessesthepastand,inanycase,hasno

TheMetaphysics,ofYouth

147

present. Therefore, she protects meaning from understanding; she

wardsoffthemisuseofwordsandrefusestoletherselfbemisused.^
Sheguardsthetreasureofdaily.life,butalsoofthenight,thehigh
estgood.'Therefore, theprostituteisa listener.Sherescuesthe con
versationfromtriviality;greatness hasnoclaim uponher,for great
nesscomestoan endinherpresence.Alreadyinherpresenceevery
manhood hashad itsday, andnow thestreamofwordsflows away
intohernights.Thepresentthathasbeeneternallywillagaincometo
be.'*Theotherconversationofsilenceisvoluptuousness.

y.
TheGenius: I'vecom,etoyouforarest.
TheProstitute: Sitdown,then.
TheGenius: I'dliketositdownwithyouItouchedyoujustnow,and
it'sasifIhadalreadybeenrestingforyears.
TheProstitute: Youmakemeuneasy.IfIweretolienexttoyou,I
wouldn'tbeabletosleep.
TheGenius: Everynightpeoplecometoyourroom.It'sasifI'd
receivedthemall,andthe/cigivenmeajoylesslookandgonetheir
way.
TheProstitute: Givemeyourhandyoursleepinghandmakesmefeel
thatyou'veforgottenallyourpoems.
TheGenius: I'monlythinkingofmymother.MayItellyouabouther?
Shegavebirthtome.Likeyou,shegavebirth:toahundreddead
poems.Likeyou,shedidn'tknowherchildren.Herchildrenhave
gonewhoringwithstrangers.
TheProstitute: Likemine.
TheGenius: Mymotheralwayslookedatme,askedmequestions,
wrotetome.ThroughherI'velearnednottoknowpeople.Iheyall,in
myeyes,becamemother.Allwomenhadgivenbirthtome;noman
had'engenderedme.
TheProstitute: Thisisthecomplaintofallthemenwhosleep,withme.
Whentheylookattheirlivesthroughmyeyes,theyappearto
themselvestobeuptotheirnecksinthickash.Nooneengendered
them,andtheycometomeinordernottoengender.

148 EARLY'WRITINGS

TheGenius: AllthewomenIgotoarelikeyou.Theygavebirthtome
andIwasstillborn,andtheywishtoreceivedeadthingsfromme.
TheProstitute: ButIamtheonewhohasleastfearofdeath.[Iheygoto
bed.]

TheMetaphysicsofyouth

149

ofwomenhasremainedinchoate.Talkingwomenarepossessedby
adementedlanguage. .

VIII.
VI.
Thewomanisguardianoftheconversations.Shereceivesthesilence,
andthe prostitutereceives thecreatorof whathas been.But noone
watchesoverthelamentwhenmenspeak.Theirtalkbecomesdespair;
itresounds inthe hollowspaceand, blaspheming,clutches,atgreat
ness.Two mentogether arealwaystroublemakers; theyfinish byre
sortingtotorch andaxe.Theynullify thewomanwith theirsmutty
jokes;theparadoxviolatesgreatness.Wordsofthesamegendercouple
andinflameeachotherwiththeirsecretattraction;asoullessambigu
ityarises,barelyconcealedbythe.relentlessdialectic.Laughing,reve
lation.standsbefore themand compelsthem tobe silent.The dirty
joketriumphstheworldwasbuiltofwords.
Nowtheyhaveto.riseandsmashtheirbooksandmakeoffwitha
woman,sinceotherwisetheywillsecretlystrangletheirsouls.

VII.
How did Sappho and her women friends talkamong themselves?^
How did women come to speak? For language stifles their soul.
Womenreceivenosoundsfromitandnosalvation.Wordswaftover
womenwhoaretogether, butthewaftingiscrudeandtoneless; they
lapseintoidlechatter.Yet theirsilencetowersabove theirtalk.Lan
guage does notconvey thesouls of women, because theyhave not
placedtheirtrustinit;theirpastisneverconcluded.Thewordsfum
blearoundthem,andakindofreadinessenablestheirquickresponse.
Butlanguage appearsto themonly inthe onewho speaks,the one
who,tortured,constrainsthebodiesofthewordsinwhichhehasre
producedthesilenceofthebeloved.Thewordsaremute.Thelanguage

HowdidSappho andher women friendstalk amongthemselves?

Languageisveiledlikethepast,futurallikesilence.Thespeakersum
monsthepastinit;veiledbylanguage,he receiveshiswomanlypast
inconversation.Butthewomen remainsilent.Whattheylistenfor
aretheunspokenwords.Theybringtheirbodiescloseandcaressone
another.Theirconversation,hasfre,editselffromthesubjectandfrom
language. Nonethelessit has markedout a terrain.For onlyamong
themiandbecau'setheyaretogether,hastheconversationitselfpassed
andcometorest.Now,finally,ithasattainedtoitself:ithasturnedto
greatnessbeneaththeirgaze,justaslifewasgreatnessbeforevaincon
versation.The silent Women arespeakers.ofwhat hasbeen spoken.
Theystep outof theciicle; theyalone recognizethe perfectionof
itsroundness.
Noneofthemcomplainwhen.theyarewithoneanother;theygaze
inwonderment.Theloveoftheirbodiesdoesnotprocreate,buttheir
loveis beautifulto see.Andtheyventure togaze atone another.It
makesthemcatch theirbreath,while thewordsfade awayin space.
Silenceandvoluptuousdelighteternallydivorcedinconversation
havebecomeone.Thesilenceoftheconversationswasfuturedelight;
delightwasbygone*silence.Amongthewomen,however,theconver
sationswere'lookedonfromthefrontierofsilentdelight.Therearose,
luminously, ihe youth of mysterious conversations. Essence was
radiant.
THEDIARY

Thenextplacemighthesonearathand
THatonecouldhearthecockscrowinginit,thedogsbarking;
Butthepeoplewouldgrowoldanddie
Withoutevenhavingbeenthere.
LAOTZU

ISO EARXYWRITINGS

TheMetaphysicsofYouth 151

I.

self,devouredbyyearningforitself,devoured bythewilltoyoutTi,
devouredbylust forpower overthe dcadestocome, devouredby
thelongingto^passcalmlythroughthedays,kindledtodarkfireby
thepleasuresofidlenesswhenthisselfneverthelesssawitselfcon
demnedtocalendartime,clocktime,andstockexchangetime,and
norayofanytimeofimmortalityfiltered downtoitthenitbegan
ofitselftoradiate.Itknew:Iammyselfray.Notthemurkyinward
nessoftheonewhoexperiences,whocallsme"I"andtormentsme
withhis intimacies,but rayof thatotherwhich seemedtooppress
meandwhich afterallI myselfam:rayx)f time.Trembling,n"I"
thatweknowonlyfrom ourdiariesstandsonthebrinkof theim
mortality into which it plunges. It is indeed time.In that self to
whicheventsoccur andwhich encountershumanbeingsfriends,
enemies,andloversin thatself coursesimmortal time.Thetime
ofitsown greatnesselapsesinit;itis time'sradiationand nothing
else.
This believer writeshis diary.And hewrites itat intervals^ and
willnevercompleteit,becausehewilldie.Whatistheintervalinthe
diary?It doesnot operatein developmentaltime,for thathas been
overcome.It does notoperate intimeat all,for timeis liquidated.
Insteaditisabooko/time:daybook,bookofdays.Thistransmitsthe
raysbfhisknowledgetljroughspace.Inthediarythereisnochainof
experiences,'for thenitwould be without interval. Instead timeis
overcome,and overcome,too,is theselfthat actsin time:Iam en
tirelytransposedintotime;itirradiatesme.Nothingfurthercanbe
fallthisself,thiscreationoftime.Everythingelsetowhichtimehap
pensyieldstoit.Fortoeverythingelseourself happensastime,the
"I"befallsallthingsinthediary,theyimpingeonthe"I"andlivein
it.But timenolonger happensto thisself,".to thebirthof immortal
time.Thetimelessbefallsit,allthingsaregatheredinit,arewithit.It
livesallpowerfulintheinterval;intheinterval(thediary'ssilence),
the"I"encounters itsown time,the pure'time.intheintervalitis
gathered to itself; no thingintrudes into itsimmortalbeingwith.
Hereitget'sthestrengthtobefall things,todrawtheintoitself,to
disregarditsown fate.The intervalissecure,and wherethere issi
lencenothingcanbefall.Nocatastrophefindsitswayintothelinesof

Wewish'to payheed tothe sourcesof theunnameble despairthat

flows'ineverysoul.Thesoulslistenexpectantlytothe'melodyoftheir
youth^ayouththatisguaranteedthemathousandfold.Butthemore
theyimmerse themselvesin theuncertaindecades and broach that
part of their youth which is most laden with future, the more or
phanedtheyareintheemptinessofthepresent.Onedaytheywaketo
despair:<hefirstdayofthediary.
Withhopelessseriousnessitposesthequestion:Inwhattimedoes
manlive?Thathelivesinno timeissomethingthinkeishavealways
known. The immortality of thoughts and deds banishes him to a
realmoftimelessnessatwhoseheartaninscrutabledeathliesinv\^it.
Throughouthislifetheemptiness.oftimesurrounds'him,butnotim
mortality.Devouredbythemanifld things,timeslippedawayfrom
him;thatmediuminwhichthepureinelodyofhisyouthwouldswell
was destroyed. The fulfilled tranquility'in whih his late maturity
wouldripenwasstolenfromhim.Itwaspurloinedbyeverydayreality,
whichin athousand ways,withevent, accident,and obligation,dis
ruptedyouthfultime,immortaltime,atwhichhedidnotguess.Lurk
ing even more menacingly behind the everyday was death. Now it
manifestsitselfinlittlethings,and killsdailysoastoletliveawhile
longerUntilonedaythegreatdeathfallsfromtheclouds,likeahand
thatnolongerletslive.Fromdaytoday,secondtosecond,the"I"pre
serves itself, clinging to theinstrumenttimeit was supposed to
play
Hewho thusdespairs recallshis childhood,when therewas still
time without.flight and an 'T" without death. He gazes down and
downintothecurrentwhencehehademergedandslowly,finally,re
demptivelyloseshisunderstanding.Inthemidstofsuchoblivionin
whichhenolongerknowswhat heintends,althoughhisintentionis
redeemedthediary begins:this unfathomablebook ofa life never
lived,bookofalife inwhose.timeeverythingweexperiencedinade
quatelyistransformedandperfected.
Thediaryisan actof liberation,secretand uncircumscribedin
itsvictory. No unfreespirit will understandthis book.When the

152 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

HieMetaphysicsofYouth 153

thisbook.Thatiswhywedonotbelieveinderivationsandsources;
wenever rememberwhatbefllsus.Time,whichradiatesastheself
.weare,befallsallthingsaroundusasouffate.Thattime,ouressence,
isthe'immortalityinwhichothersdie.Whatkillsthemletsusfeelin
death(thefinalinterval)essentiallyourselves.

withquestions,valleysenvelopuswithmist,unimaginablehousesop
pressuswiththeirshapes.We,theirmidpoint,befallthesethings.But
froniallthetimeinwhichwetremblethereremainstous,within,one
question:Arewetime?Pridetemptsustoanswer yesandthenthe
landscapewoulddisappear.Wewouldbecitizens.Butthespellofthe
bookbidsusbesilent.Theonlyansweristhatwetraceapath.Butas
wedo,thesamesurroundingssanctifyus.Withoutanswers,wedeter
minethingswiththemovementofourbodies,weformacenterand,
wandering,bringourselves farand near;wetherebysingleout trees
andfieldsfromtheir like,"flowover themwith thetimeof ourexis
tence,fieldand mountainswedetermine intheir arbitrariness:they
areourpastexistencesoprophesiedchildhood.Wearetheirfuture.
Inthe.nakednessoffuturity,thelandscapereceivesus,thegrownups.
Laid bare,it respondsto.theshudder oftemporality withwhich we
stormthelandscape.Hereweawakenandpartakeofthemorningre
pastofyouth.Thingsseeus;theirgazepropelsusintothefuture,since
wedonot givethem ananswer butstepamongthem. Aroundusis
landscapewherewerefusedthesummon^.Athousandjubilationsof
spirituality roared round thelandscapeso with asmile thediary
senta*singlethoughtintheirdirection.Permeatedbytime,theland
scapebreathesbeforeus,roused.Wearesafelyhiddenineachother,
thelandscapeandI.Weplungefromnakednesstonakedness.Gath
eredtogether,wecometoourselves.
Thelandscapesendsusthebeloved.Weencounternothingthatis
notinlandscape,andinitnothingbutfuture.Itknowsonlytheone
girlwhoisalreadywoman.Forsheentersthediarywiththehistoryof
herfuture. Wealreadydied once together.We alreadywere wholly
identicaloncewiththathistory.Ifwehavemetwithitindeath,then
itcomesto meetus inlife,countless times.From thevantage point
ofdeath,everygirlisthe belovedwoman whoalwaysencountersus
sleepers in the diary. And her awakening takes place at night
invisibletpthe'diary.Thisistheshapeofloveinthediary:weencoun
teritinthelandscape,beneathaverybrightsky.Passionhassleptits
fillbetweenus,andthewomanisagirl,sinceinheryouthfulnessshe
restoresourunspent time,whichshehas gatheredinherdeath.The

IL
Thebelovedofthelandscape,inclining,radiatesintime.
Buttheenemybroodsdarklyoverthecenter.
Hiswingsaresluggish.Theblackredeemerofthelands
Breathesouthiscrystal'No,anddecidesourdeath.

Onrareoccasionsthediaryemergeshesitantlyfrom theimmortal
ityof itsinterval andwrites itself.It rejoiceswithout asound and
ranges over the fatesthat lie within it clear and woven of time.
Thirstingfordefinition,thingsapproachit intheexpectationof re
ceivingfateatitshands.Theysendtheirmostpowerless toencoun
ter its sovereignty; what isleast determined in them cries out for
determination.Theydelimitthehumanessencethroughtheirques
tioningexistence and deepen time; and as timeitself happens to
thingsattheiroutermost,therevibrateswithinitaslightinsecurity,
which,questioning,givesanswerstothequestionsposed bythings.
Intheinterchangeofsuchvibrations,theselfhasitslife.Thisisthe
content of our diaries:our fate declaresits,faithin us because we
have longsince ceased to relate it to ourselveswe dead who are
resurrectedinwhathappenstous.
Thereis,however, aplace ofthose resurrectionsof theself,when
timesendsitforthineverwideningwkves.Thisisthelandscape.All
thathappens.surriDundsus as'landscape,for we,;thetime of things,
knownotime.Nothingbuttheleaningofthetrees,thehorizonand
thesharply etched mountain ridges, which suddenly awake full of
meaninginsofarastheypositionusin theirmidst,"atthecenter.The
landscape transports us into its midst, trembling treetops beset us

154

EARLYWRITINGS

plungingnakednessthatoverwhelmsusinthelandscapeisbalanced
bythenakedbeloved.
Whenourtimedroveusoutofthedistanceintothelandscapeand
ourbeloved strodetoward uson theprotected pathof thought,we
couldfeel time,which sentu forth,flooding backtoward us.This
rhythm of time,which returnshome to usfrom allcorners'of the
world,lullsustosleep.Anyonewhoreadsadiaryfallsasleepoverit
andfulfillswhatwasthefateofitswriter.Againandagainthediary
evokesthedeathofitswriter,ifonlyinthesleepofthe onereading:
ourdiaryknowsonlyonereader,andhebecomestheredeemerashe
ismasteredbythebook.Weourselvesarethe.reader,orourownen
emy.Hehasfound noentryintothekingdomthatflowered around
us.He is noneother thanthe banished,purified"I," dwellingin
visiblyattheunnameablemidpointoftimes.Hehasnotabandoned
himselftothestreamoffatethatflowedaroundus.Asthelandscape
roseuptowardus,strangelyanimatedbyus,asthebelovedflewpast
us,shewhomwehadoncewooed,thereinthemiddleofthestream
standsthe enemy, as upright asshe. But more powerful..Hesends
landscapeandbelovedtowardusandisthetirelessthinkerofthoughts
thatcopieonlyto us.Heencounters usin perfectclarity,and while
timeconcealsitselfinthemutemelodyoftheintervals,heisatwork.
Hesuddenlyrearsupinthe intervallikeafanfare,andsendsusto
wardadventure.Heismanifestationoftimenolessthanweare,but
isthemostpowerfulreflectorofourselves.Dazzlinguswiththeknowl
edgeofloveandthevisionofdistantlands,hereturns,burstinginon
us,incitingourimmortalitytoevermoredistantmissions.Heknows
theempires of thehundred deathsthat surroundtime, and would
drownthem inimmortality.Aftereverysight andeveryflight from
death,we returnhome toourselves asour enemy.The diarynever
speaksofanyotherenemy,sinceeveryenemypalesbeforetheenmity
of our illustriousknowledge, is incompetent compared to us, who
neverattainourtime,whoarealwayslaggingbehinditorpresump
tuouslyovershootingit.Alwayswageringourimmortalityandlosing
it.Thistheenemywellknows;heisthetireless,courageousconscience
thatpricksusand spursuson.Ourdiarywriteswhatitmust,while

TheMetaphysicsofYouth

155

heisactiveattheceriteroftheinterval.Inhishandrestthescalesof
ourtime andof immortaltime. When willthey balance?We shall
befallourselves.

III.
Thecowardiceofthe,living,whose"I"variouslyinhabitsallventures
andconstantlyhides itsfeaturesinthe garmentsofits dignitythis
cowardicemustultimatelybecomeunbearable.Foreverysfep'Wetook
intothe kingdomof fate,we keptlooking.backto seewhether we
trulywereevenwhenunobserved:sotheinfinitelyoffended,sovereign
Highnessinusfinallygrewweary;itturnedaway,fullofendlesscon
temptfortheselfithadbeengiven.Itmountedathroneintheimagi
naryandwaited.InTargelettersthestylusofitssleepingspiritwrote
thediary.
Thesebooksareconcerned,then,withtheaccessiontothethrone
ofonewhbabdicates.Hehasabdicatedfromtheexperienceofwhich
heholdshisselftobeneitherworthynorcapable,andfromwhichhe
ultimatelyretreats.Once upona timethethingsfell acrosshispath,
insteaddfcomingtomeet?him;fromallsidestheypressedononewho
continuallytookflight. Neverdid thenoblespirittastethe loveof
thesubordinate.Hecouldnotbesurethathe,too,wasmeantbythe
things."Doyoumean me?"heasked ofthevictory thatfell tohim.
"Doyoumeanme?"tothegirlwhonestledclosetohim.Thushetore
himselfaway from hisconsummation.He appearedas victorto the
victory,asbelovedtotheonewholoves.Butlovehadbefallenhimand
victoryhaddescendedonhimwhilehewassacrificingtothePenates
ofhisprivacy.Neverdidheencounterthe.fateheranpast.
Butwhen,inthediary,thesovereigntyof^he"I"withdrewandthe
ragingagainstwhat happensfellsilent, eventsshowedthemselves to
beundecided.Theevermoredistantvisibilityofthe"I,"whichrelates
nothingmoretoitself,weavestheevernearermythosofthings,which
stormon inbottomless attractionto the"I,"as restlessquestioning,
thirstingforresolution.

156 EARLY WRITINGS

Thenewstorm ragesin theagitatedself. Ifthe"I"issent outas

time, within it thingsstorm on, countering it in their distancing,
humblebearing,oncoursetowardthecenteroftheinterval,toward
thewomboftime,whencetheselfradiatesoutward.Andfateis:this
cpuntermovementofthingsinthetimeoftheself.Andthattimeof
theselfinwhichthingsbefallusthatisgreatness.Toitallfutureis
past.ThepastofthingsisthefutureofT'time.Butpast thingsbe
comefufural.Iheysendforththetime ofthe selfanewwhen they
haveenteredintothedistance,intotheinterval.Witheventsthedi
arywritesthehistoryofourfutureexistence.Andtherebyprophesies
tousourpastfate.Thediarywritesthehistoryofourgreatnessfrom
ourdeath onward.For once,the timeof thingsis overcomein the
timeof theself;fateisovercomeingreatness,and intervalsinthe
interval.Foronce,therejuvenatedenemyconfrontsusinhisinfinite
love,hewhohasconcentratedallourdazzledweaknessinhisstrength,
embeddedallournakednessinhisbodilessness,anddrownedoutall
oursilence withhis muteness, hewho bringsall thingshome and
putsanendtoallmenthegreatinterval.Death.Indeathwebefall
ourselves;ourdeadbeingreleasesitselffromthings.Andthetimeof
deathisourown.Redeemed,webecomeaware ofthefulfillmentof
thegame;thetimeofdeathwasthetimebfourdiary;deathwasthe
lastinterval,deaththefirstlovingenemy,death,whichbearsuswith
allour greatnessand thedestinies of our wide,plain into the un
nameablemidpointoftimes.Andwhichforasinglemomentgivesus
immortality.Manifoldandsimple,.thisisthe.contentofourdiaries.
Thesummonsouryouthproudlyrefusedtakesusbysurprise.Yetit
isnothingbutasummonstoimmortality.Weenterintothetimethat
wasin thediary,symbol of yearning,rite of purification.With us
thingssinktowardthecenter;withustheyawait thenewradiance.
Forthereisimmortalityonlyindeath,andtimerisesupattheendof
times.
IheBall

Forthesake ofwhat preludedowecheat ourselvesof ourdreams?

Withawaveof thehandwepush themaside,intothepillows,leave

TheMetaphysicsofYouth

157

them behind, whilesome of themflutter silentlyabout our raised

head.Howdawe.dare,onawakening,carrythemintothebrightness
ofday?Oh,'thebrightness!Allofuscarryaroundusinvisibledreams;
howdeeplyveiledthegirls'facesare;theireyesaresecludednests
of.theuncanny,'ofdreams,quiteinaccessible,luminousfromsheer
perfection.Themusicelevatesusalltothelevelofthatbrightstripof
lightyou surely know itthat shines from beneath the curtain
when the Violins tune up in an orchestra.The dance begins..Our
handsslideoff"oneanother;ourglancesmeet,laden,emptyingthem
selvesout andsmilingfrom theultiinate heaven.Outbodiesmake
carefulcontact;wedonotrouseoneanotherfromourdreams,orcall
oneanotherhomewardintothedarknessoutofthenighbofnight,
whichis notday. Howweloveoneanother!Howwe safeguardour
nakedness!Weall havebound itin gaycolors, masks,withholding
nakedness and promisingit. Inall ofus thereis something mon
stroustokeepquietabout.Butweflingourselvesintotherhythmof
theviolins;neverwas'anightmoreincorporeal,moreuncanny,more
chastethanthis.
Wherewestandalone,onacartloadoffanfares,aloneinthebright
nightof nightsHveconjured up,ourfleeing soulinvites awoman to
comeagirlwhpstandsinaremotesuiteofrooms.
Shecrossesthe parquetfloor thatlies sosmoothly between the
dancers,as though it reflected the music;for thissmoothfloor to
whichpeopledonotbelongcreatesspacefortheElysian,whichjoins
themanysolitudes*intoa round dance.^"$heicrossesand herstep
setsthepaCeforthedancers;shepressessometoleave,andtheyare
dashedtopicesonthetableswherethdinofthelonelyreigns,or
where'peoplearemaking theirwayas ifon tightropesthroughthe
night.
Whendidnightever'attainbrightnessandbecortieradiant,if not
here?Whenwastimeeverovercome?Whoknowswhomwewillmeet
atthishour? Otherwise(weretherean"otherwise"),wewould,quite
certainlybehere,butalreadyatan,end;otherwise,wewouldperhaps
bepouringoutthedregsoftheu$edupdayandtastingthenewone.
Butnowwe pourthefoamingdayoverintothe purplecrystalofthe
night;itcomesto'restandsparkles.

158

EARLYWRITINGS

The music transports our thoughts; our eyes reflectthe friends

around us, howall are moving,bathed in^night.We are trulyin a
housewithoutwindows,a roomwithout world.Flightsof stairslead
upanddown, marble.Here,timeiscaptured.Onlynowandagain it
resists,quickens itswearybreathinus, andmakesus restless.But.a
word,spokenintothenight',summonssomeoneto us;wewalkto
gether,themusicwasalreadysuperfluousand,yes,wecouldlietogether
inthedark,althoughoureyeswouldflashlikeadrawnswordbetween
people.Around thishouse, weknow, arefluttering allthe merciless
realitiesthathavebeenexpelled.Thepoetswiththeirbittersmiles,the
saintsand the policemen and thewaiting cars.From timeto time,
musicpenetratestotheoutsideandsubmergesthem.

Notes
"MetaphysikderJugend" (GS2,91104) waswritten in19131914andpub
lishedposthumously.TranslatedbyRodneyLivingstone.
3I
1. ""Wo bistdu. Jugendliches!das immermich/ Zur Stunde wecktdes
Morgens,wobistdu,Licht?"ThesearethefirsttwolinesofFriedrichHlder
lin'spoem"DerblindeSnger"(TheBlindSinger;ca.1800).Benjamin'ssec
tiontitle,"The Conversation"(DasGesprch),recalls aprominent Holer
linianmotif.
2.AletterofJune23,1913,fromBenjamintoHerbertBelmore,hasdirect
bearingonthe themesof "prostitute"and"woman" in"The Metaphysicsof
Youth"(whichwasprobablybegunthatsummer)andmayb6,quotedatlength:
"YoushouldunderstandthatIconsiderthetypes.'man'and'woman'assome
whatprimitiveinthethoughtofacivilizedhumanity.,..Europeconsists.of
individuals(inwhomthereare bothmasculineandfeminineelements),not
ofmenandwomen
Whatdowereallyknowofwoman?Aslittleaswedo
ofyouth.Wehaveneveryetexperienceda femaleculture [KulturderFrau],
anymorethanwehaveeverknownayouthculture
Toyou,prostituteis
somekindofbeautifulobject.You respectherasyou dotheMona Lisa
ButinSdoing,youthinknothingofdeprivingthousandsofwomerioftheir
soulsandrelegatingthemtoanexistenceinan artgallery.As if>weconsort
withthersoartistically!Arewebeinghonestwhenwecallprostitution'po
etic'?Iprotest inthenameofpoetry....Truly,ifwewishtoreservetoour

TheMetaphysicsofYouth

159

selves thiskind of private personal dignity, we will never understand the

prostituite.Butifwefeelthatallourhumanityisasacrificetothespirit,andif
we tolerate noprivate feelings, noprivate will and intellectthenwe will
honortheprostitute.Shewillbewhatweare....Theprostituterepresentsthe
consummatedwilltoculture.Iwrote:shedrivesnaturefromitslastsanctu
ary,sexuality.Forthetimebeing,let'ssaynothingaboutthespiritualization
ofsexuality.Thispreciousiteminthemasculineinventory.Andwespeakof
thesexualizationofthespirit:thisisthemorality [Sittlichkeit]oftheprosti
tute.SherepresentsinErosculture;Eros,whoisthemostpowerfulindi
vidualist,themosthostileto'cultureevenhecanbeperverted;evenhecan
serveculture"(CWB,3436).SeealsosectionIIof"Socrates"(Chapter36in
thisvolume).
3.ThereisanuntranslatableplayonwordsintheGermanhere:sheguards
thetreasure ofAlltglichkeit ("everydayness"), butshe alsoguards theAll
nchtlichkeit(whichBenjamincoinsonthemodeloftheprecedingterm).
4."DieewiggeweseneGegenwartwirdwiederwerden."
5.SapphowasaGreeklyricpoetwhosework,ofwhichonlyoneodeanda
fewfragments survive,was knownand greatlyadmired throughoutantiq
uity.ShewasbornontheislandofLesbostowardtheendoftheseventhcen
turyB.c.,butlittleisknownofherlifeorhercircleoffemalefriends.
6.3enjaipinquotesfroma1911Germantranslationofthefoundingtext
of Chinese Taoism, the TaoTeChing, whose reputed author, Laotzu (an
honorificmeaning"Old Master"),is saidtohave livedinthesixth century
B.c.Wehave usedthetranslationby ArthurWaley, TheWayand ItsPower
(London:AllenandUnwin,1936),241242.
7."Underschreibtes inAbstnden..."Thereadershouldkeepinmind
throughout"The Diary"that Abstand canmean both"interval"and "dis
tance."Benjamingenerallydrawsonbothsensesofthetermsimultaneously
inordertodesignateastructural featureatoncespatialand temporalof
whathecallsthediary(Tagebuch).
8. The essay's third section,"Der Ball," is dated"January 1914" in the
handwrittencopymade byGershomScholem; themanuscript oftheother
twosections,whichlikewiseexistsonlyinthecopymadein1918byScholem,
is undated. Scholem refers tothe manuscript of the essayas "unfinished"
(unvollendet) in his memoir, Walter Benjamin: The Story of a Friendship,
trans.HarryZohn(NewYork:Schocken,1981),59.AndinaletterofJuly'67,
1914,toHerbertBelmore,Benjaminhimselfremarksoftheessay,"Myseries

[Zyklus,literally'cycle']needs tobecompleted" (CWB,71). Henonetheless

considereditsufficientlycompletetobecopiedandcirculatedamongsomeof

i6o E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

hisfriends,andhe mayalsohavetried aroundthistimeto getit published

(seeCWB,68).
9.Anotherplayonwords:"heimlicheNesterderUnheimlichen."
10.In Greekmythology, theElysian Fieldswas theabodeof|heblessed
afterdeath.

Chapter27

StudentAuthors'Evenings

hateverapathy,mentalvacuity,inadequacyisinherentinstu
dentsocietynoonedoubtsthatitwillbetrayitselfinart.It
isofthisbetrayalthatIwishtospeak.'Myremarkshavereferenceto
the unforgettablecatastrophe of theauthors' eveningheld oneyear
ago,andtheyconcern,aswell,myviewofstudentsandart.
I shall contrast the student authors' evening with one of those
"readingsfrom theauthor's ownworks" thatareheldin thepublic
housesofgreater Berlin.A payingpublichasgatheredthecurious,
theuncertain,along withholdersof freeticketsmost ofthegroup
simplyoutforpleasure.Moneyhasbroughtthemtogether;whetheror
notintellectandspiritwillbesummoned,atleast fromtheranksof
thepublic, isnot theissue.The crowdapplauds; theindividualmay
listenattentively.Italldepends'onthespiritoftheauthor;ifheorshe
isadilettanteand^wants.toarouseinterestoreventoentertain,then
everythingisinorderandartdoesnotenterthepicture.Perhapsheis
apoet.Inthatcase,hisreadingwillbeovertheheadsofthoseassem
bled;togetherwithhisarthewillbe"carriedaway."Theraptureofthe
individualfollows him.Here,the crowdhas nothingtodo withart
andartnothingtodo withthcrowd.'Moneyactsasadisinfectant.

i6i

162

EARLYWRITINGS

Thespirit entersasan individualinto theplaces ofpublic artistry,

andwhoeversitsalongsidehashadtopay.
Thehygienicprocessthatclearsartfromourtheaters,lectureeve
nings,concertsistheignofa terriblepoverty.Thesayingstillholds
true:poorbutclean.
Suchahygieneofpovertyhasnoplaceinthestudentauthors'eve
ning,andthatistheleastonecansayforthelatter(sincehereartcan
stillflee With its adherents by untrodden ways). Heathenism, self
satisfledestrangement fromart cannotbe forgivenin theacademic
community.Thoughtlessnessisasin.Dailycontactwiththeintellec
tualandspiritualdeprivesoneoftherighttoappearbeforeartinthe
mannerofpayingcitizens.
Inotherwords,astudentauthors'eveningcannotdetermineatwill
thedegreeofitsspirituality.Fromtheoutsetitstandsunderalaw,one
prescribedbyart:tocometogether,inthe presenceofart,asacom
munity.Itisnotmoneythatbreedscommunity.
Weshouldtakethisinescapableconclusionseriously.Forastudent
authors'evening,onlyoneof thetwopossibilities canserve.It pre
supposescommunitythatofstudentsandit cannotdowithoutit.
Hence, a student authors' evening means:an evening in which the
communalspiritofthestudentscomestotermswithart.Andwiththis
therelationbetweenauthorandpublicistransformed.^Incontrastto
what goes on in the publiclecture hall, which bears no communal
name,thepublicnowbecomesimportant.Bythesametoken,theau
thornolongerstandsindifferently.overthepublic,inthenameofart,
muchlessinthemidstofanindiscriminatepublicunitedby nothing
morethanmutualinsipidity.
Rather,,it is art itself,that binds author to public. This will to
artconstitutestheauthors'evening.Preciousindeterminacyinjudg
mentsaboutart disappears.Thepublic doesnotexpecttheenlight
enedpoetwhat wouldsuch agure haveto dowith studentsand
authors?The publicmakes nosortof fuss,being greedyneither for
experiencenor forliterature;,butit waitsin expectationof itself,of
thedilettante,whichithears professingitsfaithinart.'Inthisway,'
theaim of an education in art,and therfore of a studentliterary
group,attains its broadest determination.'*Cultivation of thedilet

StudentAuthors'Evenings

163

tante,cultivationof the public.Now thedilettante isennobled not

through artin regard to which he bears the stigma of the non
expert,thedabblerbut throughstriving. Itis nodoubt possibleto
attestthe seriousnessand absolutenessof creationevenoutside the
sphereofgreat art,tosteeloneself therebytorecognize genius,and
for this task the dilettante is suited. He appears with thestudent
body's profession of faith.The sorryabsolutism, this primitive ac
costingofartandfumblingaroundinit,hebringstoahalt.sHewill
beanimitator,willlearnthecraftfromthebottom up.He,willseri
ouslyschoolhimself ina particularartisticmovement ortendency,
onethatmorecompellinglythanothersspeakstohisfeeling,forlife
andhisinclinations.Byitslighthewillstudyandwork;hewillthink
withitandpropagateit.The dilettantewilllearnhiswayaroundan
areafrom which,as anadept,he canturn receptivelytoward other
fields.He willthus educatethe publicby fosteringinsight intothe
diligentcitizenlysideof genius.Intothegenius itselfof geniusthey
cannotandneednotbeintroduced.^
Thisisthesensein whichwemay understandstudentauthorship
andconceiveofastudentpublic.Thelattermustbeunitedinitsrejec
tionof popularsentiment,itsrepudiationof allthemiserableimme
diaciesbornofpersonalnaivet.Itmustbereadyfor,thevisionofthe
nw,unprecedented, revolutionarythat gripsthosein itsowji ranks
whoareproductive.Itmustbeunitedinitsrejection,firmly resolved
initsdenial,of unproblematicclassicismandflawlessversifying.The
oneinwhom thetroopofdilettanteswill initiallyhavetoprofessits
faithisthemanofletters.Hegoesinadvancelikealegionnaire,cov
eredwith thedust andgrime of a higherservice thathe believesin
withoutunderstanding. Hehas longsince forgotten themanners of
hisupbringing.Hehas recognizedartisticconventionin itscoward
ice.Hehas nothesitatedtoput hisowninoffensive privateexistence
ontheoffensive inpubliccontroversy.Obsessed.withalltheexigen
ciesofthe presenttimeandknowingthe inexorabilityofart,hehas
devotedhimselftotheserviceofgenius,sparingitfatal,contactwith
thepublic.
Abouttheethicof theartistwemaysaythatitissubmergedinhis
workinwaysthatarescarcelyfathomable.Itismanifestinhisgreatness

64

EARLYW R I T I N G S

asanartist.Fortheworkgivestheartisttherighttospeak.Thisisnot
thecasewiththedilettante.Hispersonality,hisseriousness,hisethical
puritymustvouchforwhatheundertakestopresentartistically.Hence,
theseundertakingsarenottoberegardedasart,asrevelation.Theyare
testimoniestothehumanstruggleofonewho,fromoutofthedepths,
pointstoward thosewhohave foundforms.To theseformsthedilet
tantesubmits.Heincarnatesthehumanconditioningofart,itsrooted
nessinitsowntime,itsimmanenttendency.Aseducator,hewillshow
othersthewayleadingfrom theirhuman conditioning,their ethical'
orientation,toartandthenewgenius.Thiswaycanbeseenonlyinsofar
ashumanityitselfwhichissimultaneouslyboundandunboundbythe
formsiscontinuallyrediscovered,isseeneveranew.Thedilettanteis
properlytheonetoeducateothersinthisseeing.Andthemanofletters
ofwhomwe'vespokenisnothingotherthanthehighestandpurestde
velopmentOfthisdilettante.
Iconclude:Astudentauthors'eveningoughttoprovideaforumfor
peoplewhoseethicalpersonalityisadrivingforce.Onlythenwillthe
publicknowwhatstudentauthor,studentpublicreallymeans.Butit
appearsimpossibletolistentopoemsbypeoplewhoknownothingof
artisticseriousness,whosefeelingforthetragicremainsproblematic,
whoseknowledgeoftheirowntimeislacking.Impossibletoheartalk
ofincontrovertiblefeelingsfromthosewhoareknownonlyfortheir
busyindustry.Impossiblealsotoseeuncertaintalentsindulgingtheir
ownpropensities.Whatispossibleisonly:tolistentosomeonewhose
ethicalbeingsurrndersitselftoartsoastohaveapresentimentofit.
Whoseincapacityisennobledthroughthepersonaltravailthatbinds
himtotheembattledartofhis.day.Whoseworkbearswitnesstothe
struggleofoneinwhomformhasnotyettriumphed.
Allthe leadersof thestudentbody shouldat somepoint inthe
yeargiveapublicreadingofoneoftheirworks.Aselectionofworks
producedand,Ifear,amorerigorousselectionofthetrueleaders
willthen bepossible. For justas truedilettantismpresupposesthe
ethicalhumanbeing,soculturealsodemandsfrom preciselythese
ethicalbeings,as aduty,service inthe presentdaystruggleofart:
dilettantism.^

StudentAuthors'Evenings

165

Notes
"Studentische Autorenabende" (GS2, 6871) was publishedin Der Student
(journaloftheBerlinIndependentStudents'Association),January1914.
1. Intheoriginal journalpublication ofthisaddress, aprefatory notice,
signed"IheEditorsof DerStudent," reads:"Theseremarks wereto bepre
sentedat thestudentauthors' eveningofDecember 16, 1913.Theywere re
jectedbyamajorityofthejuryforfundamentalreasons."Itisevidentlythis
particular authors' evening that Benjamin critiques in"Erotic Education"
(Chapter28inthisvolume).
2.Publikummeansboth"public"and"audience."
3."DasPublikum...istinErwartung seinerselbst,des Dilettanten,den
eszurKunstsichbekennenhrt."Iheterm"dilettante"comesfromtheItaU
ianandmeans originally"loverof thearts." Benjaminuses itinthissense
hereandinsection5ofhis1935essay"JohannJakobBachofen"(SW3.15),an
essaywritten inFrench. Seealso GS2, 968, on Bachofens dilettantisme
lev"(lofty"dilettantism").
4."Educationinart"translatesKunsterziehung,acentralterminthethe
oryo^educationfgrpujatedbyBenjamin'smentor,GustavWyneken.

5.,Bpnjamin,distinguishesbetweendie arbeitsameBrgerlichkeit desGe

niusinddasGenialedesGenius.
6."ErverkrpertdasMenschlichBedingtederKunst,ihrZeitgeborenes,
ihreimmanenteTendenz."
7."Struggleofart"trarislatesKunstkampf.

EroticEducation 167

Chapter28

EroticEducation

A single author pointed the wayforwardA. E. Gntherwith

resolute,carefully orientedsketchesthat werefull of ideas.Another
maintainedrespectableneutrality:ErichKrauss.^
Butsolongas thestudentscontinuetosaturatetheir poetrywith
familyfeelingin thisway,nd dnot dareto seeSpiritually whatis
actuallybeforethem,namely,theeroticsoftheprostitute(whichthey
turnintoacharminglittledally)solongasthiscontinues,theywill
remainimmuredindankandmustyrelationshippoetryandnothing
theyproducewillhaveformorvision.

Notes
"Erotische Erziehung" (GS2, 7172) was published, under the pseudonym
"Ardor,"inDieAktion,January17,1914.

OntheoccasionofthelastStudentAuthorsEveninginBerlin
Moreimportantthantheplatitudeaboutalackoferotic'cultureisthe
factof thetwofold eroticunctilture [Unkultur]:of thefamilial andof
prostitution.'Invaintheattempttofusethesetwoformsofspiritless
nessintheglorioleofyouthfulphilistinism:inth"relationship."What
weheardwasessentiallyrelationshippoetry.Thatistosay:modernex
pressionssettorhythmsreminiscentofGeibel.^Or,intermsof'content:
pangroticexcesseswithfamilialreserve.OneconjuredupByzantine
Romanticnames,such as"Theodora,"andcandiedthem withsugary
lovepoetry.AnothersanghymnstoOrpheusinordertoconcealpoetic
blindnessunderthemantleofGreekcultureandalludewithimpunity
toseaandlove.Someonesetasceneofprovocativeinanitybybringing
arapeintoaRomanarena.Theclassicalbackdropistheearmarkoffe
milialdocility,andontheprogramwerepoemsthatcouldbepresented,
ifnottoanyfather,thencertainlytoanyuncle.
Inadditionitshouldnotgounmentionedtherewerefossilspre
servedfromthepurelyfamilialepoch,andnodoubtitwasinteresting
tolearnoftheirsurvival.Such thingsasYouth:ASketch Alfresco,in
whichtheeroticisusheredintothecozyhomeplace,andthesonloves
the"goodwife"ofhisfather.
166

1.ThisshortpiecepresumablyreferstothestudentreadingsofDecember
16, 1913, the jury for whichrejected Benjamin's article"Student Authors'
Evenings"(Chapter27inthisvolume)."Eroticeducation"waspartofthere
formprogramofBenjamin'sm'entqr,GustavWyneken;see"TheFreeSchool
Community"(Chapter8inthisvolume)onthequestionofcoeducation.
2.Emanuel Geibel(18151884) wasa popularlyricpoet andplaywright,
thecenterofaliterarycircleinMunichcallingitselfDieKrokodile(TheCroc
odileSociety), whichwas concernedwith traditional forms."Reltionship
poetry"translatesVerhltnispoesie.
3.Nothingfurtherisknownofthesetwostudentauthors.

TheReligiousPositionoftheNewYouth

Chapter29

TheReligiousPositionofthe
NewYouth

hemovementofawakeningyouthshowsthedirectionofthatin
finitelydistantpointatwhichweknowreUgion.Andmovementin
generalisforusthedeepestguaranteeofitsproperdirection.Theyouth
nowawakeninginGermanyisequallyfar removedfrom allreligions
andallideologicalalliances.Itoccupiesnoreligiouspositioneither.But
itmeanssmethingforreligion,andreligionbegins tobemeaningful
foritinanentirelynewsense.Youthstandsinthecenter,wherethenew
comesintobeing.ItsneedisthegreatestandGod'shelpnearestit.
Nowheresomuchasintheyouthcanreligiontakeholdofthecom
munity,and nowhereelse canthe impulse toward religion bemore
concrete,moreinwardandpervading.Fortheeducationalpathwayof
theyounggenerationisaimlesswithoutit.Itremainsemptyandan
guishedwrithoutthesitewhereitdividesinthedecidingeitheror.This
sitemustbecommontoanentiregeneration:itiswherethetempleof
itsgodstands.
Thereligiouslongingoftheoldergenerationcametothisplacelate
andinanisolatedmanner.It wasadecisiontakeninhiding,atone's
ownparticularcrossroads,nottheoneandonly.Thedecisioncarried
noguaranteeinitself;itwaslackinginreligiousobjectivity.Ithasal
waysbeenthuswiththesolitaryindividualvisvisreligion.
jtfS

169

Andnowthereisayoungergenerationthatisasonewithreligion;
religionisitsbody,throughwhichitsuffersitsownneedsandpriva
tions.Ageneration would onceagain stand atthe crossroads, but the
crossroadsisnowheretobefound.Theyouthhavealwayshadtochoose,
buttheobjectsoftheirchoiceusedtobewelldefined.Thenewyouth
standsbefore achaos inwhich theobjects of itschoice(thesacred
ones)disappear.No"pure"and"impurej sacred and taboo, light
itsway,'butonlyschoolmasterwords,"permittedprohibited."Thatit
feelslonelyandatalosstestifiestoitsreligiousseriousness,speaksfor
thefactthat,toitswayofthinking,religionnolongersignifiessome
formofspiritoratraversableroadthatcrossesthepathofthousands
andthatit,too,couldtraveleveryday.Rather,itcravesnothingmore
urgentlythanthechoice,thepossibilityof choice,ofsacreddecision
ingeneral.Thechoiceitselfcreatesitsobjectsthisisitsknowledge.It
isknowledgeinimmediateproximitytoreligion.
Theyouththatprofessesfaithinitselfsignifiesreligion,whichdoes
notyetexist.Surroundedbythechaosofthingsandpersons,noneof
whomaresanctified,nonetabooed,itcallsoutforchoice.Anditwill
notbeabletochoosewithutmostseriousness^untilbysom&gracethe
holyand unholyhave been newlycreated.' Itis confidentthat the
sacredandthe accursedreveal themselvesat themoment whenits
collectivewilltochoicehasreachedmaximumintensity.
Butmeanwhileitlivesascarcelycomprehensiblelife,fullofdevo
tionandmistrust,admirationandskepticism,selfsacrificeandself
interest.Thislifeisitsvirtue.Itmaydismissnoobject,noperson,for
ineach(in theadvertisingkioskandin thecriminal)thesymbolor
thesacredcanarise.Andyetitcannotentirelyentrustitselftoany
one,canneverquiterediscoveritsinnerworldintheheroithonorsor
thegirlitloves.Fortherelationofthehegroandofthebelovedtothe
ultimateandessentialtothesacredisdarkanduncertain.Asun
certainasourownI,whichwehavenotyetfoundinthechoosing.It
wouldseem thatthis youthshares manytraitswith the,firstChris
tians,towhomtheworldlikewiseappearedtobesoutterlyoverflow
ingwith thesacredwhich couldarise ineach andall thatit de
privedthemofthepowertospeakandact.Thedoctrineofnonaction
issomething close tothis youth.^Andyet itsboundless skepticism

170 EARLY WRITINGS

(whichIS nothingotherthan boundlesstrust) compelsit tolovethe

struggle.Godcanariseinstruggle,too.Tostruggleisnottocondemn
heenemy.ButthestrugglesofyoutharejudgmentsofGod.Struggles
in which thisyouth isequally preparedto triumphand tobe over
come.Becauseallthat mattersisthatfromthesestrugglesthefigure
o thesacredrevealitselfMoreover,thisstrugglingkeepsitawyfrom
mysticism,whichwouldmerelysimulateredemptionfor theindivid
ualsolongasthereligiouscommunitydoesnotyetexist.Youthknows
thatstrugglingdoesnotmeanhating,andthat itisasign ofitsown
imperfectionifItstillencountersopposingforces,ifithasnotyetin
usedallwithyouth.Inthestruggle,invictoryasindefeat,itaimsto
find Itself, choosing between thesacred and the unconsecrated. It
understandsthat in thismoment itwill nolonger knowan enemy
withoutintheprocessbecomingquietistic.'
Butitwilldawnslowlyonpeopletodaythatsuchayouthisnoob
jectforculturaldebates,disciplinarymeasures,orbaitingbythepress.
AgainstItsenemyitfightsfnacloakofinvisibility.Whoeverstruggles
againstitcannotknowit.Butthisyouthwillnonethelessennobleits
tinallypowerlessadversarywithhistory.

Notes
"DasreligiseStellungderiieuenJugend(GS2,7274)waspublishedinD/.

Tat.SoztalrebgtoseMonatsschriftfrdeutscheKultur,May1914.
hJ'u^
"
Unheiligeneugeschaffen
hat literallymeans untilgracehasnewlycreatedtheholyandunholy."
rhr',

paragraph.Benjaminreferstotheheretical

the^nvM I f
F Vietism,"whichenjoinedthe absorptionof
theindividualwillincontemplation.
3. Compare theconcept of"enemy"developed inthe lastparagraph of
volum")

ofYouth"(Chapter26intfiis

Chapter30

TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderhn:
"ThePoet'sCourage"and
"Timidity"

hetaskofthefollowingstudycannotbeclassifiedundertheaes
theticsofpoetrywithoutfurtherexplanation.Thisdiscipline,as
pureaesthetics,hasdevoteditsbestenergiestoexploringthefounda
tion of individualgenres of poetryamong them, mostfrequently,
tragedy.Commentaryhasbeendevotedalmostexclusivelytothegreat
worksoftheclassicalperiod;acommentaryonaworkoutsideclassi
cal drama tended tobe philological rather than aesthetic.Here, an
aestheticcommentaryontwolyricpoemsshallbeattempted,andthis
intentionrequiresseveralpreliminaryremarksonmethod.'Theinner
form,whichGoethecharacterized ascontent,shallbe demonstrated
inthesepoems.^Thepoetictask,aspreconditionforanevaluationof
thepoem,istobeestablished.Theevaluationcannotbeguidedbythe
waythepoet hasfulfilledhis task;rather,theseriousness andgreat
nssofthetaskitselfdeterminetheevaluation.Forthistaskisderived
fromthepoemitself.Thetaskisalsotobeunderstoodastheprecon
dition of the poem, as the intellectualperceptual structure of that
worldtowhichthepoembearswitness.^Thistask,'thisprecondition,
isunderstoodhereastheultimatebasisaccessibletoanalysis.Nothing
willbesaid aboutthe process.oflyricalcomposition, nothingabout
theperson or world view of the creator; rather, theparticular and
m

172

EARLYWRITINGS

uniquesphereinwhichthetaskandpreconditionofthepoemliewill
be'addressed.Thissphereisatonceproductandsubjectoftheinvesti
gation.Ititselfcannolongerbecomparedwiththepoerri;itis,rather,
thesedethinginthisinvestigationthatcanbeascertained.Thissphere,
whichisconfigureddifferentlyineachpoeticwork,willbetermedthe
poetized.^Initwillberevealedthatpeculiardomainthatcontainsthe
truthofthepoem.ThiS"truth,"whichpreciselythemostseriousart
istssoinsistentlyclaimfortheircreations,istobeunderstoodaSthe
objectivityoftheircreativeprocedure,asthefulfillmentoftheartistic
tskineachcase."Everyworkofarthasanaprioriideal,anecessityin
itselftoexist"(Novalis).^Initsgeneralform,thepoetizedisthesyn
theticunityoftheintellectualandperceptualorders.Thisunitygains
itsparticularconfigurationasinnerformoftheparticularcreation.
Theconceptofthepoetizedisintworespectsalimitconcept.Itis
firstofallalimitconceptwithrespecttotheconceptofthepoem.As
acategoryof aestheticresearch, thepoetizeddiffers decisivelyfrom
theformcontentschema,insofarasitpreserveswithinitselfthefun
damentalaestheticunityofformandcontentand,insteadofseparat
ingthem,bearstheimpressoftheirnecessaryimmanentconnection.
Sincewhat followsconcerns thepoetized of individualpoems, this
cannotbeadducedtheoreticallybutonlyintheindividualcase.Nei
ther is this.the place for a theoretical critique of the formcontent
concept,relativetoitsaestheticsignificance.Intheunityofformahd
content,therefore,thepoetizedsharesoneofitsmostessentialchar
acteristicswiththepoemitself.Ttisitselfconstructedaccordingtothe
fundamentallawofartisticorganism. Fromthe poemit differsasa
limitconcept,astheconceptofitstask,notabsolutelyandnotinVir
tueofanyoperativeprinciplebutsolelythroughitsgreaterdetermin
ability;notthrougha quantitativelackof determinationsbut rther
throughthepotentialexistenceofthdsethatareffectivelypresentin
the poemandothers. The poetized isa.looseningup of thefirm
functionalcoherencethatreigfasinthepoemitself,anditcannotarise
otherwisethabydisregarding certain determinations,so that the
meshing,thefunctionalunityoftheotherelementsismadeevident.
Forthepoemissodeterminedthroughtheeffectiveexistenceofallits
definingfeatures,thatitcanbeapprehendedinaunifiedwayonlyas

TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin

173

such.Insightintothefunction,ontheotherhand,presupposesavari
etyofpossibleconnections.Thus,insightintotheorganizationofthe
poemconsistsingraspingitseverstricterdetermination.Inorderto
leadtothishighestdegreeofdeterminationinthepoem,thepoetized
mustdisregardcertaindeterminatio^is.
Throughthisrelationtothefunctionalunityofthepom,unityat
onceperceptualandintellectualincharacter^thepoetizedemergesas
alimitdetermination'with respect to,thepoem. At thesame time,
however,itisalimitconceptwithrespecttoanotherfunctionalunity,
sincealimitconceptispossibleonjyasalimit,aboundary,between
twoconcepts.Thisotherfunctionalunity,now,istheideaofthetask,
correspondingtotheideaof thesolutionas which thepoem exists.
(Fortaskandsolutioncanbe^separated.onlyintheabstract.)For the
creator,thisideaofthetaskisalwayslife.Itisinlifethattheotherex
tremefunctionalunityisfound.Thepoetizedthusemergesastransi
tionfromthefunctionalunityoflifetothatoftheppeni.Inthepoet
ized,life determinesitself throughthe poem, thetask through the
solution.Whatisfundam^talisnottheindividuallifemoodofthe
artistbut rather alifeontext determinedby art.Thecategories in
.whichthissphere,thetransitionalsphereofthetwo functionaluni
ties,canbegrasped havenot.yet beendeveloped.andmaybeassoci
atedmostreadilyperhapswiththeconceptsofmyth.Itispreciselythe
feeblest artisticachievements that refer to the.immediatefeeling of
life,whereasthestrongest,withxespecttotheirtruth,refertoasphere
akintothemythic:thepoetized.Onecouldsaythatlifeis,ingeneral,
the^poetizedofpoems.Yetthe'morethepoettries,withouttransfor
mation;toconvferjttheunityoflifeintoaunityof.art,theplaineritis
thatheis a bungler.W are usediofinding suchshoddy workde
fended,evendenlanded,as"theimmediatesensationoflife,""warmth
of,heart,""sensibility." The significant example of Hlderlin shows
dearlyhowthepoetized,affordsthepossibilityofjudging poetryac
cordingtothedegreeofcoherenceandgreatnessofitseleitents.The
twoixharacteristicsare inseparable. For the more a,,lax.diffusion of
feelingreplacestheinnergreatnessandconfigurationoftheelements
(whichwe term,approximately,"mythic"), themore meagertheco
herence becomes and the morewe areconfronted with either an

174

EARLYWRITINGS

endearing,artlessnaturalproductorsomeconcoctionalientoartand
nature.Life,asultimateunity,liesatthe'basisofthe poetized.Butthe
moreprematurelytheanalysisofthepoemwithoutencounteringthe
structurationofperceptionandtheconstructionofaspiritualworld
leadsustolifeitselfasthepoetized,themorematerial(inastrictsense),
themoreformlessandinsignificant, thepoem provestobe. Whereas
theanalysisofgreatworksofliterature.vWll encounter,asthegenuine
expressionoflife,notmythitself,tobesure,butaunityproducedbythe
forceofthemythicelementsstrainingagainstonenother.
Thenatureofthepoetizedasaregiondelimitedintwodirectionsis
attestedbythemethodofitspresentation.Themethodcannotbecon
cernedwithdemonstratingsocalledultimateelements,forthereare
no suh things within the poetized. Rather, what is to be demon
stratedisnothingotherthantheintensityofthecoherencefpercep
tualandintellectualelements,andfirstofallinreferencetoindividual
examples.Butpreciselyinthisdemonstrationitmustbeevidentthatit
isnotelementsbutrelationsthatareatstake,sincethepoetizeditself
is,afterall,asphereofrelationbetweentheworkofartandlife,whose
unitiesthemselves arewhollyungraspable.Jnthisway thepoetized
willrevealitselfasthepreconditionofthepoem,asitsinnerform,as
artistictask.Thelawaccordingtowhichallapparentelementsofsen
sationandofideascometolightasembodimentsofessentialand,in
principle,infinitefunctionsiscalledthelawofidehtity.Thistermde
notesthe syntheticunityoffunctions, whichmay berecognized, in
eachparticular configurationitassumes,asan aprioriof thepoem.
Thedisclosureofthepurepoetized,theabsolutetask,mustremain
afterallthathasbeensaida purelymethodological,idealgoal.The
purepoetizedwouldotherwisece'asetobealimitconcept:itwouldbe
lifeorpoem.Untiltheapplicabilityofthismethodto^heaesthetics
of thelyric assuch andperhps toother domainsis tested,further
expositionisnotinorder.Onlythencouldonedistinguishtheapriori
ofan.individual poem,that of thepoem ingeneral, oreven thatof
other literarygenres or of literature in general. What willemerge
moreclearly,however,isthatwithregardtolyricpoetry,ajudgment,
evenifitcannotbeproved,cannonethelessbesubstantiated.

TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin

175

Two poemsbyHlderlin,"The Poet'sCourage"(Dichtermut)and

"Timidity"(Bldigkeit),astheyhavecomedowntousfromhismature
and hislate periods,will beinvestigated accordingtothismfethod.
Themethodwilldemonstratethatthepoemsarecomparable.Acer
tain relationshipconnectsthem,sothatonecouldspeakof different
versions. A version that belongs between theearliest and thelatest
("ThePoet'sCourage,"secondversion)willnotbediscussedhere,since
itislessessential.
"
THEPOET'S COURAGE

1.ArenotallthelivingrelatedtoyoU?
DoesnottheParcaherselfnourishyouforservice?
Thenjustwanderforthdefenseless
Throughlife,andhavenocare!
2.Whateverhappens,letitbeablessingforyou.
Bedevotedtojoy!Whatthencould
Offendyou,heart!Orwhat
Befallyoutherewhereyoumustgo?
3.For,eversincethepoemescapedfrommortallips
Breathingpeace;benefitinginsorrowandhappiness,
OursongbroughtjoytotheheWs
Ofmen;so,too,were
4.We,thepoetsofthepeople,'gladlyamongtheliving.
Wheremuchjoinstogether,joyful,andpleasingtoeveryone,
Availabletoeveryonesoindeedis
'
Ourprogenitor,thesungod,
5.Whograntsthecheerfuldaytopoorandrich.
Whoinfleetingtimeholdsus,thetransitoryones.
Uprightongolden
Leadingstrings,likechildren.
6.Hispurplefloodawaitshim,takeshimtoo,
Whenthehourcomeslook!Andthenoblelight.
Knowingofchange,

Goesdownthepath)vithequanimity.

176

TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin

EA'RLYWRITINGS

7.Andsopassawaythen,whenoncethetimehascome
Andthespiritnowherelacksitsright;sodies
Onceintheseriousnessoflife
OurJoy,abeautifuldeath!

TIMIDITY
1.Arenotmanyofthelivingknowntoyou?
Doesnotyourfootstrideuponthetrue,asuponcarpets?
Therefore,mygenius,onlystep
Nakedintolife,andhavenocare!

2.Whateverhappens,letitbeopportuneforyou!
Berhymedforjoy!Whatthencould
Offendyou,heart,orwhat
Befallyoutherewhereyoumustgo?
3.Forsincemenl\keheavenlybeings,asolitaryanimal.
AndtheheavenlyonesthenjS.elveswfereld,towardingathering,
Bythepoemandthechorusofprinces.
Accordingtotheirkinds,so,too,were
4.We,astonguesofthepeople,gladlyamongtheliving.
Wheremuchjoiijstogether,joyful,andthesametoeveryone,
Availabletoeveryonesoindeedis
OurFather,thegodofheaven,
5.Whograntsthethinkingdaytopoorandrich.
Who,attheturningoftime,holdsus,*whofallasleep,
Uprightongolden
Leadingstrings,likechildren.
6.Goodtooareweandcapable,sentto.someonetosomeend,
Whenwecome,withart,andbringone
Fromamongtheheavenlybeings.Yetweourselves
Bringapthands.

Reflectiononthefirstversionrevealsaconsiderableindeterminacy
intheperceptualandalackofcoherenceinthedetail.Thcmythofthe
poemisstillrank withmythology.'Themythologicalrevealsitself as
mythonlytotheextentitiscoherent.Themythisrecognizablefrom

177

theinnerunityofgodanddestiny. Fromthewayanank reigns.^In

thefirst version of his poem, Hlderlin's subject is,adestinythe
deathofthepoet.Hecelebratesinsongthesourcesofthecouragefor
thisdeath.Thisdeathisthecenterfromwl^\chtheworldofpoeticdy
ingwasmeant toarise.Existence inthat worldwould bethe poet's
courage.Buthereonlythemostvigilantintuitioncanhaveapresenti
mentofthislawfulness'radiatingfromaworldofthepoet.Thevoice
arisesdiffidentlyatfirsttosingacosmos,whoseowndecline,issigni
fiedbythedeathofthepoet.Butthemythisdevelopedfrommythol
ogy.Thesungod is,thepoet'sancestor,and hisdeath isthedestiny
through which the poet'sdeath, atfirst mirrored, becomes real. A
beautywhoseinnersourcewedonotknowdissolvesthefigureofthe
poetscarcelyless that of the godinstead of forming it.Still,
thepoet'scourageisgrounded,curiously,inanother,alienorderthat
ofrelationship withtheliving.Fromit hegainsconnectionwithhis
destiny.Whatsignificancedoestherelationshipwiththepeoplehave
forpoeticcourage?Ihedeeperrightbyvirtueofwhichthepoetrelies
onandfeelshimselfrelatedtohispeople,tothosewhoarealive,can
notbefeltinthepoem.Weknowthatthisthoughtisoneoftheconso
lationsofpoetsand'thatitwasespeciallydearioHlderlin.Yetwedo
notfeelthatnaturalconnectednesswithallpeopleestablishedhere
as condition and foundation of poetic life. Whydoesn't the poet
celebrateandwithgreater righttheodi profanum^Thisquestion
may,indeed must,be askedwhen theliving continueto found no
spiritualorder.In themost surprisingWay,the pet reacheswith
both handsinto alienworld orders,reachesfor peopleand God,in
ordertobuild upinhimselfhisown couragethecourageofpoets.
Butthesong,theinwardnessofthepoet,thesignificantsourceofhis
virtue,appears,where itis named,weak, withoutp>ower andgreat
ness.Thepoem livesin theGreekworld;itisanimated by.abeauty
fashionedonaGreekmodel,anditisdominatedbythemythologyof
theGreeks.ThecharacteristicallyGreekprincipleofformation,how
ever, is notfully manifest."For, eversince the poemescaped from
mortallips /.Breathing peace,benefiting insorrowand happiness /
Oursongbroughtjoytothehearts/Ofmen..."Onlyveryfeeblydo
thesewordsconveytheawethatfilledPindarandwithhimthelate

<

n
'

I
j

'

j
j
1
i

17 EARLY WRITINGS

Hlderlinin thepresence of poeticform.' Bythesame token, the

"poetsof.thepeople,""pleasing"toeveryone,donotserve,whenseen
inthisway,'to*layaperspicuousworldfoundationforthispoem.The
figure of thedying sungod testifies most clearlyto an unmastered
duahtyinallitselements.Idyllicnaturestillplaysitsspecialroleop
positethefigureofthegod.Beauty,inotherwords,hasnotyetwholly
becomeform.Neither doestherepresentation ofdeathflow outof a
purecontextoffiguration. Deathitselfisnotasitislaterunderstood
tobeformin itsdeepestinterconnection;it istheextinguishingof
theplastic,heroicelementintheindeterminatebeautyofnature.The
spaceand timeof thisdeathhavenotyet emergedas a unityin the
spirit of form.The same indeterminacy of the formative principle,
which contrastsso stronglywith theinvoked Hellenism, threatens
theentirepoem.Thebeautythat,almostbymeansofmood,connects
thebeautiful appearanceof thepoem withthe serenityof the^od,
andthisisolationofthegod,whosemythologicaldestinycariiesmerely
analogicalsignificanceforthepoet, donotarisefrom themidstofa
fullyformedworldwhosemythologicallawwouldbedeath.Instead,a
worldthat isonlyweaklyarticulated diesin beautywiththe setting
sun.Therelationofthegodsandmentothepoeticworld,tothespa
tiotemporalunityinwhichtheylive,isstructuredneitherintensively
norwitha purelyGreekcharacter.It hastobe fullyrecognizedthat
thebasicfeelingunderlyingthispoem,onebynomeansfreeofcon
ventionality,isthefeelingoflife,ofalifediffusedandundefined;and
thatthis accordinglygives riseto theatmospheric coherenceof the
poem'selements,isolatedin theirbeauty.Lifeasanundoubtedbasic
factlovelyperhaps,perhapssublimestilldeterminesthisworldof
Hlderlin's(whilealsoveilingthought).Thewordingofthetitlepoints
tothisinacuriousway,sincea peculiarlackofclaritydistinguishes
thatvirtue towhich thename ofits bearer hasbeen attached,thus
suggestingthatthepurityofthisvirtuehasbeensulliedthroughtoo
greatproximitytolife.(ComparethelocutionWeibertreue.fThese
vere conclusionsounds a note almost alien to thechain of images:
"And thespirit nowherelacks itsright." Thispowerful admonition,
bornofcourage,herestandsalone,andonlythegreatnessofasingle
imagefromanearlierverse anticipatesit ("holdsus ./Uprighton

TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin

179

golden/Leadingstrings,likechildren").Theconnectednessofthegod
withmenisforced,bywayofrigidrhythms,intoagreatimage.Butin
itsisolation itcannot bringtolight thebasise/.those alliedpowers,
anditlosesitself.Onlythepoweroftransformationwillmakeitclear
andfittobeexpressed:thepoeticlawhasnotyetfulfilleditselfinthis
Hlderlinianworld.
Whattheinijermost coherenceof thatpoeticworld whichissug
gestedinthefirstversionsignifies,andhowanincreaseinprofundity
occasionsarevolutioninthestructure,howfromthestructuredcen
tera structuringmovement necessarilyimposes itselffrom verseto
versethisiswhatthefinalversionshows.Theearlydraftwasfound
tobepremiseduponanonperceptualrepresentationoflife,aconcept
oflifebothunmythicanduntouchedbydestiny,derivingfromaspiri
tuallyexiguoussphere.Butwheretherewasisolationofformandlack
ofrelationbetweenevents,therenowappearsaperceptualintellectual
order,thenewcosmosofthepoet.Itisdifficulttogainanykindofac
cesstothisfullyunified,uniqueworld.Theimpenetrabilityof.there
lationsresistseverymodeofcomprehensionotherthanthat.offeeling.
Themethod requiresfromtheoutset thatconnectedthings.betaken
asthepointofdeparture,inordertogaininsightintothearticulation.
Beginningwith theformalconfiguration, letus comparethe poetic
constructionof bothversions,in thiswaystrivingtoadvanceslowly
towardthecenterof theconnections.Wehave alreadynotedthatin
theearlierversion therelationshipof the.peopleandthegodtoeach
other(andalsotothepoet)remainsindeterminate.Opposedtothisin
thelaterpoemisthepowerfulconsolidationoftheindividualspheres.
Thegodsandthelivingareindissolublyboundtogetherinthedestiny
ofthepoet.Thetraditionaland,simplehierarchyofmythologyisover
come.Itissaid ofthe poem,whichleads men"towardingathering,"
thatitleadsthem"likeheavenlybeings"^ndleadstheheavenlyones
themselves.Theactualbasisofthecomparisonisthusovercome,forit
issaidin;mediatelyafterwardthatthepoemleadstheheavenlyones,
too,andnodifferentlyfrommen.Here,atthecenterofthepoem,the
ordersofgodsandmenarestrangelyco'nterpoised,theonebalancing
theother.(Likefwoscales:theyareleftintheiropposingpositions,yet
li^edoff thescale beam.) From this emerges, very graphically, the

iSo E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

fundamentalformallawofthepoetized,theoriginofihatlawfulness
whoserealizationgives thelater version itsfoundation. Thislaw of
identitystatesthatallunitiesinthepomalreadyappearinintensive
interpntration,that one can never grasp the elements purely in
themselvesbut onlythe structureiGefiige] of relations,whereinihe
identityofeachindividualbeingisafunctionofaninfinitechainof
seriesinwhichthepoetized unfolds.Thisisthelawofidentitythe
lawaccordingtowhichallessencesinthepoetizedarerevealedasthe
unityofwhatareinprincipleinfinitefunctions.Noelementcanever
besingledout,voidofrelation,from theintensityoftheworldorder
whichisfelt attheheart ofthepoem. Withrespect toallindividual
structurestotheinnerformoftheversesandimagesthislawwill
provetobefulfilled,soas tobringabout,finally,inthemidstof all
poeticrelations,theidentityof theperceptualandintellectualforms
amongandwithoneanotherthespatiotemporalinterpntrationof
allconfigurationsinaspiritualquintessence,thepoetizedthatisiden
tical with life.Here, however, it is necessaryto mention only the
presentconfigurationofthisorder:thebalancingofthespheresofthe
livingandtheheavenlyones(thisishowHlderlinmostoftennames
them),in anarrangement far removedfrom themythological. And
followingtheheawnlyones,evenfollowingthenamingofpoetry,there
onceagainarises"thechorusofprinces,/Accordingtotheirkind."So
thathere,atthecenterofthepoem,men,heavenlybeings,andprinces
fallingheadlong,asitwere,fromtheiroldordersarelinkedtoone
another.That this mythologicalorder isnot decisive,however, and
thataquitedifferentcanonoffiguresrunsthroughthispoem,isseen
mostvividlyinthetripartitearrangementinwhichprincesstillclaim
aplace besideheavenlyonesandmen.This neworderof poeticfig
uresofthegodsandthelivingisfoundedonthesignificancethat
bothhaveforthedestinyofthepoet,aswellasforthesensuousorder
ofhisworld.Theirrealorigin,as Hlderlinsawit,cancometolight
onlyattheend,astheabidingfoundationofallrelations,andwhatis
evidentearlierisonlythedifferencein thedimensionsofthisworld
andthisdestiny,adifferencethesedimensionsassumewithrespectto
thegodsandtheliving;onlyattheendisrevealedthefullandundi
minishedlifeoftheseoncesoisolatedworldsoffigures inthepoetic

TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin

181

cosmos.Butoiowtheiaw,whichappearedtobetheformalandgeneral
cpnditionfor theconstruction of thispoetic world, begins,strange
andpowerful,tounfold.InthecQntextofthepoeticdestiny,^11fig
uresacquireidentity;forheretheyaretogetherraisedupandsublated
withinasinglevision,andassovereignastheymayseem,theyfinally
fallbackintotheboundednessofthepoem.Thegrowingprecisionof
thefigures,theirintensification,isseenmostforcefullyinthechanges
madetothefirstversion. Ateverypoint,theconcentration ofpoetic
powerwillcreatespaceforitself,andarigorouscomparisonwillmake
the.basisof even theslightest deyiation understandableas.one that
subserves unity.What is most important,ajjout the,innerintention
musttherebycometolight,evenwherethefirstversionconformedto
itonlyfeebly.Lifeinsong,intheunwaveringpoeticdestinythatisthe
lawoftheHlderlinianworldthiswepursuethroughtheintercon
nectionoffigures.
Inverysharplyprofiledorders,godsandmortalsmoveincontrast
ingrhythmsthroughthepoem.Thisbecomesclearintheprogression
fromandbackto themiddleyerse.A rigorouslyordered,albeit,con
cealed,sequence ofdimensions isrealized. Inthis worldof Hlder
lin's,thplivingarealwaysclearlytheextensiot}ofspace,thequtspre^d
plane,inwhich,(as\yillbecomeevident)destinyextendsitself.Majes
ticallyorwithanamplitudereminiscentoftheorientaltheinvoca
tionbegins:"Arenotmanyoftheliyingknowntoyou?"Whatwasthe
functionoftheopeningVerse inthefirst version?Therelationof the
poettoallthelivingwasinvokedastheoriginofcourage.Andnoth
ingremainedbutanacquaintancewith,aknowingof,themany.The
questionconcerningtheoriginofthisdeterminationofthemultitude
throughthegenius,towhomitis"known,''leadsintothecorrelations
thatfollow.Agreatdeal,averygreatdeal,issaidofHlderlin'scosmos
inthose nextwords,whichstrange onceagain, asthough.coming
fromtheworldoftheEast,andyetmuchmoreoriginalthantheGreek
Parcaeconfer majesty upon the poet: "Does not your footstride
uponwhatistrue,asuponcarpets?"Thetransformationoftheopen
ingofthe poem,withitssignificanceforthenatureof courage,pro
ceeds.The reliance on mythologygivesway tothe context of one's
ownmyth.Forhere,ifonewerecontenttoseenothingmorethanthe

182

EARLYWRITINGS

conversion of the mythological vision into the more sober one of

walking,ortoseenothingmorethanhowdependencyintheoriginal
version.("DoesnottheParcaherselfnourishyouforservice?")turns,
inthesecondversiori,intoassrtion("Doesnotyourfootstrideupon
whatistrue?")allthiswouldmeanremainingonlyonthesurfaceof
thepoemInan analogousway,the word"related"ofthefirst vr'
Sion was intensified and changed to "known":a relation of depen
dencyhasbecomeanactivityYetthecrucialfactisthatthisactivity
isonceagainconvertedintothemythic,intothatfromwhichthede
pendencyintheearlierpoemflowed.Themythiccharacterofthisac
tivity,however,is basedonitstakingacourseprescribed bydestiny;
indeed,,ititself alreadycomprehends thefulfillient of destiny.The
existenceofthepeople,itsproximitytothepoet,testifiestothewayin
whichtheactivityofthepoet alWa^reachesintoordersdetermined
bydestinyand thusiseternally preservedand transcendedin these
orderswhilepreservingandtranscendingthem.Thepoet'sknowledge
oftheliving,liketh,eirexistence,isbasedontheorderthat,according
tothesenseof thepoem,maybe termedthetruth,ofthesituation."
Thepossibility ofthesecondverse, withthe tremendousvigorof its
image,necessarilypresupposesthetruthofthesituationastheorder
ingconcept of Hlderlin'sworld.The spatialand intellectualorders
provetobeconjoinedthrough anidentityof thatwhich determines
and that which isdeterminedan identityproper toboth. In both
orders,thisisanidentitynotofthesameortheeqiialbutoftheidenti
cal;through ittheyinterpenetrate tothe pointof identitywitheach
other.Decisiveforthespatialprinciple,then,isthatitfulfills inper
ceptiontheidentityofwhatdeterminesandwhatisdetermined.The
situationiStheexpression ofthisunity;.spaceistobe understoodas
theidentityof situationand situated.Immanent toeverythingde
terirtinativeinspaceisitsowndeterminacy. Everysituationisdeter
minedonlyinspace,andonlyin*spaceisitdetrminative.Justasthe
imageofthecarpet(sinceaplaneisherelaiddownasthefoundation
ofaspiritualsystem)shouldremindoneofitsexemplarinessinbeing
patternedand should evoke thespiritual arbitrariness of the orna
mentinthoughtornamentthusconstitutingatruedeterminationof
thesituation,makingthesituationabsolutesotheorderoftruthit

TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin

183

self,onwhichone maystride,isoccupiedbytheintensiveactivityof
thegaitasaninner,plasticallytemporalform.Thisspiritualdomainis
somethingonecanstride upon;andit necessarilyallowsthestrider,
sotospeak,hiseveryarbitrarystrideintheregionofthe.true.These
spiritualsensoryorders in their quintessentialembodiment consti
tutetheliving,inwhomalltheelementsofpoeticdestinyaredeployed
inaninrierandparticularform.Temporalexistnceininfiniteexten
sion,ihetruth of thesituation, bindsthe livingto the poet.In the
sameway,too, thecoherenceofthe.elementsintherelation between
peopleandpoetcomestolightinthefinalverse:"Goodtooareweand
capable, sent [geschickt] to someone tosome end." According to a
(perhapsgeneral)lawoflyric,thewordsattaintheirperceptualmean
ingin thepoem \vithoutsacrificing thefigurative. Thus,two orders
interpenetratein thedouble meaningofthe wordgeschickt^ Deter
mininganddetermined,thepoetappearsamongtheliving.Asinthe
participlegeschickt, a temporaldetermination completes thespatial
order in the eventnamely, of beingfoundfitting. This identityof
ordersisoncemorerepeatedinthedeterminationofpurposeordesti
nation:"tosomeonetosomeend."Asif;throughtheorderofart,the
actof animatinghad tobecome doublyclear, everythingelse isleft
uncertainandtheisolationwithin greatextensionishintedatin the
phrase"tosomeonetosomeend." Nowitisastonishing how,atthis
point,wherethepeople[Volk] isinfactcharacterizedinthemostab
stractway,analmostwhollynewfiguration bfthemostconcretelife
arisesfromtheinterioroftheline.Justaswhatisskillfulwillemerge
astheinnermostessenceoftheppet(ashislimitwithrespectto'exis
tence),sOwhatisskillfulappearsherebeforethelivingasthatwhich
hasbeensent;theidentityarisesinoneform:determininganddeter
mined,centerandextension.Theactivityofthepoetfinds itselfde
terminedwith respect to thosewho arealive; theliving, however,
determinethemselvesintheirconcreteexistence"tosomeonetosome
end"withrespecttotheessenceofthepoet.Thepeopleexistsassign
andscriptoftheinfiniteextensionofitsdestiny.Thisdestinyitself,as
willbecomeclear later,ispoetry, thesong.Andso,as'thesymbol"of
song, the Volk has to bring Hlderlin's cosmos tofulfillment. The
samethingis seenwith thetransformation thatcreated"tongues of

J84 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin 185

thepeople"from''poetsofthepeople."Thepreconditionofthispoetry
ismorendmoretoconvertthefiguresbon:o.wedfromaneutral"life"
intomembersofamythicorder.Throughsuchtransformation,people
andpoet areintegrated withequalforceintothis,order.Particularly
palpableinthesewordsisthewithdrawalofthegeniusinhismastery.
Forthepoet,andwithhimthepeoplefromwhosemidsthesings,are
whollytransposedintothecircleofthesong,andaplanarunityofthe
people with itspoet (in the poetic destiny) is the conclusion once
again.Now,depersonalized,thepeopleappears(maywecomparethis
withByzantinemosaics?)asifpressedinthesurfacearoundthegreat
flatfigureofitssacredpoet.Thisisadifferentpeople,moredefinitein
itsessencethanthatofthefirstversion.Correspondingtoitisanother
conceptionoflife: "Therefore,mygenius, onlystep/ Nakedintolife
andhavenocare."Here"life"liesoutsidepoeticexistence;inthenew
versionitisnot,thepreconditionbuttheobjectofamovementaccom
plished with mightyfreedom: the poet enters intolife; hedoes not
wanderforthinit.Theincorporationofthepeopleintothatrepresen
tationoflife inthefirst versionhasturnedintoa connectedness,in
destiny,betweenthelivingandthepoet."WhateverJiappens,lebitbe
opportuneforyou [gelegendir]l" Atthispointtheearlierversionhas
theword"blessed"[gesegnet].Itisthissameprocedureadislocation
of themythologicalthat everywhereconstitutes theinner form of
therevision."Blessed"isanotionthatdependsonthetranscendental,
thetraditionallymythological,andthatisnotgraspedfromoutofthe
centerofthepoem(letussay,fromthegenius)."Opportune"[gelegen]
reachesbackagainfullyintothepoem'scenter;itmeansarelationof
thegeniusitself,inwhichtherhetorical"letbe"ofthisverseisjran
scended and preserved through the presence of this"opportunity"
[Gelegenheit].Spatialextensionisgivenanewandwiththesamemean
ingasbefore.Onceagain,itisa matterofthelawfulnessofthegood
world,inwhich thesituationisat thesametimesomethingsituated
throughthepoetandthroughhimopportune,justasforthepoetthe
truemust besomething traversable;Hlderlinonce beganpoem:
"Beglad!Youhavechosenthegoodlot."''Herethechosenoneismeant;
forhimthereexistsonlythelot,hencethegoodone.Theobjectofthis
relationof identitybetween poetand destinyis theliving.The con

struction"berhymedforjoy"presupposesthesensoryorderofsound.
Andherfetoo,.inrhyme,theidentitybetween*determinantanddeter
minedisgiventheway,letussay,thestructureofunityappears^as
halfadoubling.Identityisgivenaslaw,notsubstantiallybutfunction
ally. The rhymingwords themselvesare not named.For, of course,
"rhymedforjoy"nomoremeans"rhymedwithjoy"than"opportune
foryou"turnsthe"you"itselfintosomethingthatislaiddown,some
thingspatial.Justasthatwhichisopportunewasrecognizedasarela
tionofthegenius(nottohim),soisfhymearelationofjoy(nottoit).
Rather,thatdissonanceoftheimage,which initsinsistentemphasis
setsup tonaldissonance,has the^furictionof makingthespiritual
orderoftimethatisinherenttojoy perceptible,audible,inthechain
ofaninfinitelyextendedoccurrencecorrespondingtotheinfinitepos
sibilitiesofrhyme.Thus,thedissonanceintheimageofthetrueand
ofthecarpethasevokedtraversabilityastheunifyingrelationofthe
orders,justas"opportunity"signifiedthespiritualtemporalidentity
(thetruth) ofthesituation.Withinthe poeticstructure,thesedisso
nancesbringintoreliefthe.temporalidentityinherentineveryspatial
relationandhencetheabsolutelydeterminingnatureofspiritualexis
tencewithin theidenticalexfension.The bearersof thisrelation are
quiteclearlytheliving..Apath andopportunegoalinkeepingwith
preciselythese extremesoffigurality must nowbecome visible ina
manner differentfrom that appropriate to the idyllic worldfeeling
conditioningthese verses inthe earlier period:"What thencould/
Offendyou,heart,orwhat/ Befallyoutherewhereyoumustgo?"At
thispoint,in ordertofeel thegrowingpower withwhich theverse
approachesitsend,thepunctuationofbothdraftsmaybecompared.
Only now isit entirelycomprehensible how in thefollowing verse
mortals,withthesameimportanceasheavenlyones,arebroughfcloser
topoetry,nowthattheyhavefoundthemselvesfulfilledbythepoetic
destiny.Tobe understoodin,itspenetratingimpact,all thisimustbe
comparedwiththedegreeofformthatHlderlinintheoriginalver
sionlenttothepeople.TheretheVolkwasdelightedlsypoetry,related
tothe poet,and onecould speakof thepoets of thepeople. Inthis
alonethemorerigorouspowerofanimageoftheworldmightalready
besurmisedanimage thathasfoundwhatwas previouslypursued

186 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

onlyfromafar.thefatefulsignificanceofthepeopleinamodeofvi
sionthat turnsthemintoasensuousspiritualfunctionof thepoetic
life.
Theserelations,whichuntilnowhaveremainedobscure,especially
asconcernsthefunctionoftime,achievenewdistinctnesswhentheir
peculiar transformation withrespect tothe formof thegods isfol
lowed.Throughtheinnerconfiguration thatispropertothegodsin
thenewworldstructure,theessenceofthepeopleisestablishedmore
preciselythanitcouldbethroughcontrast.Aslittleasthefirstversion
knowsa significanceofthelivingwho havetheirinnerformin an
existencedrawnintothepoeticdestiny,determinedajjddetermining,
trueinspacejustaslittleisaparticularorderofthegodsrecogniz
ableinit.Passingthroughthenew.version,however,isamovementin
aplasticintensivedirection,andthismovementlivesmoststronglyin
thegods.(Alongsidethedirectionthat,representedinthepeople,has
aspatialtrajectorytowardinfinitehappening.)Thegodshaveturned
intomostparticularanddefinitefigures,inwhomthelawofidentity
isconceivedinawhollynewway.Theidentityofthedivineworldand
itsrelation tothedestinyofthepoetisdifferentfrom identityinthe
order of theliving. There, whatever happens, in its determination
throughandforthepoet,wasrecognizedasflowingfromoneandthe
samesource. Thepoetexperienced thetrue. In thisway thepeople
wereknowntohim.Inthe divineorder,however,thereis, aswillbe
shown,aparticularinneridentityofform.Thisidentitywefoundal
readyintimatedintheimageofspaceand,sotospeak,inthedetermi
nationoftheplanethroughornament.Buthavingcometogovernn
order,itbringsaboutaconcretizingoftheliving.Apeculiardoubling
oftheformarises(connectingitwithspatialdeterminations),inthat
eachfigureonceagainfindsitsconcentrationinitself,bearsinitselfa
purelyimmanentplasticity [Plastik] asexpression ofits existencein
time.Inthisdirectionofconcentration,thingsgravitatetowardexis
tenceas pureideaand determinethedestinyofthe poetin thepure
worldofforms.Plasticityofformisrevealedasthatwhichisspiritual
orintellectual.Thisishowthe"cheerfulday"turnedintothe"think
ingday."Itisnota matterofanepithetcharacterizingthequalityof
theday;rather,thedayisgrantedthegiftthatispreciselythecondi

TwoPoemsbyFriedrich<HIderlin

187

tionofthespiritualidentityofessence:thinking.Inthisnewversion
thedaynowappears tothehighestdegreeformed;atrest,inaccord
withitselfin consciousness,asafigure havingtheinnerplasticityof
existence,to'whichcorrespondstheidentityoftheeventintheorder
oftheliving.Ffomtheperspectiveofthegods,thedayappearsasthe
formedquintessenceoftime.Andasathingthatpersists,sotospeak,
itgains amuch deeper meaningnamely,that thegod concedesit.
Thisidea thatthe dayis concededis to be rigorouslydistinguished
fromatraditionalmythology,accordingtowhichthedayisbestowed.
For heresomething isalreadyintimated thatlater is showti with a
weightier power:that theidea leadsto theconcretizing of theform
andthatthegodsarewhollydeliveredovertotheirownplasticity,are
ableonlytoconcedeortobegrudge theday,sincein theirformthey
areclosesttotheidea.Hereagain,onemightmentiontheheightening
of theintentionin thedomain of puresoundthroughalliteration.
Thesignificantbeautywithwhich'thedayishereelevatedasprinciple
of plasticityand, atthe sametime,.of contemplation isagainfound
intensifiedatthebeginningof"Chiron":"Whereareyou,meditative
one,thatalwaysmust/Turnasideattimes?Whereareyou.Light?""
Thesamevisionhasinwardlytransformedthesecondlineofthefifth
verseand refinedit tothehighest degree,comparedwith thecorre
spondingpassageintheearlyversion.Quiteinxjppositionto"fleeting
time,''tothe"transitoryones,"it isthat whichpersistsduration in
theform of timeand of men^thathas beendeveloped inthe new
versionoftheselines.Thephrase"turningoftime"(WendederZeit)
plainlycomprehendsthemomentofpersstence aswell,themoment
ofinner plasticityin time.*Andthat thismomentof inner.temporal
plasticityis central can become entirely.clear only later, like the
centralimportanceof otherhithertodemonstratedphenomena.The
phrase"us,whofallasleep"hasthesameexpressivefunction.Mani
festx)nce againisthedeepest identityof form (in sleep). Here one
woulddowelltorecallthewordsofHeraclitus:Waking,weindeedsee
deathbut in sleep we see sleep.'^ Our concern is with.'this plastic
structureofthoughtinitsintensity,thatforwhichthecontemplatively
fulfilledconsciousnessformstheultimatebasis.Thesamerelationof
identitythathereleads,inanintensivesense,tothetemporalplasticity

188 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

ofform,mustleadinanextensivesensetoaninfiniteconfigurationof
formtoacoffinedplasticity,asitwere,inwhichformbecomesiden
ticalwiththeformless.Atthesametime,theconcretizingoftheform
intheideasignifies:itsevermoreunboundedandinfiniteexpansion,
theunificationoffiguresinthatabsoluteformwhichthegodsassume.
Itisthisformthatprovidestheobjectbywhichthepoeticdestinyde
limitsitself.Thegodssignifytothepoettheimmeasurableconfigura
tionofhisdestiny,justasthelivingguaranteeeventhewidestexten
sionofhappeningassomethingwithinthedomainofpoeticdestiny.
Thisdeterminationofdestinythrough configurationconstitutes the
objectivityofthepoeticcosmos.Atthesametime,however,itsignifies
thepure world of temporalplasticity inconsciousness; theidea be
comesdominant init.Whereas previouslythetruewas includedin
theactivityof thepoet, itnowemerges'sovereign insensoryfulfill
ment.Intheformationofthisworldimage,anysortofdependenceon
conventionalmythologyisevermorerigorouslyeliminated.Themore
remoteterm"progenitor"is replacedby"father," andthesun god.is
transformedintoa godof heaven.The plastic,indeedarchitectonic,
significanceof theheavens isinfinitelygreaterthan thatof thesun.
Butat thesametimeonesees herehowthepoet progressivelyover
comesjthedifferencebetweenformandtheformless;andheavensig
nifiesasmuchanextensionasadiminishmentofform,incomparison
withthe'stin.Thepower,fthiscontextilluminatesthelines"Upright
ongolden/Leadingstrings,likechildren."Againtherigidityandin
accessibilityoftheimage recallsanorientalmodeofvision.Because
the plasticconnection with thegod is given amid unformed space
(andemphasizedinitsintensitybymeansofcolor, theonlyinstance
ofcolorinthenewversion),thislinehasanespeciallystrangeandal
mostdeadening effect.Thearchitectonic elementisso strongthatit
correspondstotherelationthatwas.givenintheimage'ofheaven.Thp
formsofthepoeticworld areinfiniteandatthesametimelimiting;
accordingtotheinnerlaw,theformhastobesublatedintheexistence
ofthepom,andhastoenterintoit,tothesamedegreeasdotheani
matedpowersoftheliving.Eventhegodmustintheendbeofservice
tothepoemandcarryout[vollstrecken] itslaw,justasthepeoplehad
tobethesignof itsextension [Erstreckung].Thiscomesab'out atthe

TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin 189

end:"andbtingone/Fromamongtheheavenlybeings."Thestructur
ing,theinwardlyplasticprinciple,issointensifiedthatthefateofthe
deadformbreaksoverthegod,sothattoremainwithintheimge
theplasticdimensionisturnedinsideout,andnowthegod becdmes
wholly object.Thetemporal form is broken from theinside out as
somethinganimated.The heavenlyoneisbrought.We havehere an
overarchingexpression"fidentity: theGreekgod hasentirelyfallen
,preyto hisown principle,the form.The highestsacrilege isunder
stoodashubris,which,fullyattainableonlybyagod,transformshim
intoadeadform.Togiveoneselfformthatis thedefinitionof"hu
bris."The god ceases to determinethe cosmosof the poem, whose
essencewithart:freelyelects foritself thatwhich isobjective:the
poem'scosmos brings thegod, since gods have alreadybecome, in
thought,theconcretizedbeingoftheworld.Here,already,canberec
ognizedtheadmirableOrganizationofthelastverse,inwhichtheim
manentgoalofallstructurationinthispoemissummedup.Thespa
tialextensionofthelivingdeterminesitselfinthetemporallyinward
interventionofthepoetthisishowthewordgeschickt[capable,sent]
wasexplainedin thesamfeisolationinwhich thepeopl bcamea
srisof frctionsofdestiny."Good tooarewe andcapable,sent to
someonetosomeend"ifthegodhas becomeobjectinhisdead in
.firiity,thepoetseizeshim.Theorderofpeopleandgod,asdissolvedin
unities;herebecomesunitywithinthepoeticdestiny.Manifestisthe
manifoldidentityinwhichpeopleandgodareoveromeasthecondi
tionsofsensoryexistence.Thecenterofthisworldrightfullybelongs
toanother.
The interpntration of individualforms of perception and their
connectednessinand withtheSpiHtual,as idea,destiny,andsoon,
hasbeenpursuedinsufficientdetail.Intheenditcannotbeamatter
ofinvesti^tingultimateelements,fortheultimatelawofthisWorldis
preciselyconnection:astheunityoffunctionofthatwhich.connects
andthatwhichisconnected.Butanespeciallycentralsiteofthiscon
nectednessmuststillbenoted,oneinwhichtheboundaryof^thepoet
izedwithlifeispushedforwardtliefarthest,andinwhichtheenergy
of theinner form showsitself allthe mightier,the morethelife in
questionisfluid andformless. At thissite theunityof thepoetized

190 EARLY WRITINGS

becomesvisible;thewholeextentoftheconnectionsiscomprehended,
andthe variationin thetwoversions ofthe poem,thedeepening of
thefirstinthesecond,"isrecogilized.^Onecannotspeakofa unity
ofthepoetizedinthefirstversion.Thedevelopmentisinterruptedby
thedetailedanalogyof thepoetwith thesungod;thereafter,it does
notreturnwithfullintensitytothepoet.Inthisversion,initsdetailed,
specialtreatmentofdyingaswellasinitstitle,thereisstillthetension
betweentwoworldsthatofthepoetandthatofthe"reality"whichis
menacedbydeathandwhichhereappearsonlydisguisedasdivinity.
Subsequently,the dualityof theworldsdisappears; with death, the
qualityof couragefalls away;andin theunfolding nothingisgiven
excepttheexistenceofthepoet.Itisthereforecrucialtoquestionthe
basisforacomparison oftwodrafts thatdiffersomarkedlyindetail
andexposition.Again,whatmakesitpossibletocomparethepoems
isnot anysimilarityof elementsbut oiilyconnection in.function.
Thisfunction residesin thesolelydemonstrable functionalquintes
sence:thepoetized.Thepoetizedofbothversions^notinitssimilar
ity [Gleichheit], which is nonexistent, but in its "comparability"
["Vergleichheit"]shallbecompared.ThetWopoemsareconnected
throughtheir poetizedand, tobe sure,through theirstance toward
the world. This stance is courage, which, as it is understood more
deeply,becomeslessaqualitythanarelationof mantoworldand of
worldtoman.Thepoetizedofthefirstversioninitiallyknowscourage
onlyasaquality.Mananddeathstandoppositeeachother,bothrigid;
theyhave noperceptual worldin common.To besure, theattempt
wasalreadymadetofind adeep relationto deathin thepoet,in his
simultaneouslydivineandnaturalexistence,butitwasmadeonlyin
directly,throughthemediationofthegod,towhomdeathinamyth
ologicalsense properlybelongedand towhom the poet,again ina
mythologicalsense,wasbroughtnear. Lifewasstilltheprecondition
ofdeath;thefigureoriginatedinnature.Theresoluteformationofvi
sionandfigure fromoutofaspiritual principlewasnot undertaken;
thus,therewasnointerpntrationofvisionandfigure.Inthispoem,
thedangerofdeathwasovercomethroughbeauty.Inthelaterversion,
allbeautyspringsfromthe overcomingofdanger. Earlier,Hlderlin
hadendedwiththedissolutionofthefigure,whereasattheendofthe

TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin jpi

newversion the pure ground of configuratioaappears.And thisis

nowattainedonaspiritualbasis.Thedualityofmananddeathcould
bebasedonlyonafacilefeelingoflife.Itceasedtoexist,once,thepor
etized drew itselftogether into a deeper coherence, and a spiritual
principlecouragefrom out of itself formedlife. Courage issur
rendertothedangerthatthreatenstheworld.Concealedwithin this
principleisasingularparadox,whichalonemakesitpossiblefullyto
understandthestructureofthepoetizedinthetwoversions:thedan
gerexists forthe?courageousperson,yet hedoes notheed it.For he
wouldbe acoward if he heeded it;and if it did notexist for him,
hewouldnot<be courageous.This'strangerelationisresolved insofar
asthedangerthreatensnotthecourageousonehimselfbutratherthe
world.Courageisthelifefeelingofthemanwhogiveshimelfupto
danger,insuchawaythatinhisdethheexpandsthatdangerintoa
dangerfortheworldandatthesametimeovercomesit.Thegreatness
ofthedangeroriginatesinthe,courageouspersonforonlyinstrik
inghim,inhistotal"submissionto it,doesitstrike theworld.Inhis
death,however,it isovercome;it hasreached theworld,which itno
longerthreatens.Inhisdethisliberationandatthesametimestabi
lizationof(heimmenseforcesthateveryday,intheformofbounded
things,surroundthe body.Indeath theseforcesthat threatenedthe
courageous person as danger have already abruptly changed, are
calmedin it.(This istheconcretization ofthe forces,which already
broughttheessence ofthegods closerto thepoet.)Theworld ofthe
dead hero'isa new mythical one,steeped indangerpreciselythe
worldofthesecondversionof.thepoem.Initaspiritualprinciplehas
becomecompletelydominant:theunificationofthe.heroicpoetwith
theworld.Thepoetdoesnothavetofeardeath;heisaherobecausiehe
livesthecenterofallrelations.Theprincipleofthepoetizedassuchis
thesupremesovereigntyofrelation.Inthisparticularpoem, itisfig
uredascourageastheinnermostidentityofthepoetwiththeworld,
emanatingfromwhicharealltheidentitiesoftheperceptual.andthe
intellectualinthispoem.Thatisthebasisonwhichtheisolatedfigure
repeatedly transcends itself in the spatiotemporal order, where, as
formless, omniform, process andexistence, temporal plasticityand
spatiai*happening,itistranscended.Allknownrelationsareunitedin

192

EARLYWRITINGS

death,whichisthepoet'sworld.Indeath,isthehighestinfiniteform
andformlessness, temporalplasticityandspatial existence,ideaand
sensuqusness. And in this world evey function of life,is destiny,
whereasinthefirstversion,withitsmoretraditionalconception,des
tinydeterminedlife.Itistheoriental,mysticalprinciple,overconjing
limits,,whichinthis poemagainand againsomanifestlyovercoroes
the Greek shaping principle, and which creates,aspiritual cosmos
frompurerelationsofintuition,ofsensuousexistence,wherethespir
itualisonlyanexpressionofthefunctionthatstrivestowardidentity.
Thetransformationofthedualityofdeathandpoetintotheunityofa
deadpoeticworld,"saturatedwithdanger,"istherelationinwhichthe
poetizedofbothpoemsresides.Onlynowdoesreflectiononthepiv
otalthirdversebecomepossible.Itisevidentthatdeath,intheformof
"ingathering" [Einkehr],was.transposedtoihecenter of the poem;
thatinthiscenterliestheoriginofsong,asoriginofthequintessence
ofallfunctions;thathere theideaof"art"andtheidea of"thetfue"
ariseas expressionsof thereigning unity.What wasaidabout the
overcomingoftheorderofmortalsandheavenlyonesinthiscontext
appearsfullyassured.Onecanassumethatthewords"asolitaryani
mal"designate men;and thisfits invery well with thetitle of this
poem."Timidity"has nowbecome the.authenticstanceof thepoet.
Transposed'intothemiddleoflife,hehasnothingremainingtohim
exceptmotionlessexistence,complete passivity,whichis theessence
ofthecourageousmannothingexcept,to surrenderhimselfwholly
torelation.Itemanatesfromhim andreturhstohim.Thus theong
seizes theliving, and thus theyare known toitnojlonger related.
Poetandpoetryarenotdifferentiatedinthecosmosofthepoem.The
poetisnothingbutalimitwithrespecttolife;heisthepointofindif
ference,surrounded bythe immensesensuous powerssandthe idea,
whichpreserveinthemselvesthelawofthepoet.Howutterly}iesig
liifiesthe untouchablecenter ofallrelation ismost powerfullycon
veyedinthelasttwoverses.Theheavenlyones'havebecomesignsof
infinitelife,which,however,isdelimitedvisvisthepoet:"andbring
one/Fromamong theheavenly beings.Yet weourselves/ Bringapt
hands."Thus,thepoetisnolongerseenasform;heisnowonlytheprin
cipleof formthatwhich delimits,which bearsevpn hisown body.

TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin

193

Hebringshishandsandtheheavenlybeings.Theforcefulcaesuraof
thispassage effectsthe distancethe poetshould havefrom allform
andfromtheworld,astheirunity.Thestructureofthepoemconfirms
the justice ofSchiller's words:"Therein consists...the trueartistic
secretof themaster: heobliterates thematter throughtheform
Thesensibilityof thespectatorand Ustenermust remaincompletely
freeandinviolate;;it mustemergefromtheartist'smagiccircle pure
andperfect,asifithadcomefromthehandsoftheCreator."'
In thecourse of thisstudy, theword "sobriety"was deliberately
avoided,thoughit,mightoftenhaveservedforpurposesofcharacter
ization.Onlynow dowe adduceHlderlin's words"sacredlysober,"
fornow theirinterpretation hasbeen prepared.'^Ithas beensaid'of
these'words thatthey expressthe tendencyof Hlderlin'slater cre
ations.Theyarise from theinner certaintywith whichthose works
taketheirplaceinthespirituallifeofthepoet,wheresobrietynowis
allowed,iscalledfor,becausethislifeinitselfissacred,subsistingbe
yondallexaltationin thesublime.Is'thislifestillthatof Hellenism?
Nomore"isthisthecasethanisthehfeofapureworkofarteverthat
ofa people,orthatof anindividual,or anythingotherthanitsown
life,aswefinditinthepoetized.Thislifeofthepoetismoldedinthe
formsof Greekmyth, butdecisive pointnotin themalone; pre
ciselytheGreekelementisovercomeinthelastversionandoffsetby
another element that (without express justification, to be sure) we
calledtheoriental.Almostallthechangesinthelaterversioninthe
imagesaswellasintheintroductionofideasand,ultimately,ofanew
meaningof deathtend in thisdirection; allarise as unlimited in
contrasttothe phenomenonlimitedby itsownforni, reposinginit
self That"here a decisive question lies concealedand perhaps not
onlyinregardtotheunderstandingofHlderlincannotbedemon
strated in the present context. The contemplation of the poetized,
however,leadsnottothemythbutratherin,thegreatestcreations
onlytomythicconnections,whichintheworkofartareformedinto
a uniqueconfiguration, unmythological and unmythic,such as we
cannotdefinemoreprecisely.
'But if therewere wordswith which tograsp therelation between
mythandthatinnerlifefromwhichthelaterpoemissued,itwouldbe

m E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin 195

thoseHldernwroteataperiodstilllaterthanthatofthispoem:"Leg
endsthattakeleaveoftheerth,/ ...Theyturntowardhumanity."'

min'sownesoteric essayonHlderlinfe confirmedbya letterof February

27,1917,toErnstSchoen:"HaveyoureadthatNorbertvonHellingrathdied
inthe war?I hadwanted togivehim myHlderlinstudy toreadwhenhe

Notes
"Zwei(JedichtevonFriedrichHlderlin"(GS2,105126)waswritteninwin
ter19141915andpublishedposthumously.TranslatedbyStanleyCorngold.
1.Thelyricpoet,novelist,anddramatistFriedrichHlderiin(17701843)
composedthetwopoemsanalyzedhere,"Dichtermut"(ThePoet'sCourage)
and"Bldigkeit"(Timidity),in1801, duringthemostproductiveperiod of
hislife, theyears 17951806.These yearssawhis enthusiasticreceptionof
republicanideasfromFrance,hishaplesswanderingfromonetutoringpost
toanother,hisunhappysecretliaisonwithamarriedwoman,andhisdeep
eningsolitude.In 1807hewas,declaredinsaneand,afteraspellina clinic,
wasmovedtoacarpenter'shouseinTiibingen,wherehespenttherestofhis
life, andwhere hecontinued intermittentlyto writepoetry. Benjaminin
cludesaletterofHlderlin'sfrom 1802inhiscollectionofletters,Deutsche
Menschen(GermanMenandWomen;1936);seeSW3,180182.Inhismem
oir, Walter Benjamin: The Story of a Friendship, trans. HarryZohn (New
York:Schocken,1981),GershomScholemrecalls:"OnOctober1[,1915,Ben
jamin]spoke aboutHlderlinand gavemeatypewritten copyofhisessay,
'TwoPoems byFriedrich Hlderlin,'which containeda profoundlymeta
physical analysis, written in thefirst winterof the war, 19141915, ofthe
poems'Dichtermut'and 'Bldigkeit.'Onlylater didI realizethat thisgift
wasasignofhisgreattrustinme.Hlderlin,whohadbeenrediscoveredby
[thepoet]StefanGeorgeandhisgroup,wasregardedbythecirclesinwhich
Benjamin moved between 1911 and 1914 as one of the supremefigures
inpoetry.....Benjamin [referred] to Norbertvon Hellingrath'sedition of
HlderlinaswellastoHellingrath'sstudyofHlderlin'sPindartranslations;
Hellingrath'sstudyhadmadeagreat impressiononhim"(17).Hellingrath
(18881916), a member of the George circle, was the editor of thefirst
criticalhistoricaledition ofHlderlin, whichbegan appearingin 1913;in
1910hehadpublishedaneditionofHlderlin'shighlyoriginaltranslations
ofthefifthcentury B.C.Greek lyricpoetPindar,togetherwithhisdisserta
tiononthesetranslations.ThatthelatterstudywasaninspirationforBenja

returned.ThewayHellingrathframedthesubjectinhisworkonthePindar
translationswasthe externalmotivationformy study"(CWB,85). Thein
ternalmotivationcanbegatheredfromapassageBenjamindeletedfromhis
firstdraftofanarticleonStefanGeorgecommissionedin1928,ontheocca
sion ofthe poet's sixtieth birthday, by the Berlin weekly. Die literarische
Welt; in the deleted passage, Benjamin says that his Hlderlin essaywas
dedicatedtohisfriendFritz Heinle,ayoungpoetwhohadcominittedsui
cideontheeveofWorldWarI (seeGS2.921). Whethertheessayaddition
allyhasroots ina"talk aboutHlderlin" givenbyBenjamin whenhewas
stillinhighschool(seeCWB, 146)cannotbe determined,sinceno'record
ofthetalkhassurvived.
2.SeJohannWolfgangvonGoethe,Werke,WeimarEdition(18871919),
Abteilung I, 14:287. Goethe'sterm isGehalt. Benjamindevelops theterms
Sachgehalt(materialcontent) andWahrheitsgehalt'(truthcontent)inhises
sayof19211922,"GoethesWahlverwandtschaften"(Goethe'sElectiveAffini
ties):inSWl,297360.
3. "Intellectualperceptual" translates geistiganschaulich. Geistig also
means"spiritual."
4.Benjamin'sterm,dasGedichtete, isasubstantiveformedfromthepast
participleoftheverbdichten,"tocomposeartistically."TheEnglishtransla
tion,"thepoetized,"hasaprecedentinRalphWaldoEmerson'saddress,"The
AmericanScholar" (1837):"Insteadof thesublime andbeautiful, thenear,
thelow,thecommon,wasexploredandpoetized."
5.Novalis,Schriften(Jena;Diedeirichs, 1907),2:231.Citedalsoin"Dosto
evsky'sTheIdiot"(Chapter43inthisvolume).Benjaminmakesfurtheruseof
thewritingsof Novalis,pseudonym ofFriedrich, Freiherrvon Hardenberg
(17721801),inhis dissertationof1919,"Der BegriffderKunstkritik inder
deutschenRomantik"(TheConceptof CriticisminGerman Romanticism),
inSWl,116200.
6."Effectivelypresent"translatesaktuellvorhanden.
7.Greekanankmeans"necessity."
8.ReferenceistotheLatinpoetHorace,whowroteatthebeginningofhis
thirdbookofOdes(23B.C.),"Odiprofanumvulgus"(Ihatethecrowdofthe
uninitiated).
9.OnPindar,seenote1above.

196 EARLY WRITINGS

10.ThecompoundnounWeibertreue(woman'sfidelity), towhichBenja
min compares the compound Dichtermut (poet's courage), has a cynical
connotation.

Chapter31

11."Situation"translatesLage,whichliterallymeans"lay,"asin"layofthe
land."

TheLifeofStudents

12.Asanadjective,geschicktmeans"capable,""skillful."Aspastparticiple
oftheverbschicken,itmeans"sent."ItiscloselyrelatedtothenounSchicksal,
"destiny."
13.Thepoeminquestionis"AnLandauer"(ToLandauer;1800).
14.Hlderlin,"Chiron"(1801).Comparetheepigraph to"TheMetaphys
icsofYouth"(Chapter26inthisvolume),fromanearlierHlderlinpoem,of
which"Chiron"isarevision.
15. Benjamin refers to the preSocratic Greek philosopher Heraclitus,
fragment21(Diels).
16. FriedrichSchiller, berdie sthetischeErziehung desMenschen (On
theAestheticEducationofMan;1801),Letter22.
17. Hlderlinwrote theterm asone word, heilignchterne,inhis poem
"HlftedesLebens"(HalfofLife;18021803).
18.Hlderlin,"DerHerbst"(Autumn;ca.18321843).

here is a conception of historythat, trustingin theinfinity of

time,distinguishesonlythetempo,rapidorslow,withwhichhu
manbeings andepochs advance alongthe pathof progress.Corre
sponding"tothisistheincoherence,theimprecisionandlackofrigor
inthedemandsuchaconceptionmakesonthepresent.Thefollowing
remarks,incontrast,concernaparticularconditioninwhichhistory
restsconcentrated,asinafocalpoint,somethingseenfromtimeim
ruemorialintheUtopianiniagesofthinkers.'Theelementsoftheulti
mate condition do not manifest themselvesasformless progressive
tendencies,butare deeplyembeddedineverypresent intheform of
themost endangered,excoriated, and ridiculedcreations andideas.
Thehistoricaltaskistogiveshapetothisimmanentstateofperfection
and make it absolute,makeit visibleandascendant in the present.
Thisconditioncannotbecircumscribedwithapragmaticdescription
of details(institutions, customs,and so on);in fact,it eludesthem.
Rather,it canbe graspedonlyinits metaphysicalstructurej likethe
messianic*fealmortheideaof theFrenchRevolution.Thus,thecon
temporaryhistoricalsignificanceofstudentsandoftheuniversity,the
formofthtir,existenceinthe^present,meritsdescriptiononlyasmeta
phoii'a imageof asuprme metaphysicalestate of history.Only in
197

198 EARLY WRITINGS

these termsis it comprehensibleand possible.Such a description is

neitheracalltoarmsnoramanifesto,ineffectualasthesebothwould
be;butitgivesanindicationofthecrisisthatliesattheheartofthings
andthatbrings onthe decisiontowhich thecowardlysuccumband
thecourageoussubmit Theonlywaytodealwiththehistoricalposi
tionof thestudentbodyand theuniversityis thesystem.Solongas
variouspreconditionsforthisareabsent,thereremainsbutonealter
native:bymeans ofknowledge, toliberatethefuturefrom itsdefor
mationinthepresent.Thisisthesoleaimofcriticism.
Thequestiontobeaddressed isthatof theconsciousunityofstu
dentlife.Thisisthestartingpoint,forthereisnothingtobegainedby
distinguishingspecificproblemsinstudentlifeproblemsofscience,
thestate, virtueif thecourage tosubmit ismissingfrom thislife.
Whatdistinguishesstudentlifeisinfactthereluctancetosubmittoa
principle,tobeabsorbedbyanidea.Thenameof"science"or"schol
arship"[Wissenschaft] servesprimarilytoconcealadeeprooted and
broadlyreinforcedindifference.Tomeasurestudentlifebytheideaof
sciencedoesnotnecessarilyimplypanlogismorintellectualismasis
commonlyfearedbutis alegitimatecriticism,sincescience isnor
mallyadducedas thestudents'bulwark against"alien"demands. At
issue, then,is inner unity,not critiquefrom outside. Here onemay
objectthat,forthe,vastmajorityofstudents,academicstudyisnoth
ingmore thanvocational training.Because "academicstudyhas no
bearingon life,"it must serve exclusively to determine thelives of
thosewhopursueit.Amongthemostinnocentlymendaciousreserva
tionspeoplehaveaboutscienceistheexpectationthatacademicstudy
mustleadtoaprofessionforallandsundry.Yetscholarship,farfrom
leadinginexorablytoaprofession,mayinfactprecludeit.Forscience
byitsnaturedoesnotpermityoutoabandonit;inaway,itplacesthe
studentunderanobligationtobecomeateacher,butnevertoembrace
the official professions of doctor, lawyer, or university professor.It
leadstonogoodifinstitutesatwhichoneacquirestitles,credentials,
andother prerequisitesfor lifeor a profession arepermitted tocall
themselvesseatsoflearning.Theobjectionthatthemodernstatecan
nototherwise producethe doctors,lawyers,*andteachersit needsis
irrelevant.Itonly illustratestherevolutionarymagnitudeof thetask

TheLifeofStudents

199

entailedincreating,acommunityoflearning,asopposedtqacorpo
rationof qualifiedfunctionaries. Itonly showshow farthe modern
disciplines,inthedevelopmentoftheirprofessionalapparatus(through
knowledgeandskill),havebeendrawnawayfromtheircommonori
ginintheideaofknowledge,anoriginthat,in.theireyes,hasbecome
amystery,if notafiction. Anyonewhoacceptsthemodernstateasa
givenandbelievesthateverythingmustserveitsdevelopmentwill'be
forcedtojejecttheseideas.Onecanonly.hope.thatsuchapersonwill
notcallfor stateprotection andsupportfor "research."Forthe true
signof corruptionisnotthe collusionofthe universityand,thestate
(somethingthatisbynomeansincompatiblewith honestbarbarity),
but thetheoryarid guaranteeof academicfreedom,whenin reality
peopleassume withbrutalcomplacence that theaim ofstudy isto
steeritsdisciplestosociallyadaptedindividualityand servicetothe
state. Notolerance of opinionsand teachings,however free,can be
beneficial,solongasthereisnoprovisionforthelifethattheseideas
thefreeideasnolessthanthstrictonescarrywiththem,solongas
peoplecannaively denythisirdmensedividebypointingtothelink
betweentheuniversitiesandthestate.Itismisleadingtoraiseexpec
tations.intheindividualif,inthfulfillmentof theseexpectations,
individualsaredeprivedof thespiritof theircollective,whole,and
the only remarkableand even.astoundingpoint tobe emphasized
hereistheextenttowhichinstitutesofhigherlearningarecharacter
izedbya giganticgameofhideandseekinwhichthe twocollective
bodies,studentsandteachers,constantlypushpastoneanotherwith
outever seeingOhe another.Thestudentsarealways inferiorto the
teachersbecausetheyhavenoofficialstatus,andthelegalbasisofthe
universitypersonifiedintheministerofeducation,whoisappointed
bythesovereign,not bytheuniversityis abarelyveiled allianceof
the academicauthorities with theorgans of the'state,a correspon
dencecarriedonovertheheadsofthestudents"(andinrare,welcome
instances,overtheheadsoftheteachersaswell).
Thencriticalandspinelessacquiescenceinthissituationisanes
sentialfeatureofstudentlife.Itistruethatthesocalledindependent
student organizations, andother socially oriented groups, have at
temptedtoresolvethisproblem.^Thisattemptultimatelyhasinview

200 EARLY WRITINGS

thecompleteassimilationoftheinstitution tobourgeoisnorms,and
nothinghasshownmoreclearlythat thstudentsoftodayasacom
munityare incapable of even formulatin'gthe.questionof scholarly
life,thelifeoflearning,orgraspingitsirreducibleprotestagainst'the
vocationaldemands'oftheage.Inordertoelucidatethestudents'cha,
oticconceptionofacademiclife,itishecessarytocriticizetheideasof
the"independent"students'andofthoseclosetothem?Tothisend,1
)shallquotefromaspfe'ech Igaveto'astudentaudienceinthehopeof
contributingtotherenewal.^
Thereisaverysimpleandreliablecriterionbywhichtotestthe
spiritualValueofacommunityItistoask:Doesthetotalityofthe
productivepersonfindexpressioninit?Isthewholehumanbeing
committedtoitandindispensabletoit?Orijthe.communityas
superfluoustoeachindividualasheistoit?Itissoeasytoposethese
questions,andsoeasytoanswerthemwithreferencetocontemporary
typesofsocialcommunity.Andtheanswerisdecisive.Everyonewho
achievesstrivesfortotality,andthevalueofanachievementlies
preciselyinthattotalityinthefactthatthewhole,undividednature
ofahumanbeingshouldcometoexpression.Butwhendeterminedby
oursociety,asweseeittoday,achievementdoesnotcontainatofelity;
itiscompletelyfragmentedandderivative.Itisnotuncommonforthe
socialcommunitytobethesitwhereajointandcovertstruggleis
wagedagainsthigherambitionsandsingulargoals,whilemoredeeply
rooteddevelopmentisobscured.Thesociallyrelevantachievementof
theaveragepersonservesinmostcasestosuppresstheoriginaland
underivedaspirationsoftheinnerman.Wearespeakinghereof
academicallytrainedpeople,peoplewhoforprofessionalreasonshave
somekindofinnerconnectionwiththespiritualstruggles,withthe
skepticismandcriticalattitudes,ofstudents.Thesepeopleappropriate
amilieuentirelyalientothemselvesandmakeittheirworkplace;at
thisremoteppsttheycreatealimitedactivityforthemselves,,andthe
entiretotalityofsuchlaborconsistsinservingtheinterestsofanoften
abstractlyconceivedgeneralpublic.Thereisnointernalorintrinsic
connectionbetweenthespiritualexistenceofastudentand,say,his
concernforthewelfareofworkers'childrenorevenforotrstudents.
Noconnection,thatis,apartfromaconceptfdutyunrelatedtohis
own,mostproperlabor.Itisaconceptbasedonamechanicaldissocia

TheLifeofStudents 201

tion:ontheonehand,hehashisstipendfromthepeople;ontheother,
hehashisworkforsociety.Theconceptofdutyhereiscalculated,
derivative,anddistorted;itdoesnotarisefromtheworkitself.Andthis
dutyiscarriedoutnotbysufferinginthecauseoftruth,notbybearing
allthescruplesofaresearcher,orindeedbyanyintentionconnected
withtheperson!sspirituallife.Butratherbyacrudeandextremely
superficialopposition,comparabletothatbetweentheidealandthe
material,orthetheoreticalapdthepractical.Inaword,thatsocial
laborisnottheethicalintensification,butonlythetimidreaction,ofa
spirituallife.Yetthedeepestandmostcrucialobjectionisndtthatsuch
sociallyrelevantlaborissimplyleftfloating,abstractlyopposedtothe
trueworkofastudent,andsoconstitutesanextremeaftdthoroughly
reprehensibleformoftherelativismthat,incapableofasynthesizing
life,Anxiouslyandfastidiouslystrivestoensurethateverything
spiritualisaccompaniedbythephysical,everythesisbyitsantithesis;
thedecisivefactor,then,isnotthatthetotalityofsuchlaborisinreality
emptygeneralutility.Whatisdecisiveisthatdespiteallthisitlays
claimtothegesturesandattitudeoflove,whereonlymechanicalduty
exists.Thelatterisoftennothingmorethanadeflectionofpurpose,an
evasionoftheconsequencesofthecritical,intellectualexistenceto
whichthestudentiscommitted.Forinrealityastudentisonlya
"studentbecaustheproblemofspirituallifeisclosertohisheartthan
isthepracticeofsocialwelfare.Finally^andthisisaninfallible
signthesocialworkofstudentsengedersnorenewaloftheconcept
andvaluationofsocialworkingeneral.Inthepubliciind,suchwork
stillseemstobeapeculiarmixtureofdutyandcharityonthepartof
individuals.Studentshavenotbeenabletodemonstrateitsspiritual
necessityandforthatreaonhaveneverbeenabletoestablishatruly
seriouscommunitybasedonit,butonlyacomniunitywherezealfor
dutyisalliedtoselfinterest.ThatTolstoyanspiritthatlaidbarethe
hugegulfbetweenbourgeoisandproletarianexistence,theconcept
thatserviceonbehalfofthepooristhetaskofmankindandnqta
sparetimestudentactivity,theconceptthathere,preciselyhere,itwas
allornothing,thatspiritthattookrootintheideasofthemost
profoundnarciistsandinChristianmonasticorders,thistruly
seriousspiritofasocialwork,whichhadnoneedofchildlikeattempts
toempathizewitlithesouloftheworkersorofthepeoplethisspirit
failedtodevelopinstudentcommunities.''Theattempatoorganizethe
"willofanacademiccommunityintoasocialcommunityofi^rork

202

EARLYWRITINGS

founderedontheabstractnatureoftheobjectanditsunconnectedness.
Thetotalityofthewillingsubjectcouldnotfindexpression,becausein
thatcommunityitswillcouldnotbedirectedtowardthetotality.

"t

i.

Thesymptomaticimportanceofthese.attemptsonthepartofthe*in
dependentstudents,includingChristianSocialistsandmanyothers,
isthatintheirdesireto promotetheirutilityin thestateandinlife,
theyreenactinthemicrocosmoftheuniversitythatsameconflictthat
wehavenotedin therelationshipof theuniversitytothestate.They
havegainedasanctuaryintheuniversityforegoismsandaltruismsof
almosteverykind,foreveryforegonecopclusionintheworldatlarge;
only radical doubtj fundamental critique, and the most important
thingofallthelifethatisdedicatedtototalreconstructionareex
cluded.Whatwehaveheieisnottheprogressivespiritoftheindepen
dentstudents as opposed to the ractionary power of thedueling
fraternities.As we have tried toshow, and as we can seefrom the
uniformityandpassivityofthe universitiesasawhole,the indepen
dent student organizations themselves are very far from putting
into effect a carefully meditated spiritual will. Their voice has not
madeitself heard on anyof theissues thathave been raised here.
Their indecisiveess makes them inaudible.Their opposition runs
onthewelloiledtracksofliberalpolitics;theirsocialprincipleshave
notdeveloped beyondthelevel oftheliberalpress.Theindependent
studentshavenotthoughtoutthetrueproblemoftheuniversity,and
tothatextentitisbitterhistoricaljusticethatonofficialoccasionsthe
duelingfraternities,whointhepastdidexperienceandstrugglewith
theproblem of academiccommunity, nowappear as the unworthy
representatives of thestudent tradition.On fundarhentalissues the
independentstudent doesnot displayamoreserious willorgreater
couragethanwhatisfoundinthefraternities,andhisinfluenceisal
most more pernicious than theirs,in that it is moredeceptive and
misleading: for this undisciplined, bourgeois, apd smallminded
movementclaimstheroleofchampionandliberatorinthelifeofthe
university.The modernstudent bodycannot befound inthe places
where theconflicts over thespiritual rebirth of thenation are rag
inginthearenaofitsnewstruggleforart,oratthesideofitswriters

TheLifeofStudents 203

andpoets,oratthesourcesofreligiouslife.Thisis becausetheGer
manstudentbodydoesnotexistassuch.Notbecauseitrefusestojoin
inthelatest"mdern"movements, butbecause,asastudentbody, it
completelyignoresallthese movementsin theirdepth; becauseas a
studentbodyitconstantlydriftsinthewakeofpublicopinion,follow
ingthebroadestcurrents; becauseitis courtedandspoiled byevery
partyandalliance,isthechildpraisedbyallbecauseinacertainsense
itbelongstoall,whileitremainsineveryrespectdevoidofthenobil
itythatup.toacenturyagogaveGermanstudentsavisibleprofileand
enabledthemtostepforwardinprominentplacesasthechampions'
ofabetterlife.
Theperversionofthecreativespiritintothevocationalspirit,which
weseeatworkeverywhere,hastakenpossessionoftheuniversitiesasa
whole^andhasisolated themfrom thenonofficial, creativelifeof the
mind.Themandarincontemptfortheactivitiesofindependentschol
arsandartistswhoarealienandoftenhostiletothestateisapainful
proofofthis.OneofthemostcelebratedGermanuniversity,professors
referredinalecturetothose"coffeehouseliteratiaccordingtowhom
Christianityisfinished." Thetone ofthisstatement altogethercorre
spondstoitsaccuracy.Andifauniversityorganizedinthiswayworks
againstacademicstudy,whichatleastsimulatesdirectrelevanceto'the
statethrough"applicability,"howmuchmoreopenlyhostilewillbeits
stancetowardtheMuses.Insofarasitdirectsstudentstowardthepro
fessions,itmustnecessarilyoverlookimmediatecreativityasaformof
community.Inreality,thehostileanduncomprehendingestrangement
oftheacademyfromthelifethatartrequirescanbeinterpretedare
jection ofany immediatecreativity thatis unconnectedwith official
position.Thisisfullyconfirmedbytheimmaturityand^choolboyaf
titude,of.thestudents. From thestandpoint of aestheticfeeling, the
moststrikingandpainfulaspectoftheuniversityisnodoubttheme
chanicalreactionofthestudentsastheylistentoalecture.Onlyagen
uinelyacademicorsophisticcultureofconversationcouldmakeupfor
thislevelofreceptivity.And,ofcourse,theseminarsare,worldsaway
fromsuchathing,sincethey,too, relymainlyon thelectureformat,
anditmake^littledifferencewhetherthespeakersareteachersor.stu
dents.Theorganizationofthejuniversityhasceasedtobegroundedin

204 EARLY WRITINGS

3
'"M

%
IMM

'Mil

>)
'>

r
c

theproductivity ofits students,as itsfounders had,envisaged.They

'thoughtof studentsessentially asteachers andlearners atthesame
time;asteachers,becuseproductivitymeanscompleteindependence,
regardforknowledge,nolongerfortheteacher. Butwhereoffice and
professionartheideasthatgovernstudentlife,therecanbe notrue
learning.Therecannolongerbeanyquestionofdevotiontoaformof
knowledgethat,itisfeared, mightleadthem astrayfromthepath of
bourgeoissecurity.Therecanbeneitherdevotiontolearhingnordedi
cation of one's life to a younger generation. Yet the vocation of
teachingalbeitinformsquitedifferentfromthosecurrenttoday'is
animperativeforanyauthenticconceptionoflearning.Suchdanger
ousdevotiontolearningandyouthmustalreadyliveinthestudentas
thecapacitytolove,and itmust betherootof hiscreativity.On the
otherhand,hislifefollowsinthetrainofoldergenerations;heacquires
leariiingfrom his teacher, without following him in his profession.
Withalight'heartherenouncesthecommunitythatbindshimtothe
creatorsandthatcanderiveitsgeneralformexclusivelyfromphiloso
phy.Heshouldbecreator,philosopher,andteacherallinone,andthis
inhis essentialand determiningnature. Hisprofession andlife will
takeshapeonthatbasis.Thecommunityofcreativehumanbeingsel
evateseveryfieldofstudytotheuniversal:intheformofphilosophy.
Suchuniversalityisnotachievedbyconfrontinglawyerswithliterary
questions,ordoctorswithlegal ones(asvariousstudent groupshave
triedtodo).Itcanbebroughtaboutonlyifthecommunityensuresby
itsowneffortsthat beforeallspeciaUzation ofstudies(which cannot
existwithoutreferencetoaprofession),ndbeyondalltheactivitiesof
theprofessionalschools, ititself, thecommunityof theuniversityas
such,willbetheprogenitorandguardianofthephilosophicalformof
communitysomethinggrounded notin theproblems posedbythe
narrowscientificdisciplineofphilosophybutinthemetaphysicalques
tionsofPlatoandSpinoza,theRomanticsandNietzsche.This,rather
thanconductedtoursthroughwelfare institutions,wouldsignifythe
closestlinkbetween professionand life,although adeeperlife. And
wouldpreventtherigidificationofstudy,itsdegenerationintoaheap
ingupofknowledge.Liketheamorphouswaves ofthepopulace that
surroundthepalaceofaprince,thestudentbodyoughttoencirclethe

TheLifeofStudents

205

universitywhichwillimpartexisting'methodsofknowledgetogether
withthecautious,bold,andyetexactattemptsatnewmethodsasthe
siteofapermanentspiritualrevolution,whereattheoutset newways
of,questioningwouldbe incubated,morefarrpaching, lessclear,less
exact,butperhapssometimesprqceedingfromadeeperintuitionthan
isthecase withscientificquestions. Thestudent bodycould thenbe
considered, in itscreative function,as thegreat transfprmer,whose
taskistoseizeuponthenewideasthatgenerallyspringupsoonerin
artandsociallifethaninscienceandconvertthem,throughitsphilo
sophicalappfoach,intoscientificquestions.
Thesecretdominationoftheideaofprofessipnisnotthemostin
sidious of those distortions, whose appaUing effect is thatthey all
strikethecenterofcreativelife.Inexchangeforvarioussurrogates,a
banalconception of life barters thespirit. Itsucceeds inever more
thicklyveilingtheperilofspirituaUifeandinridiculingthefewsur
vivingvisionariesaS'Starryyed dreamers.On adeeper level,erotic
conventiondeformstheunconsciouslifeofstjidents.Justas,thevoca
tionalideologyoftheprofessionsfetterstheintellectualconscience,as
thaughitwerethempstnaturalthingintheworld,,sotheconeptof
marriage,theideaofthefamily,weighsuponeroswiththeforceof^n
obscureconvention.Erosseemstohavevanishedfromanepochthat
extends,emptyandundefined,betweenbeingthesoninafamilyand
beingthefather ina family.What mightunifythexistence,ofone
whocreatesandofoije.whoprocreates,andwhetherthisunjtyistobe
foundin thefamilythese questionscould notbe posedso logas
therewasthetacitexpectationofmarriage,anillegitimateinterludein
whichthemostonecoulddowaserectbarrierstotemptation.Theeros
ofcreatorsifanycommunitywereinapositiontoappreciateandto
struggleforthis,itwouldhavetobethatofstudents.Butevenwhere
all theexternal conditionsof bourgeoislife wereabsent and there
wasnoprospectofestablishingabourgeoissituation,thatis,afamily;
even where,,as in many European cities, a hydraheaded mass of
women based theirentire eco;iomicexistence onstudents (through
prostitution)eventherethestudentfailedtoaskabouttheerosproper
to'him.He mustsurely havequestioned whether,in hisown case,
procreationand creativityshould remainseparate, whetherthe one

206

EARLYWRITINGS

should apply to the family and the other to the profession, and
whether,sincebotharedistortedbythisseparation,eitherwouldflow
from the existence peculiar to himself. For.painfuland insulting
thoughitmaybetoputsuchaquestiontocontemporarystudents,it
cannotbe avoided,since inthemby theirvery naturethesetwo
polesof humanexistence arecloselyconnected chronologically.We
arefaced witha questionthat nocommunitycan leave unresolved,
andwhich neverthelessno peoplesincetheGreeksand earlyChris
tianshaveinprinciplemastered;ithasalwaysweigheduponthegreat
creativeminds: howcould theydo justicetothe imageof mankind
andfostercommunitywithwomenandchildren,whoseproductivity
isofadifferentkind?TheGreeks,asweknow,resolvedtheproblemby
force.Theysubordinatedtheprocreating erosto thecreativeeros,so
thatinthelongrun,byexcludingwomenandchildrenfromthelifeof
theirstate,they broughtabout itscollapse.The Christiansprovided
thepossiblesolutionforthecivitasdei:theyrepudiatedseparateexis
tenceineithersphere.^Themostprogressiveamongthestudentshave
never gonefurther than endless aestheticizing talkx>{ camaraderie
withWomenstudents;theydonotshrinkfromhopingfora"heahhy"
neutrahzationoftheeroticinbothmenandwomen.Infact,withthe
aidof prostitutestheerotic hasbeen neutralizedin theuniversities.
Andwhere it wasn't,it was replaced by unrestrained harmlessness,
thatoppressivecheerfulness,andtheunladylikeyoungcoedwasbois
terosly'welcomedassuccessor totheuglyold spinster'teacher.Itis
difficulttoresistthegeneralobservationherethattheCatholicChurch
hasamuchmorelivelyandtimorousinstinctforthepowerandneces
sityofero5thandoesthebourgeoisie.Intheuniversities,animmense
taskliesburied,unresolved,anddeniedonegreaterthanthecount
lesstasksthatprpvokethezeal ofsociety.Itisthis:proceeding from
thespirituallife,tounify thatwhichin theintellectualindepen
denceofthecreative'(inthefraternities)andintheunmasteredforce
of nature (in prostitution)sadlyconfronts us, distorted andfrag
mented,as atorso ofthe onespiritualeros. Thenecessary indepen
denceof'thecreativeand thenecessaryinclusion ofthewomanwho
is not productivein theman's sense ina singlecommunityof the

TheLifeofStudents

207

creativethroughlove:thistaskof formationmust naturallybede

mandedofstudents,becauseitistheformoftheirlives.Butheresuch
murderous convention'xeigns th^t students have not even brought
themselves toconfess their guilt in the matter of prostitution,and
peopleimaginethatthisimmenseandblasphemousdevastation can
behaltedbyappealstochastity,becauseoncagintheylackthecour
agetoopentheireyestothetrue,morebeautifuleros.Thismutilation
ofyouthgoestoodeeptowastemanywordsonit.Itshouldbegiven
ovettothe consciousness of thinkers.and to the resolution of the
brave.Itcannotbereachedthroughpolemic.

Howdoesayoungergenerationthatcanpermitsuchanobscuringof
itsownidea,suchwarpingofthecontentsofitslife,lookuponitself?
What imagedoesithave of itself inwardly!Thisimage carriesthe
stampofthefraternities,andtheyarestillthemostvisible^mbodi
mentofthestudentconceptionofyouth,atwhichother,studentorga
nizations,ledbytheindependent.students,hurltheirsocialslpgans.
Germanstudentsaretoagreater orlesserdegreeobsessed withthe
ideathat the/shouldrelish theiryouth.That entirelyirrationalpe
riodofwaitingfor employmentand marriagehadtobe givensome
sortofcontent,andithadtobeaplayful, pseudoromanticonethat
would.help pass the time.A terriblestigma attaches tothe much
vauntedjovialityofstudentsongs,tothenewascendancyofthestu
dentfraternity.It representsfearof thefutureandsimultaneouslya
reassuringpactwiththeinevitablephilistinismthatonelikestopic
turefondlytooneselfintheshapeofthe"oldboys."Becauseonehas
soldone'ssoultothebourgeoisie,marriageandprofessionincluded,
oneinsistsonthosefewyearsofbourgeoisfreedoms.Thisexchange
isagreeduponinthenamepfyouth.Openlyorinsecretinabaror
amiddeafening speechesatstudent meetings,thedearly purchased
intoxicationismaintained,andnothingistodisturbit.Itisthecon
sciousnessofdissipatedyouthandpf soldoutoldagethatIpngsfor
peaceandquiet,andonthistheattemptstogiveasoultoStudentlife
havefinallyfoundered.Yet,justasthiswayoflifemakesamockeryof

20 EARLY WRITINGS

everygivenrealityandispunishedbyallnaturalandspiritualpow
ers,byscience throughthe agencyof thestate,by erosthrough the
agencyofprostitutes,so,too,isitpunishedbynature,devastatingly.
Forstudentsarenottheyoungergeneration;theyaretheaginggen
eration.Toacknowledgetheonsetofagerequiresaheroicdecisionon
the part of those who'have lost their yearsof youth in German
schools,andtowhomuniversitystudyseemedfinally toopenupthe
youthfullifethathadeludedthemyearafteryear.Nevertheless,what
mattersisforthemtorecognizethattheyhavetobecreators, there
foresolitaryandaging,andthatalreadyintheirmidstisanabundant
generationofchildrenandyouths,towhomtheycandedicatethem
selvesonlyasteachers.Forthem,itisthestrangestoffeelings.Thisis
whytheycannotfind themselvesintheirownexistence andareill
preparedfromthestarttolivewithchildrenforthatiswhatteach
ingisbecauseatnopointhavetheyrisenintothesphereofsolitude.
Refusingto recognizetheir age,'theyidle their timeaway. Thesole
conditionfor creationistheacknowledged yearningfora beautiful
childhoodandworthyyouth.Withoutthis,norenewaloftheirlives
willbepossible:withoutthelamentforlostgreatness.^Itisthefearof
solittidethat isresponsible fortheir eroticdissoluteness, thefear of
surrender.Theymeasurethemselvesagainsttheirfathers,notagainst
their successors, and salvage the semblance of their youth. Their
friendshipiswithoutgreatnessandwithoutsolitude.Thatexpansive
friendship of the creative, which is oriented toward infinity, and
whichisconcernedforhumanityasawholeevenwhen itisjusttwo
togetherorwhentheyarealonewiththeiryearning,has noplacein
thelivesofuniversitystudents.Insteadthereisonlythat'fraternizing
that is both limited and unbridled, and that remains the same
whethertheyaredrinkinginabarorfondingsocietiesincafs.All
theseinstitutionsofstudentlifeareariiarketplace oftheprovisional,
likethe bustlingactivityiii'lecture hallsand cafs;theyaresimply
theretofill theemptyWaiting time;diversionsfrom thevoice that
summonsthem tobuild theirlives out of theunifiedspirit'of'cre
ation,eros,andyouth.Thereisachasteandabstemiousyouththatis
fullofreverencefor thosewho areto succeed it,and tothis youth
StefanGeorge'slinesbearwitness:

TheLifeofStudents 209

Inventorsofrollingverseandsparkling
Nimbledialogues:timeandseparation
Allowmetoengraveonthetabletsofmymemory
Theformeradversary.Dolikewise!
Forontherungsofintoxicationandemotion
Wearebothdescending;neveragainwill
Thepraiseandjubilationofyouthsoflatterme;
Neveragainwillversesthundersoinyour^ar.
Faintheartednesshas alienated thelife of studentsfrom insighfs
likethis.Buteveryformoflife,withitsspecificrhythm;followsfrom
theimperativesthatdeterminethelifeofthecreative.Solongasstu
dentswithdrawfromsuchalife,theirexistencewillpunishthemwith
ugliness,andhopelessnesswillstriketheheartsofeventhedullest.
Atissueisstillthisextremeandendangerednecessity;threisneed
ofstrictdirection.Eachpersonwilldiscoverhisownimperatives,ifhe
makesthehighestdemandonhislife.Eachwillbeable,*bymeansof
knowledge,toliberatethefuturefromitsdformationinthepresent.

Notes
"DasLebenderSti|^enten"(GS2,7587)waspublishedinDerNeueMerkur,
September1915.TranslatedbyRodneyLivingstone.
1."TheLifeofStudents"appearedintwoversionsduringBenjamin'slife
time:firstinthemonthlyDer/eueMerkurin1915,andtheninanexpanded
version(containingthelinesfromStefanGeorgeattheend)intheanthology
DasZiel (TheGoal), publishedin 1916by KurtHiller, aformerpublicist of
literaryExpressionismnowpropoundinga politicalprogramcalled"Activ
ism." Benjaminlater regrettedhis participationin thissecond publication
anddistanced himselffrom Killer's rationalist position. In thefirst para
graphoftheessay,theterms"condition"and"state"bothtranslateZustand;
"focalpoint"translatesBrennpunkt.
2.Benjaminreferstothe IndependentStudents'Associations (FreieStu
dentenschafien),whichhadbeen organizedinmanyGermanuniversitiesat
thebeginningofthetwentiethcenturyinopposition toestablishedstudent

210 EARLY WRITINGS

associations sucli as fraternities and dueling corps. The Independent Stu

dents'Associationsweretheprimaryuniversityarmofthelargermovement
knowntoday asthe GermanYouth Movement,which hadgrownout ofa
numberofsmallgroupsofyouthswhoenjoyedramblingthroughthecoun
trysidearoundBerlin(theWandervgel,or"walkingbirds").By191'2theFree
German Youth (Freideutsche Jugend), the umbrella organization for the
movement,containedelementsrangingfromthepacifistidealistswithwhom
Benjaminwasassociatedtovirulentlynationalist,antiSemiticconservatives.
3.BenjaminwaselectedpresidentoftheBerlinIndependentStudents'As
sociationinFebruary1914forthecomingsummersemester.Hedeliveredhis
inauguraladdress inMay, andthis isthe speechfrom whichhe quotesin
"TheLifeofStudents"(theaddressitselfisnotpreserved).Hewasreelectedin
July,butwiththeoutbreakofwarinAugust,heturnedawayfromconcerns
withschoolreformandbrokeoffrelationswithmostfhiscomradesinthe
youthmovement.
4.The'RussiannovelistLeoTolstoy(18281910)inhislateryearsevolveda
nonviolent Christian anarchism, which led himto reject the authority of
churches,tooppose organizedgovernment, andtocondemn privateprop
erty,whileaffirmingthemoral,developmentoftheindividualasthebasisof
anysocialprogress. Tolstoyismbecameanorganized sectandaround 1884
begantogainproselytes.Tolstoy'sradicalcreedisexpoundedinsuchworks
asAConfession(1882),TheKingdomofGodIswithinYou(1894),WhatIsArt?
(1896),andTheLawofLoveandtheLawofViolence(1908).
5.TheLatincivitasdeimeans"cityofGod."
6.The"old boys"(alten Herrn)are formermembersof afraternitywho
stillretaininfluenceintheorganizationandaresorcesofpatronageforthe
nextgeneration.
7. The phrase"lament for lost greatness" (Klage um versumte Grsse)
echoesthe endofthe secondparagraphof Benjamin's"The Metaphysicsf
Youth"(Chapter26inthisvolume).
8.StefanGeorge,"H.H.,"inDasJahrderSeele(TheYearoftheSoul;1897).

Chapter32

AChild'sViewofColor

olorissoniethingspiritual,somethingwhoseclarityisspiritual,
orwhosemixtureyieldsnuance,notablur.Therainbowisapure
childlike image.'In it color is whollycontour, is that"whichmarks
boundariesfor theperson whoseeswith achild'seyes; itis notthe
coatingoverlaidon thesubstance,asitis foranadult.Thelatterab
stractsfromcolor,regardingitasadeceptivecloakforindividualob
jectsintimeandspace.Inthecontouringcolor,thingsarenotobjecti
fiedbutfilled by,anorderin infinite'nuances;coloristheparticular,
notaslifelessobjectandrigidindividualitybutassomethingwinged
thatflits from oneform tothe next.^ Children makesoap bubbles.
Likewise,coloredpickupsticks,sewingkits,decals,teasets,evenpull
outpicturebooksand,toalesserextent,foldedpaperconstructions
alldependonthisnatureofcolor.'
Childrenenjoythealterationofcolorinavariabletransitionofnu
ances(soapbubbles),orintheclearandemphaticheighteningofthe
qualityofcolorsinoleographs,paintings,andtheimagesproducedby
decalsand niagiclanterns.For themcoloris ofafluid nature,isthe
mediumofallchanges,andnotasymptom.Theireyeisnotdirected
towardtheplasticperse,whichtheydistinguishthroughtheirsense
oftouch.The rangeofdistinctionswithin agiven modeofsensuous
211

212 EARLY WRITINGS

apprehension(sight,hearing,andsoon)ispresumablylargerinchil
drenthan intheadult,whose,abilitytocorrelate thesensesis more
developed.Thechild'sapprehensionofcolorbringsthesenseofsight
toitshighestartisticdevelopment,itspurity,insofarasitisolatesthat
sense;it elevatesthis developmentto aspirituallevel, sinceitviews
objectsaccording to their color contentand hencedoesnot isolate
thembutrathersecuresinthemtheunifyingperceptionthatischar
acteristicoftheworldofimagination[Phantasie].Onlythroughsuch
perception ofcolors,andin intercoursewiththem, canimagination
befullydeveloped,canitbesatisfiedanddisciplined.Whereitapplies
itself to the plasticarts, itbecomes overlylush; noless sowhere it
turnstohistory;andinmusicitremainsunfruitful.Forthefactisthat
imaginationneverhastodowithform,whichisaconcernoflaw,but
canonlyperceivethelivingworldfromthehumanbeingoutward
creativelyin feeling.This takes place through color, which for that
reasoncannotbe pureandparticular whereit remainsdullandflat,
butinstead,whereitisnotconfinedtoillustratingobjects,canbenu
ancedandshaded,fullofmovement,arbitrary,andalwaysbeautiful.
Inthisregard,coloringinhasapurerpedagogicalfunctionthanpaint
ing,solongasitretainstransparencyandfreshnessanddoesnotmake
forablotchyskinoverthings.Adults,productivepersonsfindnofoot
ingin color;for themcolor ispossible onlyin relation tolaw. They
haveaworldordertoprovide,andtheirtaskisnottograspinnermost
principlesandessencesbuttodevelopthem.Inachild'slife,color is
thepureexpressionofthe child'spurereceptivity, insofarasitisdi
rectedtowardtheworld.Itcontainsanimplicitinstructiontoalifeof
thespirit,whichnomoredependsoncircumstancesandcontingen
ciesforitscreativity.thancolor,forallitsreceptivity,conveystheexis
tenceofdead,causalsubstances.
Children'sdrawingstakecolorfulness astheir pointofdeparture.
Ingeneral,theirgoaliscolorinitsgreatestpossibletransparency,and
thereisnoreferencetoform,area,orconcentrationintoaspace.For
pureseeingisdirectednottowardthespaceandtheobjectbuttoward
thecolor,which,to besure,appearsto thehigl^est degreeobjective,
butnotspatiallyobjective.Paintingasartstartsfromnatureahdpro
ceedsthroughconcentrationon form.Theobjectivityofcolor isnot

AChild'sViewofColor

213

basedonformbut,withoutaffectingtheperceptionempirically,goes
rightto thespiritualobject throughisolation ofthe actof seeing.It
dissolves theintellectualassociations of thesoul andcreates apure
mood,without thetebygiving up theworld. Colorfulnessdoes not
stimulate the animlsenses [affiziri nichi animalisch] because the
continuousimaginativeactivityofthechildspringsfromthesoul.But
becausechildrenseethissopurely,withoutallowingthemselvestobe
disconcertedin theirsoul, it issomething spiritual:the rainbow/it
refersnottoachasteabstractionbuttoalifeinart.
Theorder ofartis paradisiacalbecausethereis nothoughtoffu
sionin theobjectof experienceasa resultof excitement;rather,the
world is fullof color in a state of identity, innocence, harmony.
Childrenarenotashamed,sincetheydonotreflectbutonlysee.''

Notes
"DieFarbevomKindeaus Betrachtet"(GS6, 110112)waswrittenin 1914
1915andpublishedposthumously.TranslatedbyRodneyLivingstone.
1.ThisfragmentarytextbelongswithtwootherofBenjamin's^arlywrit
ingsoncolorincludedinthisvolume,"TheRainbowr'AConversationabout
Imagination"(Chapter33)and"The'Rainbow,orTheArtofParadise"(Chap
ter34).
2.In thissentence,"object"translates Sacheand"objectified" translates
versachlicht.Inthefollowingparagraphs,"object"translatesGegenstandand
"objectivity"translates Gegenstndlichkeit.Also,"the particular"translates
dasEinzelne.
3.Ohcolorinchildren'sgames,compareBenjamin'sfeuilletonpieceof1926,
"AGlimpseintotheWorldofChildren'sBooks"(SWl,443).Seealsothesection
"Colors"(ca.1938)inBenjamin'sBerlinChildhoodaround1900(SW3,380).
4."DieKinderschmensichnicht,dennsiehabenkeineReflexion,sondern
nur Schau." This contrasts with a passage in a fragment from 19201921:
"Highlydeveloped sense ofshame a,mong children. That theyso often are
ashamed [sichsohufigschmen]goestogetherwiththefactthattheyhaveso
muchimagination,especiallyattheearliestage"(GS6,120[fragment87]).

HieRainbow:AConversationaboutImagination 215

Chapter33

TheRainbow
AConversationaboutImagination

ForGreteRadt^
Margarethe: It'searlyinthemorning;Iwasafraidofdisturbingyou.
AndyetIcouldn'twait.Iwanttotellyouaboutadreambeforeit's
faded.
Georg: I'malwayspleasedwhenyouvisitmeinthemorning,
becauseI'mallalonewithmypaintingsthenanddon'texpectyou.
You'vecomethroughtherain;itwasrefreshing.Sotellmenow.
Margarethe: GeorgIseethatIcan'tdoit.Adreamcan'tbetold.
Georg: Butwhathaveyoudreamed?Wasitbeautifulorterrible?Wasit
somesortofexperience?Andwithme?
Margarethe: No,nothinglikethat.Itwasquitesimple.Itwasa
landscape.Butitglowedwithcolors;I'veneverseensuchcolors.Not
evenpaintersknowthem.
Georg: Iheywerethecolorsofimagination,Margarethe.
Margarethe: Ihecolorsofimaginationyes,that'sso.Thelandscape
wasradiantwiththem.Everyhill,everytree,theleaves:therewere
infinitelymanycolorsinthem.Andinfinitelymanylandscapes.Asif
naturewerecomingaliveinathousanddifferentincarnations.
Georg: Iknowtheseimagesofimagination.Ibelievetheyareinme
whenIpaint.ImixthecolorsandthenIseenothingbiitcolor.I
almostsaid:Iamcolor.
214

Margarethe: That'showitwasinthedream;Iwasnothingbutseeing.
Alltheothersenseshadbeenforgotten,haddisappeared.AndI
myselfwasnothing;Iwasnotmyunderstandingthatdeducesthings
fromimagestransmittedbythesenses.Iwasnotsomeoneseeing;I
wasonlytheseeingitselfAndwhatIsawwasnotthings,Georg,.but
onlycolors.AndImyselfwassomethingcoloredinthislandscape.
Georg: Whatyoudes:ribeislikebeingintoxicated.RememberwhatI
toldyouabcftitthatrareanddeliciousfeelingofdrunkennessIknew
inearliertimes.Ifeltmyselftobequitelightinihosehours.Of
everythingaroundmeI^vasawareonlyofthatthroughwhichIwas
inthethings:theirqualities,throughwhichIpenetratedthem.I
myselfwasaqualityoftheworldandfloatedoverit.Itwasfilled with
measthoughwithcolor.
Margarethe: WhyhaveIneverfoundinpainters'imagestheglowing,
purecolors,thecolorsofthedream?Forthesourceofthesecolors,
theimagination,thatwhichyoucomparetointoxicationthepure
receptioninselfforgettingthisisthesouliofJ:heartist.^And
imaginationistheinmostessenceofart.I'veneverseenthatmore
clearly.
Georg: Imaginationmaybethesouloftheartist,butitisnotyetfor
thatreasontheessenceofart.Artcreates.Anditcreatesobjectively,
thatis,inrelationtothepureformsofnature.Thinknowasyou
haveoftendonewithme^abouttheforms".Artcreatesinaccordwith
aninfinitecanon,whichgroundsinfiniteformsofbeauty.'Theseare
formsthatallresideinform,inrelationtonature.
Margarethe: Doyoumeantosaythatartimitatesnature?
Kieorg: YouknowIdon'tthinkso.It'struethattheartistalwayswants
onlytograspfnatureinitsground;hewantstoreceiveitpurely,
formallyrecognizeit.Butresidinginthetanonaretheinnercreative
formsofconception [Empfangen].Considerpainting.Itdoesn't
proceedfitstofallfromimagin^tin,*fromcolor^butratherfromthe
spiritual,^thecreative,fromform.Itsformisfograsplivingspace.To
constructitaccording.toaprinciple;forwhatlivescanbereceived
onlybybeiggenerated.Theprincipleisthecanonofpainting.And
wheneverI'vereflectedonthematter,I'vealwaysfoundthat,for
painting,theprincipleisspatialinfinityjustas,forsculpture,it's
spatialdimension.Itisn'tcolorthatistheessenceofpaintingbut
surface.Init,initsdepths,spacelivesbyconforming.toitsown
infinity.'Inthesurface,thebeingofthingsopenstospace,notreally

216

EARLYWRITINGS

init.Andcolorisfirstofalltheconcentrationofthesurface,the
inbuildingofinfinityintoit.Purecolorisitselfinfinite,butin
paintingonlyitsreflectionappears. (
Margarethe: Howarethepainter'scolorsdistinguishedfromthoseof
theimagination?Andisn'timaginationtheprimalsourceofcolor?
Georg: Thatitisjalthoughthisisamatterforwonder.Butthepainter's
colorsarerelativeasComparedtotheabsolutecolorofimagination.
Purecolorisfoundonlyinperception;onlyinperceptionistherethe
absolute.^Painterlytcolorismerelythereflectedsplendorofimagina
tion.Insuchcolortheimaginationhasrecoursetocreating,makes
transitionswithlightandshadow,growspoor.Thespiritualground
intheimageisthesurface;'andwhenyou'vetrulylearnedtosee,you
seethis:thesurfaceilluminatesthecolor,notviceversa.Spatial
infinityistheformofthesurface;itisthecanon,andcolorx:omes
fromit.
Margarethe: Youwon'tbesoparadoxicalastosaythatimaginationhas
nothingtodowitharti^Andevenifart'scanonisspiritualandentails
theformativecreationoflivelinesswhichjiofcourse,refers,in
infinitelymanyways,tonaturealonetheartistneverthelessalso
conceives.Simplebeauty,thevision,thejoyofpurecontemplation
appearstohimnotlessbutrathermore,andmoredeeply,thanfous
others.
Georg: Howdoyouunderstandwhatappearsinimagination?Are'you
thinkingofitasaprototype[Vorbild] andthecreationascopy
[Abbild]'?
Margarethe: Thecreatorknowsnoprototypeandthereforenonein
imaginationeither.I'mthinkingofitnotasprototypeormodelbut
asprimalimage[Urbild].Asthatwhichappearsthatinwhichheis
consumed,inwhieh'heabides,thatwhichheneverleaves,andwhich
hasoriginatedinimagination.
i
Georg: TheMusegivestheartisttheprimalimageofcreation.It'strue
whatyousay.TAnd*whatelseisthisprimalimagethanthewarrant
ofthetruthofhiscreation,theguaranteeihatheisonewiththe
onenessofspirit,fromwhichmathematicsnolessthanplasticart
originates,historynolessthanlanguage?WhatelsedoestheMuse
guaranteethepoetbymeansoftheprimalimagethanthecanon
itself,theeternaltruthinwhichartisgrounded?Andthatintoxica
tionwhichflowsthroughournerves,duringthehighestintellectual
clarity^theconsumingintoxicationofcreationistheconscious

TheRainbow:AConversationaboutImagination 217

nessofcreatingwithinthecanon,accordingtothetruthwefulfill.In
thehandthatwritespoemsorthehandthatpaintspictures,inthe
musician'sfingers, in.themotionofthesculptor,thesinglemove,the
completeabsorptioninthegesturewhichheregardsasdivinely
inspiredinhimselfhehimself,themolder,asavision,hishand
guidedbythehandoftheMuseinallthistheimaginationholds
swayasperceptionofthecanonintheonewhoseesandinthethings.
Asunityofbothintheperceptionofathecanon.Itisonlythepower
ofimaginationthatconnectstheintoxicationofo;iewhoenjoysI
spokeofthat^totheintoxicationoftheartist.Andonlywhere.the
latterstrivestomaketheprimalimageintoamodel,onlywherehe
seekstdtakepossessionofthespiritualwithoutgivingitform,and
views.amorphously,onlytheredoestheworkbecomefanciful
[phantastisch].^
Margarethe: Butifimaginationisthegiftofpureconceptionin
general,'aren'twedefiningitsnaturetoobroadly?Forthenimagina
tionisineverymovementthatiswhollypure,whollyunselfcon
scious,andasthoughdoneintheperceivingofitindanceandsong
andwalkingandspeakingasmuchasinthepureseeingofcolor.And
whyhavewewantednonethelesstoseeimaginationpreeminentlyin
thephenomenonofcolor?
Georg: Certainly,thereisin'usapureperceptionofourmovement,
andofallourdoing,andonthisisfounded,Ibelieve;theimagina
tionoftheartist.Andyetcolorremainsthepurestexpressionpfthe
essenceofimagination.Fornocreativecapacityinthehumanbeing
correspondspreciselytocolor.'Thelineisnotreceivedsopurely,
becauseinourmindwecanalteritthroughmovement;andthetone
isnotabsolute,becausewehavethegiftofvoice.Theydon'tpartake
'ofthepure,inviolable,themanifestbeautyofcolor.Ofcourse,I
recognizethatsightispartofadistinctiveregionofthehumansenses
towhichnocreatiVecapacitycorresponds:colorperception,odor,
J andtaste.Noticehowclearlyandsharplylanguageregistersthis.It
hasthesametosayoftheseobjectsasoftheactivityofthesenses
themselves:theysmellandtaste.Oftheircolor,however,itsays:they
look.Oneneverspeaksthiswayofobjectsinordertodesignatetheir
pureform.Doyougetaninkling'ofthemysteriousdeeprealmof
spiritcommencinghere?
Margarethe: Didn'tIhaveapresentimentofsucharealmbeforeyou
did,Georg?ButIwantveryclearlytoseparatecolorfromthe

218

EARLYWRITINGS

mysteriousrealmofthesenses.Foraswedelvedeeperintothis
secondrealmofreceptivesensationtowhichnocreativecapacity
corresponds,theobjectsofthisrealmbecomemoresubstantialand
thenseslessabletoexperiencepurequalities.Theycan'tbegrasped
inthemselvesaloneinapure,autonomousactofattentionbutonlyas
qualitiesofasubstance.Butcolororiginatesintheinmostcoreof
imaginationpreciselybecauseitisqualityalone;,innorespectisit
substanceordoesitrefertosubstance.Hence,onecansayofcolor
onlythatitisquality,notthatithasaquality.It'sforthisreasonthat
colorshavebecomesymbolsforpeoplewithnoimagination.Incolor,
theeyeisturnedpurelytowardthespiritual;colorsparesthecreator
theneedtogothroughforminnature.Itallowsthefacultyofsense
inpurereceptiontoencounterthespiritualimmediately,toencoun
terharmony.Theonewhoseesiswhollywithinthecolor;tolookatit
meanstosinkthegazeintoaforeigneye,whereitisswallowed
uptheeyeofimagination.'"Colorsseethemselves;inthemisthe
pureseeing,andtheyareitsobjectandorganatthesametime.Our
eyeiscolored.Colorisgeneratedfromseeinganditcolorspure
seeing.
Georg: You'vespokenverybeautifullyofhow,incolor,theproperly
spiritualessenceofthesensesthereception^appears,andofJiow
color,assomethingspiritualandimmediate,isthepureexpressionof
imagination.AndIunderstandonlynowwhatlanguageissaying
whenitspeaksofthelookofthings.It'spointingpreciselytothesight
ofcolor.Coloristhepureexpressionofworldview,inthesenseof
seeingwiththeworld[Weltanschauen],overcomingtheonewhosees.
Throughimagination,colorisintouchwithodorandtaste,andthe
mostrefinedpersonswilldeveloptheimaginationfreelythroughthe
entirerangeoftheirsenses.I,forone,believethatchoicespiritshave
intimationsofaroma,evenoftaste,arisingpurelyfromwithin,as
othershavevisionsofcolor.JustthinkofBaudelaire.Theseextreme
imaginingswillevenBeaguaranteeofinnocence,siriceonlythepure
imagination,fromwhichtheyflow,isnotprofanedbyatmosphere
andsymbols.
Margarethe: Yourefertoinnocenceastheregionofimaginationin
whichsensationsstilllivepurelyasqualitiesinthemselves,untrou
bledasyetinthereceivingspirit.Isn'tthissphereofinnocencethe
sphereofchildrenandofartists?Iseenowclearlythatbothlivein'the
worldofcolor,andthatimaginationisthemediuminwhichthey

TheRainbow;AConversationaboutImagination 219

conceiveand'create.Apoethaswritten:"IfIweremadeoffabric,I
wouldcolormyself.""
Georg: Tocreateinreceivingistheconsummationofthertist.This
receptiveconceptionbyimaginationisaconceptionnotofthe
prototypebutofthelawsthemselves.'^Itwouldunitethepoetwithhis
figuresinthemediumofcolor.Tocreateentirelyonthestrengthof
imaginationispresumablytobedivine.Itwouldmeancreatingentirely
onthestrengthoflaws,immediately,andfreefromanyreferenceto
lawsthroughforms.Godcreatesbyanemanationofhisbeing,asthe
NeoPlatonistssay;thisbeingwuldfinallybenothingotherthanthe
imaginationfromwhoseessencethecanonemerges.Perhapsthisis
whatourpoetrecognizedincolor.
Margarethe:'Soonlythildrendwellentirelyininnocence,andin
blushingtheythemselvesrelapseintotheexistenceofcolor.Imagina
tionissopureinthemthatthey'recapableofthis.'^Butlook:it's
stoppedraining.Arainbow.
Georg: Therainbow.Lookatit.It'sjustcolor;nothingofitisform.And
it'stheemblemofthecanonthatemergesdivinelyoutofimagina
tion,forinittheunfoldingofbeautyisthatofnature.Itsbeautyisthe
lawitsfelf,.nolongertransformedinnature,inspace;nolonger
beautifulbyvirtueofequality,symmetry,orrules.Nolonger
beautifulthroughformsderivedfromthecanon,no,butbeautifulin
itselfInitsharmony,sincecanonandworkreasone.'#
Margarethe: Anddoesn'tallbeautyinwhichtheorderofthebeautiful
appearsasnaturegobacktothisbowasemblem?
Georg: It'sso.Thecanonresidesinpureperceptionand'ismanifest
solelyin'color.Forincolornatureisspiritualandconsideredfromits
spiritualside,ifis.purelyofcolor.Itisreallytheprimalimageofart
inkeepingwithitsexistenceinimagination.Naturelivesatits'most
inwardiriimagination,asthecommunityOfallthingsneither
creatingnorcreated.Inpureperceptionnaturehasconceived.All
objectivityinartgoesbacktothis.
Margarethe: IfonlyIcouldtellyouhowfamiliartomecoloris!A
worldofmemorysurroundsme.Ithinkofcolorsinthelifeof
children.Howeverywheretherecoloriswhatispurelyreceived,
theexpressionofimagination.Tolingerwithinharmony,over
nature,innocently.Thepolychromaticandmonochromatic;the
beautifulstrangetechnicsofmyoldestpicturebooks.Doyouknow
thowthecontourstherewereeverywheredissolvedinarainbow

220 EARLY WRITINGS

likeplay,howheavenandearthwerebrushedwithwashesof
transparentcolor!Howthecolorsalwaysfloated overthings,
winged,coloringthemverythoroughlyanddevouringthem.Think
ofthejnanychildren'sgamesthatdependonpureperceptionin
imagination:soapbubbles,teaparties,themoistcolorfulnessof
themagiclantern,watercolors,decals.Thecolorswerealwaysas
blurredaspossible,dissolving,quitemonotonouslyshaded,
withouttransitionsoflightandshadow.Woolysometimes,likethe
coloredyarnusedinembroidery.Therewerenomasses,aswiththe
colorsofpainting.Anddoesn'titseemtoyouthatthisunique
world.ofcolor,colorasmedium,assomethingwithoutspace,[als
Raumloses],wasadmirablyrepresentedbypolychromy?Adiffused,
spacelessinfinitudeofpurereceptionthat'showtheartworldof
thechildwasconfigured.Itsonlydimensionwasheight.
Children'sperceptionisitselfdiffusedincolor.Theydon'tdeduce.
Theirimaginationisintact.
Georg: Andallthethingsyouspeakofarejustvarioussidesofoneand
thesamecolorofimagination.Itiswithouttransitionsandyetplays
innumberlessnuances.Itismoist,anddissolvesthingsinthe
coloringofitscontour,amedium,purequalityofnosubstance,
manycoloredandyetmonochromatic,acoloredfillingout oftheone
Infinitethroughimagination.Itisthecolorofnatureofmountains,
trees,rivers,andvalleys,butaboveallofflowersandbutterflies,,the
seaandclouds.'Throughcolor,thecloudsaresonearimagination.
Andformetherainbowisthepurestmanifestationofthiscolorthat
spiritualizesandanimatesnaturethroughout,thatleadsitsorigin
backintoimaginationandmakesofnaturethemute,apperceived
primalimageofart.Intheend,religiontransposesitssacredrealm
intothecloudsanditsblessedrealmintoparadise.AndMatthias
Grnewaldpaintedthehalosofangelsonhisaltarwiththecolorsof
therainbow,sothatthesoulasimaginationshinesthroughthe
sacredfigures.'
Margarethe: Imaginationisalsothesoulofthedreamworld.The
dreamispurereception [Aufnehmen]ofappearanceinthepure
sense.ItwasofdreamthatIbeganspeaking;nowIcouldtellyou
evenlessofmydream,butyouyourselfhavecaughtsightofits
essence.
Georg: Inimaginationliesthegroundofallbeauty,whichappearsto
usinpurereception[Empfangen] alone.Itisbeautifulindeed,itis

TheRainbow:ACoifversationboutImagination

221

theessenceofbeautythattheJ)eautiflcanonlybejeceived,and
onlyinimaginationcantheartistliveandbeabsorbedintheprimal
image.ThenoredeeplyJjeautyentersintoawork,themoredeeplyit
isreceived.Allcreationisimperfect;allcreationlacksbeauty.'^Let's
besilent.

Notes
"DerRegenbogen:GesprchberdiePhantasie"(GS7,1926)waswrittenca.
JantiaryFebruary1915andpublishedposthumously.
1.GreteRadt(18911979) wasdoseto Benjaminfrom 1913on, andwas
hisfirstfiance (1914^1916)^ Thesister ofBenjamin's friendFritz Radt,she
wasactiveintheyouthmoveriientandacofttributortoDenAnfang.Shelater
marriedanotherclosefriend ofBenjamin's, AlfredCohn,and remainedin
touchwithBenjamintotheendofhislife.
Thetwo speakersinthis, thelast ofBenjamin's earlydialogues,use the
familiarmode ofaddress (du)with each other. Ihedialogue'is associated
withotherwritingsonpaintingandcolorfromtheperiod:seeSWl.4851
(19141915);GS6,109127(19141920).
2.Inthissentence,"reception"translatesAufnehmen,literallyth"taking
up"Und"fkingin."ItalsotranslatesEmpfangeninonecasebelow(seenote
9). In"The Rainbow,or TheArt ofParadise" (Chapter34 inthisvolume),
thereis anotation:"pure reception [Rezeption]color/ pufeproduction
form'.'("AphorismsontheTheme").
3. Onthe ideaof thecanon, comparefragment 94from 19171918 (GS6,
126):"Thecanonasformistobedefinedconceptually.Butformisonlybneside
ofthecanon;the othersideiscontent, whichis nottobegrasped conceptu
ally./The'onlpltedmusicalworkiscanon,inlanguageandnolongeraudible;
thetopostplace]ofthecanonislanguage.Completionofmusicrupturesinthe
poetic,intheuncompleted.Thecanonisinperception[Anschauung]^
4.Geistigmeansboth"spiritual"and"intellectual."
5."NichtdieFarbeistdasWesenderMalerei,sonderndieFlche.Inihr,
inderTiefe,lebtderRaumseinerUnendlichkeitnach."Nachlebenmeans"to
conformto,""toliveupto."
6.BenjaminusesthetermEinbildung,"imagination,"insuchawayasto
bringotititsrootmeaningswhichistranslatedhre.In"TheRainbow,orThe


'I
"
p
p
"
^
'I
JI

222 EARLY WRITINGS

TheRainbow:AConversationaboutImagination 223

ArtofParadise."hewrites:"Beautyisbasedonconcentration,andallbeauty
inartonconcentrationoffoim."
7."Perception"heretranslatesAnschauung,whichcanalsomean"intuition."
8.Onthedistinctionbetweentheimaginativeandthefancifulorfantas
tic.seethefragment"Imagination"(19201921).inSWl,280.
9."GabederreinenEmpfngnisberhaupt."Empfngnis isderivedfrom
theverbempfangen,whichinthetransitiveusuallymeans"toreceive"andin
the intransitive"to conceive,""to become pregnant." In thefragment. "A
Child'sViewofColor"(Chapter 32inthisvolume), Benjaminspeaksofthe
pureEmpfnglichkeit(receptivity,susceptibility)ofthechild,andinthefrag
ment"Imagination"hesaysthatpureconceiving(Empfngnis)is"thebasisof
everyworkofart"(SWl,281).Compare"LittleTricksoftheTrade."written
between1929and1933(SW2,730["AfterCompletion"]).TheideaofEmpfng
nisas receptiveconception alsoplays apart inBenjamin's 1916essay"On
LanguageasSuchandontheLanguageofMan"(Chapter40inthisvolume).
10.Compare thesection"Colors" (ca. 1938) inBenjamin's BerlinChild
hoodaround1900(SW3,380).
11.ThepoetisBenjamin'sfriendChristophFriedrichHeinle(18941914).
SeeGS6,121(fragment89).
12."Empfangend zuschaffen istdie Vollendung des Knstlers. Diese
Empfngnisaus Phantasie,istkeine EmpfngnisdesVorbilds sondern der
Gesetzeselbst." Inthis paragraph,the preposition"aus" isvariously trans.
latedas "by,""onthe strengthof,"and "from"(penultimate sentence).The
prepositionfigures inthelinequotedbyMargaretherightabove:"Wreich
ausStoff..."
13. See thebrief fragment, "Errten in Zorn undScham" (Blushing in
Angerand Shame; 19201921), inGS6, 120:"That [children]so frequently
feelashamedgoestogetherwiththefactthattheyhavesomuchimagination,
especiallyinearliestchildhood."
14."In derHarmonie, daKanon undWerk zugleichist." If"da"here is
reallysupposedtobe"die,''thesentencewouldread:"Intheharmonythatis
atoncecanonandwork."
15.Benjaminhadwritten;"Therewasnothingquantitative[5gabnichts
Quantitatives],as with the colorsof painting." His wife Dora crossed out
"nichtsQuantitatives"andinserted thecorrection"keineMengen"intothe
manuscript.
16.Matthias Grnewald(realname, MathisGothardtNithardt; d.1528)
wasaGermanpainterwhosevisionaryreligiousworksaredistinguishedby
expressivefiguraidistortionandiridescentcolor.Benjaminreferstohislarg

estandmostfamouspainting,theIsenheimAltarpiece(15101515),whichhe
visitedinColmar,Alsace, asastudentin1913.andareproductionofwhich
hunginhisstudyinhis parents'villainBerlin. HereturnstoGrnewald's
halosinhis1916essay"Socrates"(Chapter36inthisvolume).
17."...alleSchpfungistunschn."

IheRainbow,orTheArtofParadise

Chapter34

TheRainbow,or
TheArtofParadise

FromanOldManuscript^

Itisadifficultquestion:wherethebeautyofnaturecomesfrom.For
it must bealtogether different from thebeauty of paintingand of
plasticart,sincetheseartsarenot fashionedinimitation ofnatural
beauty. Andyet naturelikewise hasits beautyneither sporadically
nor byaccident; rather, its beautycomes of its own spirit.^ Thisis
shownbythefactthatgoodsoulswhohavemanagednottobeincul
catedwith artificialsimplicity areable todwell in natureandfind
natureaboveall,childrenbeautiful.Butnatureisnotbeautifulby
virtueofitsspace,byvirtueof proximityordistance,immensityor
smallness,abundanceorscarcity.Space isnot,by nature,beautiful,
and art is based on space (inasmuch as space is made beautiful
through transformation). Nature, however, is not based on space.
Whereveritisamatterofsuchspatialproperties,natureisbeautiful
notinlightofmereperceptionbutonlyinsomesentimental,andedi
fyingregard,aswhenone picturestheAlpsortheimmensityofthe
sea./Beautyisbasedonconcentration,andallbeautyinartoncon
centrationofform.To thehumanbeing,form aloneisgivenforthe
expressionofhisspirit,andallcreationsofthespiritrest onperfec
tionofform.Artcomesfromgeneration[Erzeugung] an4,inasmuch
224

225

asitcomestothegeneratedspirit,truthwillalwaysbeencounteredin
it.Spaceisproperlythemediumofgeneration inart,andartiscre
ativeonlytothedegreethatitproductivelysetsforthwhatisspiritual
aboutspace.Otherthaninart,spacehasnospiritualapparition.In
sculpture,spaceisinacertainwaygenerated,andthatthishappens
willnotbedoubted.Spaceis madeobjectivein proportiontoitsdi
mension.Thespaceofnature,inthisview,isundimensional,torpid,
anothing,ifitisnotanimatedby.humbleempiricalmeans.Without
suchanimation,threedimensionalspaceisunintelligible.Sculpture
hasto dowith aspace that.emergesthrough'generationandthat is
thereforeasintelligibleasitisunlimited.
Painting,too,generatesspacespiritually;itsgenerationofformis
likewisegrounded originallyin space,but itgenerates space inan
otherform.Sculpturebasesitself ontheexistenceofspace, painting
onthedepthofspace.Inthisregard,depthisnottobethoughtofasa
dimension.Thespatial depththat isgenerated inpainting concerns
therelationofspacetoobjects.Thisrelationismediated throughthe
surface.Inthesurfaced,thespatialnatureofthingsisdevelopedinit'
self,assomethingunempirical,concentrated.Notthedimensionbut
theinfinityofspaceisconstructedinpainting.Thishappensthrough
the surface, in'that,here, things develop not their dimensionality,
theirextensioninspace,buttheirbeingtowardspace.Thedepthyields
infinitespace.Inthisway,theformofconcentrationisgiven,butthis
nowrequiresforitsfulfillment,fortheallayingofitstension,apresen
tationof theinfinite initself and nolonger asdimensionaland.ex
tended.'The objectsrequirea formof appearancethat isgrounded
purelyontheirrelationtospace,thatexpressesnotlheir^dimensional
ity but thetension of their contour [ihre konturale Spannung], not
their structural but their painterlyform, their being in depth. For
without this the.surface does not attain to concentration, remains
twodimensional,andattainsonly delineated,perspectival,illusion
arydepthnot,however,depthasanundimensionalformofrelation
betweenspatialinfinityand'object.Therequiredformofappearanc
thataccomplishesthisiscolorinitsartisticsignificance.
Thecolorfulnessx)fanimageismeasuredbyhowmuchthecolor
develo'psthe contentof infinityfrom thespatialform ofthe object,

225 E'ARLY WRITINGS

TheRainbow,orTheArtofParadise 227

howmuchitsetsanobjectintothesurfaceandfromoutofitselfgives
depthtotheobject.
Clothingandadornmentnotmentionedinthedialogue.^

perceivedbychildrenexistsentirelyinitself,andcanberelatedtono
higherconceptofcolor(throughdevelopment).^
Theclouds

A p h o r i s m s o n t h e T h e m ^ '

Thegazeofimagination[Phantasie] isaseeingfromwithinthecanon,
notinaccordancewithit;thereforepurelyreceptive,uncreative.
Works.of art are beautiful onlyin the realm of ideas [nur in
derIdee]; totheextent thattheyareinaccordance withthe canon
rather than within it, they are not beautiful. (Music, Futurist
painting?)
Alltheartsareultimatelybasedonimagination.
Colordoesnotrelatetoopticsthewaylinerelatestogeometry/
Thebeautyofnature
andofthechild
purereceptioncolor
fillingout,contour/spiritual
arethemediumofcolor

unintellectualnatureof
reception [Rezeption].Pure
seeing
specialhandlingofcolor
inwatercolorsandthelike
contour,monochromaticism,
nuances,
handlingofgroundandair
reliefdrawinginsteadof
perspectival

Thebeautyofart
pureproductionform
themediumofforms:
space/empirical
dimensionality^sculpture)
infinity(painting)

inpainting
purepainting,technical
designandmodeling
throughcolor..

Inpainting,acolorcannotbeconsideredasstandinginitselfalone;it
standsinrelationandhassubstanceassurfaceorground,inoneway
oranother isshaded andconnected tolight anddarkness. Coloras

Notes
"DerRegenbogenoderdieKunstdesParadieses"(GS7,562564)waswritten
ca.niid1915andpublishedposthumously.
1.Thisfragmentarytexttakesupsomeofthethemesof"TheRainbow:A
ConversationaboutImagination" (Chapter33 inthisvolume),even though
theword"rainbow"occursonlyinthe title.Itwas evidentlyconceivedasa
recastingoftheearlierdialogueintotheformofatreatisehavingthecharac
terofapseudoepigraph,aworkcarryingafalsetitleorfalselyascribedtoan
older authority. Compare "A Child's View of Color" (Chapter 32 in this
volume).
2 . " . . . i h r e S c h n h e i t istv o n e i g n e m Geist."
3."Allaying of its tension"translates Befriedigung ihrer Spannung.The
nextsentenceindicatesthatwhatisatstakeintheFormderKonzentrationis
notsimplythealleviationbuttheexpressionorarticiilationofatension.
4.Referenceisto"TheRainbow:AConversationaboutImagination."
5.Withthe exceptionoftheparagraph beginning"Inpainting,"thefol
lowingsectionofnotes, perhapsindicatingtopics,tobecoveredin anenvi
sionedcontinuationof thetext, iscrossedout inthemanuscript. Compare
"Aphorismson Imaginationand Color"(19141915), inSWl, 4849/ GS6,
109,wheresomeofthesamenotesappear.
6. On the ideaof tKe canon, see"Ihe Rainbow: A Conversationabout
Imagination"andnote3tothattext.
7. Se"Ihe Rainbow: A Conversationabout Imagination"for more on
colorinthelifeofchildren.
8.Ihemotifof"clouds"appearsattheendof"IheRainbow:AConversa
tionaboutImagination."

TheHppinessofAncientMan 229

Chapter35

TheHappinessofAncientMan

hehumanbeingwhocomesintotheworldafterantiquityknows
perhapsonlyonementalstateinwhich,withcompletepurityand
complete greatness alike, he sets his inwardness in relation to the
wholeof nature,of thecosmos: namely, pain.'Sentimentalman,as
Schillercallshim,canattainanapproximatelypureandgreatthatis
tosay,apf)roximatelynvesenSeofhimselfonlyatthehighpriceof
gatheringhiswholeinnerbeingtoaunitydivorcedfromnature.^His
highesthumansimplicityandintegrityrestsonthisseparationfrom
naturethroughpain,andinthisoppositionappearsalikeasentimen
talphenomenonandareflection.Itmightwellbethoughtthatreflec
tionhastakenholdofmodernman withsuchintensitythatinplain,
simplehappiness thatknows noopposition tonature hefinds the
innerman tooinsubstantialand uninterestingtobe unfoldedfreely
outwardfromthedepths,asopposedtoremaininghidden,enclosed,
ina kind ofshame. For themodern man,too, happiness naturally
signifiesa state of thenave soul kat' exochn,but nothingis more
characteristicthanthemodern'sattempttoreinterpretinsentimental
termsthispurestrevelation ofthenave.'Theconcepts ofinnocence
andofthechildlike,withtheirwelteroffalseandcorruptrepresenta

bas

tions, serve to fuel this process of reinterpretation. Whereas the

naivethegreatinnocence livesin immediatecontactwith allthe
forcesandiformsof thecosmos,andfinds its.symbolsin thepurity,
power,andbeautydf.theform,forthemodernmanthismeansthein
nocence of the homunculus, a jnicroscopic, diminutive innocence,
havingtheformofasoulthatknowsnothingofnatureandthat,thor
oughlyashamed,doesootdareacknowledgeitsconditioneven.toit
self,asthougha happymantorepeatwerea constructtooempty
andunsupportednot tocdllapseinshameatthesightofitself.Thus,
'themodernsensationofhappinesshassomethingatoncepaltryand
furtiveabout it,and ifhasspawned theidea of thehappy soulthat
beliesits happinessin continualactivity andartificial restriction of
feeling.Thesamesignificanceattachesto*,theideaofchildhodhappi
ness,forinthechilditlikewisedoesnotseethesensitive,purebeing
in whom feeling is expressed moreimmediately than in another;
jather,it'seesanegocentricchild,onethat,'by.itsunknowingnessand
absorptionin play,reinterprets natureand reducesit tounacknowl
edgedfeelings.InBchners Lenz,*inareverieoftheailingmanwho
longs for peace, thesmall"happinessoflihe sentimentalsoul is de
scribedthisway:

"
"Yousee,"hresume,"whensheusedtowalkthroughtheroom,
singinghalftoherself,andeverystepshetookwasakindofmusic,
'therewassomuchhappinessinher,andthatoverflowedintome;1was
alwaysat^cewhenIlobkedatherorwhensheleanedherhead
againstme,ndshewaswhollyachild;itseemdasifth.worldwere
toowideforher:she.wassoretiring,shewouldlookforthenarrowest
placeinthewholehouse,andthereshe'dsitasthoughallher^happiness
wereconcentratedintoonelittlepoint,and,thenIthoughtsoto;then
Icouldhaveplayed,likeachild."*
Itis'decisivefortheimagewhichancientmanhasofhappinessthat
thatsmallmodestythatwouldburyhappinessintheindividual,con
cealingitdeepwithinhimwhereitcannotbereachedthroughreflection
(asa talismanagainst misfortune),becomesinancient manits most

230 EARLY WRITINGS

fearfulcontrary,becomesthesacrilegeofrecklesspride,becomeshubris.
FortheGreek,hubrisistheattempttopresentoneselftheindividual,
theinnerpersonasbearerofhappiness;hubrisisthebeliefthathap
pinessisan attribute,andprecisely thatof modesty;itisthe belief
that happinessessomethingother [etwasanderes] thanagift of the
gods,agifttheycanwithdrawatanyhour,justasatanyhour,theycan
decreeimmeasurablemisfortuneforthevictor{writnessthereturning
Agamemnon).'Now,thisistosaythattheforminwhichhappinessis
visitedupon ancientman isvictory. Hishappiness'isnothingif not
this:thatthe godshave destinedit tobe his,andit is.hisdestinyto
believethatthegodshavegivenittohimandtohimalone.Atthisex
alted'hour that makesthe man a hero,it was tokeep reflection far
fromhim,tolavishhimatthishourwithalltheblessingsthatrecon
cilethevictorwithhiscity,withthegrovesofthegods,withtheeuse
beiaof theancestors, andfinally withthe power"ofthegods them
selvesitwas forthis thatPindar sanghishymns tovictory. Both,
then,aremetedouttoancientmaninhappiness:victoryandcelebra
tion,meritandinnocence.Bothwiththesamenecessity.andrigor."For
no one can boast of his<own merit when he is a champion in the
games;against even themost outstandingthe.godscould send one
moreglorious,whothrowshiminthedust.Andhe,thevictor,willin
turngivethanksallthemoretothegodswhohavegranted himvic
toryoverthemostheroic.Whereisthereroomhereforthestubborn
presumptionofmerit, theadventurer'sexpectationofhappinessthat
enablsthebourgeoistoget byinlife?Theagonand thisisadeep
rootedmeaning ofthat institutionaccords,toeachthe measureof
happiness"whichthegodshavedecreedfor.him.^But,again,whereis
thereroomherefortheempty,idleinnocenceoftheunknowingwith
whichmodern manconcealshishappinessfrom himself?Thevictor
standsthere visible toall, lauded bythe people;,innocencfe is abso
lutelynecessarytohimwhoholdsaloftthevesselofvictorylikeabowl
fullof wine,onespilled dropof which,falling onhim, wouldstain
himforever.Hedoesnotneedtorenounceorbelieanymeritthegods
havegivenhim,nordoesheneedtoreflectonhisinnocence,likethe
small,unquiet soul;what heneeds isfulfillment ofthe blessings,so

TheHappinessofAncientMan

231

thatthedivinecirclethatonceelectedhimwillkeepthestrangernear
it,amongtheheroes.
Thehappinessofancientmanisconsummatedinthevictorycele
bration:inthefamefhiscity,intheprideofhisdistrictand.hisfam
ily,intheexultationofthegods,andinthesleepthatcarrieshimaway
totheheroes.

Notes
"DasGlckdesantikenMenschen"(GS2,126129)waswrittenca.June1916
andpublishedposthumously.
1.Ina letterto HerbertBelmore writtentoward theendof 1916(CWB,
84),Benjamin placesthisessayfirst inalistoffive ofhis recentessaysthat
endswith"OnLanguageasSuch andonthe LanguageofMan" (composed
November 1916).The second essayon thelist is"Socrates" (composedca.
June1916);thethirdis"TrauerspielandTragedy,"andthefourthis"The'Role
ofLanguageinTrauerspielandTragedy."Hiefiveessays,noneofwhichwere
publishedduringtheauthor's lifetime,aretranslated inthisvolumein the
orderindicatedinBenjamin'sletter.
2.Benjaminreferstothefamousessay,"bernaveundsentimentalische
Dichtung"(On NaveandSentimental Poetry;1795),bythe poetandplay
wrightFriedrichvonSchiller(17591805).
3."Happiness"here translatesGlck, whichalso signifies"luck,good
fortune." Kat' exochn is an ancient Greek expression meaning "par
excellence."
4.GeorgBchner,Leonceand Lena,Lenz,Woyzeck,trans.MichaelHam
burger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), 52. The playwright
Bchner(18131837)composedhisonlyknownnovella,theunfinishedLenz
(1835),onthebasis offactualevidencefromthelifefJ. M.R.Lenz (1751
1792),aleadingGermandramatistoftheSturmund Drangperiodwhosuf
feredintermittent mentalillness.In thepassage quotedby Benjamin,Lenz
recalls his brief and unsuccessfulcourtship of Goethe'sfriend, Friederike
Brion,in1772.
5.OnhisreturntohiscityofArgos,afterleadingtheAchaeanstovictory
at Troy, thelegendary Greek hero Agamemnon is murdered byhis wife

232 EARLY WRITINGS

Clytemnestraand herlover Aegisthlis, in revngefor hissacrifice of their

daughterIphigeniatenyearsearlier.
6.Pindar(522?443?B.C.) wasaGreeklyricpoet rememberedespecially
forhisodeshonoringvictorsinthegames.Eusebeiameans"piety."
7. AgonisGreek for"struggle."It referredtotheorganized contest(ath
letic,literary,orother)atpublicfestivalsinancientGreece.

Chapter36

Socrates

I.
Whatismostbarbaricaboutthefigure ofSocratesis thatthisman
estrangedfrom theMusesconstitutestheerotic centerof relation
ships in the circle around Plato.' But if hislove lacks thegeneral
powerofcommunicatingitself,ifitlacksart,howdoeshesustainit?
By means of will.Socratesforces eros toserve his purposes.This
outrageisreflectedinthecastratednessofhisperson.For,inthelast
analysis,thatiswhattheAtheniansabhor;theirfeeling,evenifsub
jectivelybase,ishistoricallyintheright.Socratespoisonstheyoung;
heieadsthemastray.Hisloveforthemisneithei"end""norpure ei
dos,butratherameans.^Suchisthe'magician,themaieuticianwho
interchangesthesexes,theinnocentlycondem'riedonewhodiesout
ofironytindindefianceofhisopponents.'Hisironyisnourishedby
thehorror, yet he nonethelessremains theoppressed, theoutcast,
thedespised"one.Heis even somethingof a clown.TheSocratic
dialogueneedstobestudiedinrelationtomyth.WhatdidPlatoin
tendwith it?Socrates: thisis thefigure inwhich Platohas annihi
latedthe old>mythandreceived it.Socrates:this isthe offeringof
philosophyto thegods of myth,who demandhuman sacrifice.In
233

234 EARLY WRITINGS

themidstofthe terriblestruggle,theyoungphilosophyattemptsto
assertitselfinPlato.'*

II.
Grnewald painted the saints with such grandeur that their halos
emergedfromthegreenestblack.'Theradiantistrueonlywhereitis
refractedinthenocturnal;onlythereisitgreat,onlythereisitexpres
sionless,only thereisit asexualandyet ofsupramundanesexuality.
Theonewhoradiatesinthismanneristhegenius,thewitnesstoevery
trulyspiritualcreation.Heconfirms,heguaranteesitsasexulity.Ina
societyofmen,therewouldbenogenius;geniuslivesthroughtheex
istenceofthefeminine.Itistrue:theexistenceofthewomanlyguar
anteestheasexualityof thespiritualintheworld.Wherevera work,
anaction,athoughtariseswithoutknowledgeofthisexistence,there
arisessomethingevil,dead.Whereitarisesoutofthisfemaleelement
itself,it isflat andweak anddoes notbreak throughthe night.But
whereverthisknowledgeconcerningthefeminineprevailsintheworld,
thereisbornwhatispropertogenius.Everydeepestrelationbetween
manandwomanrestsonthegroundofthistruecreativityandstands
underthesignofgenius.Foritisfalsetodesignatetheinnermostcon,
tactbetweenmanandwomanasdesirouslove,sinceofallthestages
ofsuchlove,includingmalefemalelove,themostprofound,themost
splendid and mosterotically and mythicallyperfect, indeedalmost
radiant(ifitwere^nptsowhollyofthenight),isthelovebetweenwoman
andwoman. Howthe mereexistence of thewoman guarantees,the
asexualityof thespiritual remainsthegreatest mystery.Human.be
ingshavenotbeen.abletosolveit.Forthemgeniusisstillnottheex
pressionlessonewhobreaksoutofthenight,butratheranexpressive
onewhohoversandvibratesinthelight.
Inthe Symposium,Socratescelebrates thelove between menand
youthsandacclaimsitasthemediumofthecreativespirit.^According
tohisteaching,theknoweris pregnantwithknowledge,andingen
eralSocratesunderstandsthespiritualonlyasknowledgeandvirtue;
Thespiritualone,however,whileperhapsnotthebegetter,iscertainly

Socrates

235

theone whoconceives without becoming pregnant.Just as,for the

woman,immaculateconceptionistheexaltedidea ofpurity,socon
ceptionwithoutpregnancyismostprofoundlythespiritualmanifes
tationof malegenius.This manifestation,for itspart, isa radiance.
Socratesextinguishesit.ThespiritualinSocrateswassexualthrough
and through.His concept of spiritual conception is pregnancy;his
conceptofspiritualprocreationisdischargeofdesire.Thisisrevealed
bythe'Sodraticmethod,whichisentirlydifferentfronithe'Platonic.
TheSocratic inquiryis not theholy question thatawaitsan answer
andwhose ecTio resoundsin theresponse: jit does not,as,doesthe
purelyeroticorscientificquestion,intimate themethodos ofthe an
swer.Rather, a meremeaijs tocompel conversation,itforcibly,,even
impudently,dissimjilates, ironizpsrforitalreadyknows the'ans\\^er
alltoopreciselyTheSocraticquestionbesetstheanswerfrom with
out,itcornersitasdogswouldanoblestag.TheSocraticquestionis
notdelicate, norisitsomuch creativeasreceptive;ithasnothingof
geniusaboutit. LiketheSocraticironythatlies hiddenin itifone
allowsaterribleimageforaterriblething^itisanerectionofknowl
edge.Throughhatredarid desir,Socratespursues theeidos andat
temptstomakeitbljjective,sinceitsdisplayisdeniedhim.(Andought
PlatoniclovetomeanunSocraticlove?)Tothisterribledominationof
sexualviewsinthespiritualcorrespondspreciselyasaconsequence
ofthistheimpuremixtureoftheseconceptsinthenatural.Socrates
talkintheSymposiumreferstoseedandfruit,procreationapdbirth,
indemonicindistinguishability,andpresentsinthespeaker himself
theterriblemixtureofcastratoandfaun.Intruth,Socratesisanon
human [ein NichtMenschlicher],and hisdiscussion of eros isinhu
man,likethediscussionofsomeonewhohasnotthefaintestideaof
thingshuman.ForthisishowSocratesandhiserosstandinthegra
dation of the erotic: the femalfmale, the malemale, the male
female, specter, daemon, genius. Socrates was served ironic justice
withXanthippe.

236 EARLY WRITINGS

Notes
"Sokrates"(GS2,129132)waswritten ca.June1916andpublished posthu
mously.TranslatedbyThomasLevin.
1.Ihisshortessaywaspreserved ina copymadeby GershomScholem,
whodatesit"summej1916."Inhismepioir,WalterBenjamin:TheStoryofa
Friendship,trans. HarryZohn (NewYork:Schocken, 1981),Scholem men
tionsthat,duringavisithemadetoBenjaminandhiswifetobe,DoraPol
lak,in midJune1916, Benjamin"read us...excerptsfroma fewpages on
SocrateshehadWrittenatthattime[damals]...Inthisworkhepropounded
thethesisthatSocrateswas'Plato'sargumentandbulwarkagainstmyth'"(30
[trank mddified]).See alsoBenjamin's letterto HerbertBefmore fromthe
endof1916(CWB,'84).TheAthenianphiloSbjjherSocrates(ca.469399"B.C.)
was,accordingtosomeaccounts,thesonofaprosperousstonerhason;heleft
nowritings andis knownonly throughthe writingsof othersaboveall,
thoseofhisaristocraticdisciplePlato(ca.427347B.C.).Inatrialbeforethe
AtjhenianSei^a^,hewasconvictedofimpietyandofcorruptingtheyouthof
Athensandsentencedtodie.bydrinkingapotionofhemlock.Ahhough he
couldhaveescapedthecity,hechosetoremainandaccepthispunishment.
2.IheGreek;Wordeidos, meaning"appearance,form,idea,"isacentral
terminthephilosophicalidealismofSocratesandPlato.
3. At the end of Plato's dialogue on knowledge, Theaetetus (210bd),
Socratesremarksthathismotherpracticedthecraftofmidwiferyandthathe
himselfisamidwife(rnaiahence"maieutician")ofsouls,onewhoinduces
thebirthofthoughtthrougha'logicalsequenceofquestionsthatbringforth
theknowledgewithwhicharespondentis"pregnant.""'
4.SeeNietzsche,DiefrhlicheWissenschaft,340(Benjamin'snote).See,in
English, Friedrich Nietzsthe,The Gay Science (1882,1886), aphorism 340,
"IheDyingSocrates,"whereiNietzschediagnosesasecretpessimismin"this
mockingand amorousdemon [Unhold] andratcatcher ofAthens." Benja
minreturnstothefigureofthedyingSocrates,citingNietzsche'sreflections
onthesubjectinsection13ofDieGeburtderTragdie(IheBirthofTragedy;
1872),inhis1928 Ursprungdesdeutschen Trauerspiels(GSl,292293, 297);
see The Origin of German Tragic Drama, trans. John Osborne (London:
Verso.1977),113114,118.
5.Matthias Grnewald(real name,Mathis Gothardt Nithardt;d.1528)
wasaGermanpainterwhosevisionaryreligiousworksaredistinguishedby
expressivefigurai distortion and iridescent color. Grnewald'shalos are

Socrates

237

recalledalsoin"IheRainbow:AConversationaboutImagination"(Chapter
33inthisvolume)
6.Onthefeminineorwomanly(dasWeibliche)inrelation togenius,see
thesection"TheConversation,"in"IheMetaphysicsofYouth"(Chapter26in
thisvolume).
'
' ,
7.IhereferenceistoPlato'sdialogueonlove,Symposium(211d212b).
8. Xanthippe wasSocrates' wife, a younger woman whom he married
whenhewasaboutfiftyandwhoborehimthreesons.Accordingtoancient
writersotherthanPlato,shewasafierceshrew.

OntheMiddleAges

Chapter37

OntheMiddleAges

nhischaracterizationofthemedievalspirit,FriedrichSchlegelsees
thenegative momentof thisepoch inthe reigningunconditional
orientationtowardtheabsolute,whichmakesitselffeltinartasman
neredimagination,inthephilosophyandtheologyofscholasticismas
anoless manneredrationalism.'Thischaracterization isfurtherde
velopedthroughthecontrastwiththeAsiaticorientationofspirit.The
Asiaticspiritislikewisedistinguished,inphilosophyandreligion,by
an unrestrained immersion in the absolute. Nevertheless, an abyss
separatesitfromthemedievalspirit.Thegreatestofitsformsareany
thingbut mannered.Its innermostdifference fromthespirit of the
MiddleAgesresidesin thefactthattheabsolute,outof whichit un
foldsthelanguageof itsforms,is presenttoit asthe most powerful
content.ThespiritoftheOrienthasatitsdisposaltherealcontentsof
theabsolute,somethingalreadyindicatedintheunityofreligion,phi
losophy,andart,and,aboveall,intheunityofreligion andlife.Itis
oftensaidthatintheMiddleAgeslifewasgoverned byreligion.But,
inthefirst place,the governingpower wasthe ecclesia,and, inthe
second,betweenthegoverningprincipleandtheprincipleofthegov
ernedthereisalwaysadivide.Whatisaboveallcharacteristicofthe
spiritoftheMiddleAgesis preciselythefactthat,asitstendencyto
238

239

wardtheabsolutebecomesmoreradical,thistendencybecomesmore
formal.Thegigantic mythologicallegacyof antiquityisnot yetlost,
but themeasure of its realfoundation islacking, and thereremain
onlyimpressionsofitspower:Solomon'sring,thephilosophers'storte,
theSibyllineBooks.^ Alivein the"Middle Agesis theformalidea of
mythologythatwhich confers power,the magical.But thispower
can no longer be legitiniate:'the'Church has bolished the feudal
lordsthegodswhoconferredit.Hre,then,isanoriginofthefor
malisticspiritoftheepoch.'lfaimstoachievepowerindirectlyovera
nature purged of gods; it practices magic without a mythological
foundation.Thereemerges a,magicalsckematism.We maycompare
themagicalpracticesofantiquitywiththoseof,theMiddleAgesinthe
areaofchemistry:theancientmagicutilizesthesubstanceso|'nature
forpotionsandunctionsthathaveaspecificrelationtothemythologi
calrealmofnature.Thealchemistseeksthroughmagicalmeans,to
besurebutwhat?Gold.Thesituationofartisanalogous.Artorigi
nates,withornament,inthemythic.TheAsiaticornamentissaturated
withmythology,whdreas theGothicornamenthasbecomeational
rtigical;itworksbutonmen,notongods.Thesublimemustap^ear
asthehighandthehighest;theGothicpresentsthemethanicarquin
tessenceofthesublimethehigh,theslendr,thepotentiallyn|inite
sublime.Progressisautomatic.Thesameprofoundexternality,empty
ofgodsbutfullofyearning,isfoundagaininthepictorialstyleofthe
GermanEarlyRenaissancean4ofBotticelli.'Themanneredqijalityof
thisfantasticartderivesfromitsformalism.Whereformalismwould
secureaqc^ss tqtheabsolute, thelattef in a certain sense becomes
smallerinscale,and justasthedevelopment oftheGothicstylewas
possibleonlywithin theoppressivelyconstrictedspaces ofmedieval
towns,soalsocoulditarise onlyonthe basisofa viewoftheworld
which,irfconformitywithitsabsolutescaleofmagnitude,iscertainly
morecircumscribedthanthatofantiquity,*asitismorecircumscribed
thanthatoftody.AttheheightoftheMiddleAges,thancientview
oftheworldwasinlargemeasurefinallyforgotten,and,inthedimin
ishedworld[dieser.verkleinertenWelt] thatremained,therewasborn
the scholastic rationalism and the selfconsuming yearning of the
Gothic.

240

EARLYWRITINGS

Notes

Chapter38

"berdasMittelalter"(GS2,132133)waswrittenca.summer1916andpub
lishedposthumously.
1.FriedrichvpiSchlegel(17721829)wasaleadipglight,pfearlyGerman
Romanticism.HewastheauthorofthefragmentarynovelLucinde(1799);an
editorofthe peroica Athenaeum(179818P0), inwhich hepublishedhis
philosophicalandcriticalaphorismsandhis"Gesprch^er^diePqesie"(Di
alogueonPoetry);andinhislateryearshelecturedwidelyonancieiit,medi
eval,andmodernphilosophyandhistory.Inaletter ofJuly2,1916,toGer
shomScholem', 'enjamin mritionsthat he"is reading FriedrichSchlegel's
1828 lectureson the philosophyof history (GBl,324). The manuscript of
Benjamin'sshortessayontheMiddleAgesexistsnlyiniheformofacopy
madebyScholem,whodatesit"summer1916."
2.Solomon'sring,inmedievalJewish,Islamic,andChristialegend,was
amagicalsignetringengravedwiththenameofGodandsaid tohavebeen
possessedbyKingSolomon,jtowhomitgavethepowertocommanddemons
andspeakwithanimals.Thephilosophers'stone,inmedievalalphemy,wasa
substancethat wasbelieved tohave thepower oftransmuting basemetals
intogold;^tvjasalsocalledthe,elixiroflife.TheSibyllineBcjokswereorigi
nallyaollectinofGreekoracleswhichweresupposedlyutteredbyprophet
essesknownassibyls,andwhichwerekeptinatempleofancientRometobe
consultedattimesofcrisis;theMiddleAgeshadaccesstoatext^bythisname
thatwasactuallyapasticheofpagan mythologyproduceca'npnymouslyby
Jewish,Christian,andGnosticauthorsfromthesecondtothefifthcentury
A.D.

3.EarlyRenaisaticeartin Gefftiany,exemplifiedbypaintersof theCo

logneSchoollikeWilhelmvonHerle'(whodiedin1378)andStephanLoch
ner(ca.'14001451),wasdominatedbyaversionoftheInternationalGothic,
alyrical"softstyle"involvingthedeploymentofgraceful;slenderfiguresina
stagelikearchitecturalsetting.ThepaintingsoftheFlorentinemasterSfndro
Botticelli(14451512),suchasthe,fampusPrimavera (a.'1482)
Birthof
Venus(a.1485),arelikewisedistinguishedbylowreliefandgracefullyppged
figures.

TrauerspielandTragedy

tmaybethatadeeperunderstandingofthetragicwiUhavetocome
notonly,andnotprimarily,fromartbutfromhistory.'Atthevery
least, it may be supposed that the tragic marks a boundary,of the
realmof artnolessthanof thefieldof history.The timeof history
passesover intotragictimeat distinctandoutstandingpointsof its
course;namely,intheactionsofgreatindividuals.Betweengreatness,
inthe senseof hitftory,on theone hand,'andtragedy, onthe other,
thereisanessentialconnectionwhichofcoursecahnotberesolved
intoidentity.Butthismuchiscertain:historicalgreatnesscanberep
resentedinartonlyintheformof.tragedy.Historicaltimeisinfinite
inevery directionand unfulfilledat everymoment. Thismeans,we
cannotconciveofaparticularempiricaleventthatwouldhaveanec
essaryrelationtothespecifictimeinwhichitoccurs.Timeisforthe
empiricaleventonlyaform,but,whatismoreimportant,asaformit
isunfulfilled.Theeventdoesnotfulfilltheformalnatureofthetime
inwhichitlies.Forweshuldnotassumethattimeispothingbutthe
measurebywhichthe durationof amechanicalchange isreckoned.
Thissortoftimeisindeedarelativelyemptyform,andtothinkofits
beingfilled makesno sense.The timeof history,however, issome
thingdifferentfromthatofmechanics.Thetimeofhistorydetermines
241

TrauerspielandTragedy 243
242 EARLY WRITINGS

muchmorethanthepossibilityofspatialchangesofaspecificmagni
tudeandregularityregularityasmeasuredbythemovinghandsofa
clocksimultaneouslywithspatialchangesofamorecomplexstruc
ture. And without specifying the something more and something
otherwhichhistoricaltimedeterminesinshort,withoutdefiningits
differencefrom niechanicaltimewe maysaythat thedetermining
force of the historicalform of time cannot befully grasped by, or
whollyconcentrated in.any empiricaleventuality. Rather,an event
thatis complete inhistorical termsis altogetherindeterminate em
pirically;itis,infact,anidea.Thisideaoffulfilledtimeappearsinthe
Bibleas itsdominant historicalidea: asmessianic time.But, inany
case,theideaoffulfilledhistoricaltimeisnotunderstoodastheidea
ofanindividualtime.Thisdetermination,whichnaturallytransforms
the meaning of fulfillment, is what differentiates tragic time from
messianictime. Tragictime relatesto thelatter asindividually ful
filledtimerelatestodivinelyfulfilledtime.
Tragedy is distinguished from Trauerspiel through the different
waystheyrelate tohistoricaltime.^ Intragedytheherodies because
noonecanliveinfulfilledtime.Hediesofimmortality.Death isan
ironicimmortality; that is theorigin of tragicirony..The origin of
tragicguiltliesinthesamesphere.Suchguilthasitsrootsinthetragic
hero'sveryown, individuallyfulfilled time.Thistimeproper tothe
tragicherowhich, like historical time,cannot be further defined
heremarksallhisdeedsandhisentireexistenceasifwithamagic
circle.When thetragic developmentsuddenly makesits incompre
hensible appearance, when the smallest mistep leads to guilt and
whentheslightest error,themostimprobable coincidence,resultsin
death,whenthewordsofappeasementand resolutionthatareseem
inglyavailable toall remain unspokenthenwe arewitnessing the
effect of thehero's timeon theaction,since infulfilled timeevery
thingthathappens isa functionof that'tim.Itisalmosta paradox
thatthisfunction becomesmanifest inall itsclarityat themoment
whentheheroiscompletelypassive,whentragictimeburstsopen,so
tospeak,like aflower whosecalyx emitsthe astringentperfume of
irony.Notinfrequentlyitisinmomentsofcompletecalmduringthe
hero'ssleep,asitwerethatthefatalityofhistimefulfillsitself,and

likewisethemeaningoffulfilledtimeinthetragicfateemergesinthe
great momentsofpassivity.: in thetragic,decision,in thf.retarding
moment,in thecatastrophe.The measureof Shakespeareantragedy
residesinthemasterywithwhichitsetsoffthedifferentstagesoftrag
edyfromoneanotherandmakesthemstandout,likerepetitionsia
theme.Incontrast,classicaltragedyischaracterizedbytheevermore
powerfulupsurge of tragicforces. Theancients knowof tragicfate,
whereasShakespeareknowsofthetragichero,,thetragicaction.Goethe
rightlycallshimRomantic.'
Deathinthetragedyis^nironicimmortality,ironicfromanexcess
of determinacy;the tragicdeath isoverdetermined: thatis thereal
expressionof thehero'sguilt.PerhapsHebbelwasonthe righttrack
when he said that individuation was original sin." But it is all
importanttoaskwhatitisthatthesinofindividuationoffendsagainst.
Inthiswaythequestionofaconnectionbetweenhistoryandtragedy
canbeformulated.Wearenotspeakinghereofanindividuationtobe
comprehendedwithreferencetoman.DeathintheTrauerspielisnot
basedonthatextremedeterminacywhichindividualtimeconferson
theaction.Itisnot conclusion;withoutthecertitudeof ahigherlife
andwithoutirony,itisthemetabasisfalllifeeisallogenos?Inmath
ematicaltermstheTrauerspieliscomparabletoonebranchofahyper
bolawhoseother branchliesin theinfinite.Thelawof ahigher life
prevailsintherestrictedspaceofearthlyexistence,andallthingsplay
untildeath putsan end tothe game,so asto continue,in another
world,thegreaterrepetitionofthesamegame.Itisthisrepetitionon
whichthelawof theTrauerspiel isfounded.Itseventsareallegorical
schemata,symbolicmirrorimagesofadifferentgame.Weareteans
ported intothat gameby death. The timeof theTrauerspiel isnot
fulfilled,yetitisfinite.Itisnonindividual,butwithouthistoricalgen
erality.TheTrauerspielisineveryrespectahybridform.Thegeneral
ityof itstime isspectral, not mythic.Its innermostrelationto the
pecuUar mirrornatureof'game andplay [Spiegelnatur des Spiels] is
indicatedbythefactthatithasanevennumberofacts.Asinallother
respects,Schlegel'sAlarcosisexemplaryhere,justasingeneralitisan
outstandingwork withwhich toconduct ananalysis of theTrauer
spiel?,Itscharactersareofroyalrankandstation,asmustnecessarily

244 EARLY WRITINGS

TrauerspielandTragedy 24s

bethecaseintheconsummateTrauerspiel,giventhesymbohclevelof
meaning.Thisformofdramaiseniobledbythedistancethatevery
where separates image and mirrorimage, signifier and signified.
Thu,theTrauerspidiscertainlynottheimgeofahigherlifebutonly
onoftwomirrorimages,anditscontinuationisnotlessphantasmal
thanitself. Thedead becomeghosts. The.Trauerspielartistically ex
hauststhe historicalidea of repetition;itthus fastenson aproblem
thatis completelydifferent from thatof tragedy.In theTrauerspiel,
guiltandgreatnesscallnotsomuchfordeterminacyletaloneover
determinationasforgreaterexpansion,themostgeneralextension,
andnotforthesakeoftheguiltandgreatness,butsimplyfortherep
etitionofthosecircumstances.
Thenatureoftemporalrepetition,however,issuchthat noclosed
formcanbebasedonit.Andeveniftherelationoftragedytoartre
mainsproblematic,even ifit maybebothmoreandless thananart
form,itneverthelessremainsineverycaseaclosedform.Itstemporal
characteris exhaustedand delimitedin thedramaticform.But the
Trauerspielisinitselfunclosed,andtheideaofitsresolutionnolonger
lies within the realm of drama. And here is the point where
proceedingfromtheanalysisofformthedistinctionbetween trag
edyandTrauerspieldecisivelyemerges.TheremainsoftheTrauerspiel
arecalledmusic.Perhapsitisthecasethat,justastragedymarksthe
transition from historical time to dramatic time, the Trauerspiel
marksthepassagefromdramatictimeintothetimeofmusic.

dissertationonthesubject,composedbetween'1923and1925andpublished
in1928asUrsprungdesdeutschenTrauerspielsiOi^inoftheGermanTrau
erspiel),thefirstpageofwhichcarriesthelegen4"Entworfen1916[sketched
outin1916]andthefirstchapter,ofwhichisentitled"Trauerspielund
Tragdie."SeealsoBenjamin'sItterofOctober7,1923,toFlorensChristian
Rang,whichspeaksof"myoriginaltheme,'Trauerspielandtragedy,'"andof
"deducingtheform pfthe Trauerspielfrom thetheoryof allegory"(CW,

Notes
"Trauerspiel undTragdie" (GS2, 133137) was written in1916 and pub
lishedposthumously.TranslatedbyRodneyLivingstone.
1.Thisessayismentionedin'BenjaminslettertoHerbertBelmorefrom
late1916(CWB,84).Itisthirdinthelistoffiveessays(thoughttohaveheen
composedbetweenJuneandNovemberof thatyear)whichherecommends
tohisfriend.Togetherwiththenextessayonthelist,translatedbelowas"The
RoleofLanguageinTrauerspielandTragedy,"itanticipatesBenjamin'slater

210).

2.ThetermTrauerspiel (mourningplay)herereferstoaseriesofdramas
writteninseventeenthcenturyGermanythatdealtwiththefateofroyalper
sonages.TheworksinquestionwerelittleknowninBenjamin'sday.
3.Benjamin refersto part2 of JohannWolfgang vonGoethe's essayof
1815,"Shakespeare undkein Ende"(Shakespeare and NoEnd). Heechoes
Goethe'spronouncementinashortpiecewrittenin1918,"Shakespeare:Wie
eseuchgefUt"(Shakespeare:As YouLike It):"ForthegreatestRomanticis
Shakespeare,thoughheisnotonlythat"(GS2,610).
4.ChristianFriedrichHebbel(18131863)wasaGermanpoetanddrama
tist, best known for his."bourgeoistragedies," such as Maria Magdalena
(1844) and Agnes Bernauer (1855). Benjamin alludes to Hebbel's 1843
essayondramatictheory,"MeinWortberdasDrama!"(MyViewsonthe
Drama!).
*5.Thephrasemetabasiseisallogenos(transformationintoanotherkind)
occursinAristotle'schief cosmolgitaltreatise.De Celo(On theHeavens;
350B.c.).268b.
6."SeineGeschehnisse sindgleichnishafte Schemen,sinnbildlicheSpie
gelbilder'einesandernSpiel; Indieses'Spielentrckt derTod."The reader
shouldkepinmindthroughoutthispartofiheessaythatSpielmeans,both
"ganje"and "play."The term Schemen can be read as either the pluralof
Schema,"scheme,"or thepluralof Schemen,"phantom";thelatter reading,
thouhseeminglylessplausiblehere,wouldcorrespondtothetranslationof
schemenhaftas"phantasmal/'below.
7.FriedrichSchlegel's Alarcos,averse tragedy(SchlegelcallsitaTrauer
spiel)intwo"acts,ivasfirst performedin1802attheWeimarCourtTheater
underGoethe'sdirection.
8."DerRestdesTrauerspielsheisst'Musik."Onthemusicaldimensionof
the Trauerspiel, see "The Role of Language in Trauerspiel and Tragedy"
(Chapter39inthisvolume).

TheRoleofLanguageinTrauerspielandTragedy 247

Chapter39

TheRoleofLanguagein
TrauerspielandTragedy

hetragic restson alawfulness governing thespoken viord be

tweenhumanbeings.^Thereisnotragicpantomime.Noristhere
atragicpoem, tragicnovel,or tragicevent.Notonlydoes thetragic
belongexclusively tothe realmof humanspeech inthe drama;it is
actuallytheonlyformoriginallysuitedtohumandialogue.Thatisto
say,notragedyexistsoutsidehumandialogue,andthereisnoformof
humandialogueotherthanthetragic.Whereveranontragicdrama
appears,thereisnooriginalunfoldingofthatlawwhichisproperto
humandiscoursebutonlythemanifestationofafeelingorrelationin
alinguisticcohtext,inalinguisticphase.
Thedialbgue inits puremanifestations isneither sadnor comic,
but tragic.To that extent, tragedyis theclassic and puredramatic
form.Thesadhasitsfullgravityand itsdeepestand uniqueexpres
sionneitherinthewordsofthedramanorinwordsgenerally.Sadness
isnotconfinedtomourningplays,Trauerspiele,and,whatismore,the
Trauerspielisnotthesaddestthingintheworld;apoemcanbe.sadder,
ascanastoryoralife.^Formourningisnot,likethetragic,aruling
force,theindissolubleandinescapablelawofordersthatattainclosure
inthetragedy;rather,itisafeeling.Whatmetaphysicalrelationdoes
thisfeelinghavetolanguage,tothespokenword?Thatistheriddleof
246

theTrauerspiel.Whatinnerrelationattheheartofmourningreleases
itfromtheexistenceofpurefeelingandletsitentertheorderofart?
Intragedy,wordsand thetragicarisetogether,simultneously,in
thesameplaceeachtime.Everyspeechinthetragedyistragicallyde
cisive.Itisthepurewordthatisimmediatelytragic.Howlanguagein
generalcanfillitselfwithmourning,andbetheexpressionofmourn
ing,isthebasicquestionoftheTrauerspiel,alongsidethatotherques
tion:Howcanmourningasafeelinggainentryintothelinguisticor
derofart?Theword,operatinginconformitywithitspureconveyed
meaning,becomestragic.^Thword aspurebearerofitsmeaningis
thepure word. Butalongside thisword thereis another thattrans
formsitself,asitmovesfromtheplaceofitsorigintowardadifferent
point,itsestuary.Thewordintransformationisthelinguisticprinci
pleof theTrauerspiel. There,isa pureemotional lifeof theword in
which itpurifies itself bydeveloping from asound of natureto the
puresoundof feeling.For thisword,language isonlyatransitional
phaseinthecycleofitstransformation,andinthiswordtheTrauer
spielspeaks.Itdescribesapathfromnaturalsoundvialamenttomu
sic.In the Trauerspiel,sound islaid outsymphonically, andthis is
boththemusicalprincipleofitslanguageandthedramaticprinciple
ofitsdivisionanditssplittingintocharacters.Itisnaturethatonlyfor
thesakexjfthepurityofitsfeelingsascendsintothepurgatoryoflan
guage,andtheessence oftheTrauerspiel isalreadycontainedinthe
oldadagethatall ofnaturewould begintomourn ifeveritwereen
dowedwithlanguage.FortheTrauerspielisnotthesphericaltransitof
feelingthroughthepureworldof wordsonacourseleadingback,in
music, to the liberated sorrow of blessed feeling; rather, midway
throughthispassage,natureseesitselfbetrayedbylanguage,andthat
tremendousstemmingoffeelingbecomes mourning.Thus,withthe
doubledealingoftheword,withitsmeaning,naturecomestoastand
still,andwhereascreationwishedonlytopourforthinpurity,itwas
man whobore itscrown. Thisis thesignificance of theking inthe
Trauerspiel, and this is the meaning of the Haupt und Staatsak
tionen.*Theseplays represent>thestemmingof nature,atremendous
damming upof feeling, as it were, towhich a new worldsuddenly
opnsHP intheword, theworld of meaning,of unfeelinghistorical

TheRoleofLanguageInTrauerspielandTragedy 249

248 earlywritings

time;andonceagainthekingisbothman(anendofnature)andalso
king(bearerandsymbolofmeaning).Historyemergestogetherwith
mea'ninginhumanlanguage;thislanguageisimmobilizledinmean
ing.Thetfagicthreatens,andman,thecrownofcreation,issalvaged
for feeling only by becoming king; a symbol, as the bearer of this
crown.AndthenatureoftheTrauerspielremainsatorsointhissub
lime symbol; sorrowfills the sensuous world in which nature and
languagemeet.
Thetwometaphysicalprinciplesofrepetitioninterpenetrateinthe
Trauerspielandestablishitsmetaphysicalorder:cycleandrepetition,
circleandtwo.Foritisthecircleoffeelingthatiscompletedinmusic,
anditisthetwo ofthewordandits meaningthatdestroysthetran
quilityof deeplonging anddiffuses sorrowthroughout nature.The
interplay between sound and meaning in the Trauerspiel remains
somethingspectral, terrifying; in its nature it is possessed bylan
guage,thepreytoanendlessfeelinglikePolonius,whoisgrippedby
madnessin the midst of his reflections. The play mustfind its re
demption,however,andfortheTrauerspielthatredemptivemystery
ismusictherebirthoffeelingsinasuprasensuousnature.
Thenecessityofredemptionconstitutestheplayelementofthisart
form.For,comparedwiththeirrevocabilityofthetragic,whichmakes
an ultimate reality of language andlinguistic order,every creation
whoseanimating soulis feeling (sorrow) must becalled a playand
game.TheTrauerspiel restsnotonthefoundation ofactuallanguage
buton theconsciousnessof theunity oflanguageachieved through
feeling,aunitythatunfoldsinwords.Inthemidstofthisunfolding,
errantfeelinggives voicetosorrow inlament.But thislamentmust
resolveitself;onthebasisofthatpresupposedunity,itpassesoverinto
thelanguageofpurefeeling,intomusic. Mourningconjuresitselfin
themourningplay,butitalsoredeemsitself.Thistensionandrelease
offeelingin itsown realmis play.Init,sorrow isonlyatone inthe
scaleoffeelings,andconsequentlythereis,sotospeak,nopureTrau
erspiel,sincethediversefeelingsofthecomic,theterrible,thehorrify
ing,andmanyotherseachhavetheirturnintherounddance.Style,in
thesenseofunityoffeeling, isreservedfortragedy.Theworldofthe
Trauerspielisaspecialworldthat maintainsitsgreatandhighworth

eveninthefaceoftragedyItisthesiteofanauthenticconceptionof
wordandspeechinart;thefacultiesofspeechandhearingstillstand
equalinthescales,andultimatelyeverythingdependsontheearfor
lament,foronlythemostprofoundly.heardandperceivedlamentbe
comesmusic.Whereasintragedytheeternalimmobilityofthespo
ken wordprevails, theTrauerspiel gatherstheendless resonanceof
itssound.

Notes
"DieBedeutung derSprache inTrauerspiel undTragdie" (GS2,1,37140)
was written in 1916 and published posthumously. Translated by Rodney
Livingstone.
1.InaletterofMarch30,1918,toGershomScholem,Benjaminwritesof
thelatter'sessay"berKlageundKlagelied"(OnLamentandSongofLam
entation):"Ireadyouressay...threetimes
Ipersonallyoweyouspecial
thanksbecause,withoutyourknowingthatIoccupiedmyselfwiththesame
problemtwoyearsago,youhavehelpedmeinessentialwaystoachieveclari
fication
WithoutreferencetoHebrewliterature,which,asInowknow,is
thepropersubjectofsuchananalysis,Iappliedthefollowingquestiontothe
Trauerspielin ashortessayentitled'Die BedeutuftgderSprachein Trauer
spielundTragdie': 'Howcanlanguageingeneralfill itselfwith mourning
andbetheexpressionofmourning[Trauer\V...Iworemyselfouttonoavail
studyingarelationshiptheactualcircumstancesofwhichIamonlynowbe
ginningtodivine. For inGerman thelament appearsin itsfull linguistic
gloryonlyintheTrauerspiel, aform that,in theGermanview, borderson
beinginferiortotragedyIwasunabletoreconcilemyselftothisanddidnot
understandthatthis rankingisjustaslegitimateinGermanasitsopposite
probablyisinHebrew....Incontrasttoyourpoint ofdeparture,minehad
onlytheadvantageofpointingme,fromtheverystart,tothefundamental
antithesisof mourningand tragedy,which, to judgefrom youressay, you
havenot yet recognized
Let mespecifically notethat an.unambiguous
relationbetween lamentand mourning,such thatmourning mustin each
caseseekanoutletinlament,issomethingIcontinuetodoubt. ^Thisentails
aseriesofsuchdifficuhquestionsthatwereallymustforgoanyconsideration
oftheminwriting"(CWB,120121).Asomewhatmorepreciseindicationof

250 EARLY WRITINGS

thedateofcompositionofBenjamin'sshortessayisprovidedbyhisletterto
HerbertBelmore fromlate1916,in whichhe listsfiveof hisrecentlycom
pletedessays;thisessayisfourthonthelist(CWB,84).Togetherwiththees
saylisted third,"Trauerspiel undTragdie"(Chapter 38in thisvolume),it
anticipatesBenjamin'slaterdissertationonthesubject,Ursprungdesdeutschen
Trauerspiels(OriginoftheGermanTrauerspiel),whichwaswrittenbetween
1923and1925.BenjamintouchesonthisconnectioninaletterofOctober30,
1926,toHugovonHofmafmsthal:"Yourletterastoundedmebyitsreference
totheveritable,sodeeplyconcealedcore of[the Trauerspielbook]:thedis
cussionofimage,script,musicisreallytheprimalcellofthiswork,withits
verbalechoes of a youthful threepage effort called 'ber dieSprache in
TrauerspielundTragdie'"(CWB,309).
2.ThetermTrauerspiel(mourningplay)here referstoaseriesofdramas
writteninseventeenthcenturyGermanythatdealtwiththefateofroyalper
sonages.TheworksinquestionwerelittleknowninBenjamin'sday.
3. "Das Wort nach seiner reinen tragenden Bedeutung wirkend wird
tragisch."
4.TheHaupt undStaatsaktionen werepoliticalplays composedinGer
manyduringtheseventeenthandearlyeighteenthcenturies;theirsubjectwas
typicallythesuddenfallof kings,darkconspiracies,andexecutions.Tn the
previousSentence,"doubledealing"translatesDoppelsinn.
5.BenjaminisevidentlythinkingofPolonius'srambling'addressestothe
kingahdqueeninthesecondactofShakespeare'sHamlet(2.2).

Chapter40

OnLanguageasSuchandon
theLanguageqfMan

verymanifestation of thelife of thespirit in humanitycan be

understoodasakindoflanguage,andthisunderstanding,inthe
mannerofatruemethod,everywheredisclosesnewwayspfformulat
ingthequpstiom^Itispossibletotalkaboutalanguageofmusicandof
sculpture,aboutalanguageofjurisprudencethathasnothingdirectly
todo with those in which German or English legal judgmentsare
couched,about alanguage of technologythat is notthe specialized
languageoftechnicians.Languageinsuchcontextssignifiestheprin
ciplethatorientscommunication ofspiritualorintellectualcontents
inthesubjectsconcernedIntechnology,art,justice,orreligion.Ina
word:allcomfnunicationofspiritualcontentsislanguage,communi
cationinwordsbeingonlyaparticularcase,thatofhumanlanguage
andofwhat underliesit oris foundedon it(jurisprudence, poetry).
Theexistence oflanguage, however,is coextensivenot onlywith all
areasofteXpressionofthe humanspirit,wherelanguageis alwaysin
onesenseoranotherinvolved,butwithabsolutelyeverything.Thereis
noeventorthingineitheranimateorinanimatenaturethatdoesnot
insomewaypartakeoflanguage,foritisessentialtoeachoneto'com
municateitsspiritualcontent.Butinsuchusagetheword"language"
isin^oway a metaphor.Thatwecannot conceiveof anythingthat
25j

252 EARLY WRITINGS

doesnotcommunicateitsspiritualessenceinexpressionisamatterof
integralsubstantive knowledge;the'greater orlesser degreeof con
sciousnesstowhichsuchcommunicationisapparently(orreally)con
joinedcannotalterthefactthatwe areunabletoimagineatotalab
senceof languagein anything.^An existencethatwould beentirely
withoutrelationtolanguageisanidea;butthisideacanbearnofruit
eyenwithinthatrealmofideawhosecircumferencedefinestheidea
ofGod.
Whatcanbecorrectlyassertedisonlythatinthisterminologyev
eryexpression,insofarasitisacommunicationofspiritualcontents,
istobereckoned aslanguage.And,ofcourse,expression,inkeeping
withitswholeandinmostbeing,istobeunderstoodonlyaslanguage;
ontheotherhand,tounderstandalinguisticentity,itisalwaysneces
sarytoaskofwhichspiritualentityitistheimmediateexpression.This
meansthattheGermanlanguage,forexample,isnotatalltheexpres
sionofeverythingthatwecouldpresumably expressthroughitbut
isthe.immediateexpressionofthat whichcommunicatesitself init.
This"itself isaspiritualentity.Itisevident,therefore,attheoutset
thatthe spiritualentitythat communicatesitself inlanguage isnot
languageitself butsomething tobedistinguished fromit.Theview
thatthespiritualessenceofathingconsistspreciselyinitslanguage
thisview,takenasahypothesis,isthegreatabyssintowhichalltheory
oflanguagethreatenstofall,^ andto.keepitselfsuspendedover,pre
ciselyover,thisabyssisthetaskofsuchtheory.Inanyinvestigationof
thetheory of language, the most primordialdistinction is that'be
tween,thespiritualentityandthelinguisticentityinwhichitcommu
nicates;andthisdistinctionseemssounquestionablethatitis,rather,
thefrequentlyassertedidentitybetweenspiritualandlinguisticbeing
thatconstitutesadeepandincomprehensibleparadox,theexpression
ofwhichisfoundinthedoublemeaningofthewordlogos.*'Neveithe
less,thisparadox,assolution, hasitsplaceatthecenterof liiguistic
theory,thoughit remainsaparadoxand,if.placedatthebeginning,
insoluble.
Whatdoeslanguagecommunicate?Itcommunicatesthespiritual
essencecorrespondingto it.Itisfundamentalto recognizethat.this
spiritualessencecommunicatesitselfinlanguageandnotthroughit.

OnLanguageasSuchandontheLanguageofMan 253

Hence,thereis nospeakeroflanguages,ifthatmeanssomeonewho
communicates through these languages. Spiritual being communi
catesitselfin,notthrough,alanguage:thisistosay,itisnotoutwardly
identicalwith lingtiistipbeing. Spiritualbeing isidentical withlin
guisticbeingonlyinsofaras itiscommunicab/e. Whatiscommuni
cableinaspiritualentityisitslinguisticbeing.Lnguage,therefore,in
eachcasecommunicatesthelinguisticbeingofthings,buttheirspiri
tualbeingonlyinsofar asthisisdirectlyincludedintheirlinguistic
being,insofarasitiscommunicab/e.
Langugecommunicatestbelinguisticbeingofthings.Thedearest
manifestationofthisbeing,however,i?languageitself.Theanswerto
thequestion"What doeslanguagecommunicate?" istherefore "All
languagecorrimunicatesitself."Thelanguageofthislamp,forexample,
communicatesnotthelamp(forthespiritualessnceofthelamp,in
sofaras itis communicable,is byno meansthe lampitself) butthe
languagelamp,thelampincommunication,thelampinexpression.
For inlanguage thesituation is this:the linguistic beingof things is
their language.The understanding of linguistic theory depends on
givingthispropositionaclaritythatannihilatesventheappearance
of tautology.This proposition is untautological,for it means,"That
whichin aspiritualentityascommunicableis itslanguage."Onthis
"is"(equivalentto"isimniediately") everythingdepends.Not:that
whithinaspiritualentityiscommunicableappearsmostclearlyinits
language,aswasjustsaidbywayoftransition;rather,.thiscommni
cab/eis immediatelylanguage itself Or:thelanguage of aspiritual
entityisimmediatelythatwhich iscommunicableinit. Whateveris
communicable of a spiritual entity, in this it communicates itself
Whichistosay:alllanguagecommunicatesitselfOr,Aoreprecisely:
alllanguagecommunicatesitselfinitself;itisinthepurestsensethe
"medium"ofthecommunication.Themedialthatis,theimmediacy
ofallcommunicationofthe'spiritisthefundamentalprobleminthe
theoryoflanguage,andifonechoosestcallthisimmediacymagic,
thentheurproblemoflanguageisitsmgic..Atthesametime,menton
ofthemagicoflanguagepointstosomethingelse::itsinfinity.Thisis
conditionedonitsimmediacy.Forpreciselybecause nothingiscom
municated through language, what is communicated in language

OnLanguageasSuchandontheLanguageofMan

254 EARLY WRITINGS

cannotbeexternallylimitedormeasured:inherenttoeverylanguage
isthereforeitsincommensurable,uniqueinfinity.Itslinguisticbeing,
notitsverbalcontents,definesitsboundary.
Thelinguistic beingof thingsis theirlanguage; thisproposition,
appliedto man,means:the linguisticbeingof manis hislanguage.
Which signifies: mah communicates hisown spiritual beingin his
languag.Thelanguageofman,however,speaksinwords.Manthere
forecommunicateshisownspiritualbeing(insofarasitiscommuni
cable)bynamingallotherthings.Butdoweknowanyotherlanguages
thatname things?Itshould notbeobjected thatweknow ofnolan
guageother thanthtofhuman beings,forthisis untrue.Weknow
onlyof no naminglanguage other than that of humans;to identify
naminglanguagewithlanguageingeneralistoroblinguistictheory
of"its deepestinsights.it /s therefore the linguistic being of man to
name'things.

Whynamethem?Towhomdoesmancommunicatehimself?But
isthisquestion,asappliedtothehumanbeing,differentwhenapplied
toothercommunications (languages)?To whomdoes thelampcom
municateitself?Orthemountain?Orthefox?Butheretjieansweris:
toman.Thisisnotanthropomorphism.Thetruthofthisanswerisdem
onstratedinknowledgeandperhapsalsoinart.Moreover,ifthelamp
andthemountainandthefoxdidnotcommunicatethemselvestoman,
howcouldhenamethem?Forhenamesthem;hecommunicateshim
selfinnamingthem.Towhomdoeshecommunicatehimself?
Beforethisquestioncanbeanswered,wemustagaininquire:How
does man communicate himslf? A profound distinction is to be
made,analternativepresented,inthefaceofwhichanessentiallyfalse
conceptionoflanguageiscertaintogiveitself away.Doesmancom
municatehisspiritualbeingthroughthenameshegivestothings?Or
inthem? In theparadoxical natureof thisquestion lies itsanswer.
Anyone who believes thatftian communicates his spiritual being
throughnamescannotalsoassumethatitis'hisspiritualbeingthat
he communicates,for thisdoes not happen throughthe namesof
thingsthatis,throughthe"wordsbywhichhedesignatesathing.And,
equally,theadvocateofsuchaviewcanassumeonlythatmaniscom
municatingsomething toother men,for thatdoeshappen through

255

thewprd bywhich Idesignatea thing.This viewis thebourgeois

conceptionoflanguage,theemptyanduntenablecharacterofwhich
willJjecitieincreasingly clearin whatfollows. Itsays,in'effect: the
meansofcommunicationistheword,itsobjectthething,anditsad
dresseeahumanbeing.*Theotherconceptionoflanguage,incontrast,
knowsno means,no object,and noaddressee ofcommunication.
Itsays:in the name,the spiritual bein^'pf mancommunicatesitself
toGod.

Thename, inthe realmoflanguage, hassolelythismeaningand

thisincomparably highsignificance:that itis theinmost essenceof
languageitself Thename isthat,throughwhich nothing.morecom
municatesitself,andinwhichlanguageitselfcommunicatesitselfab
solutelyInthename,thespiritual,entitythatcommunicatesitselfis
language.Wherethespiritualentityinitscommunicationislanguage
itselfin itsabsolutewholeness, onlythere isthe name,andonly the
name is there. The name asheritage of human language,therefore
guaranteesthat language pure andtsimpleis the,spiritual.essenceof
man;andonly forthis reasonis thespiritualessence of,man,alone
amongall fprmsofspirit, entirelycommunicajjle. This,grounds,the
differencebetweenhumanlanguageandthelanguageofthings. But
becausethespiritualessenceofmanislanguageitself,hecannotcom;
municatehimselfbyit,butonlyinit.Thequintessence [Inbegriff] qf
thisintensivetotalityoflanguageasthespiritualbeingofmanisthe
name.Man isthe namer;by thiswerecognize that'fromhim pure
languagespeaks.All nature,insofar asitcommunicates itself,com
municates itself in language, and so.in thefinal analysis in man.
Hence,heisthelordofnatureandcannamethings.Onlythroughthe
linguisticbeingofthingscan heriseoutof himselftoknowledge of
theminthename.God'screationiscompletedwhenthingsreceive
theirnamesfromman,thismanfromwhom,in.thename,language
alonespeaks.Onecanthinkofthenameasthelanguageoflanguage
(ifthegenitive hereindicatesarelationnotof meansbjit ofthe me
dium),andinthissense,crtainly,becausehespeaksinnanxes,manis
thespeakeroflanguage,andforthisveryreasonitsonlyspeaker.In
theirdesignationof manastheonewhospeaks(which,however,ac
cordingtotheBible, forexample,clearlymeans thenataegiyer:"As

256 EARLY WRITINGS

themanwouldnameallkinds.oflivingcreatures,soweretheytobe
called"^),manylanguagescontainthismetaphysicalknowledge.
Thename,however,isnotonlytheultimatecallingoutoflanguage
butalso itsproperxallingto.'lhus,inthename appearstheessential
law.oflanguage,.accordingtowhich toexpfess [aussprechen] oneself
andtoaddress{ansprechen] allelseisthesame.Language, andinita
spiritualentity,expressesitselfpurelyonlywhereit.speaksinname
thatis,inuniversalnaming.Sointhenameculminateboththein
tensive.totalityoflanguage,as^heabsolutelycommunicablespiritual
entity,andtheextensivetotalityoflanguage,astheuniversallycommu
nicating(naming)entity.Asregardsitscommunicatingessence,itsuni
versality, language is incomplete wherever the spiritual being that
speaksfromitisnotinitswholestructurelinguisticthatis,communi
cable.Man alonehas languagethat is.completeasregards universality,
andintensity.

Withthis inmind, aquestiop maynowbe raisedwithoutriskf

confusion, a question of the highest metaphysical importance, but
formulatedatthispoint,forreasonsofclarity, asfirstofalltermino
logical.Itiswhetherspiritualbeingnotonlyofman(forthatisnec
essary) butalso of things,and thus,spiritualbeing ingeneralcan,
fromthepointofviewoflinguistictheory,bedefinedaslinguistic.If
spiritualbeing is identicalwith linguistic,being, then thething, by
virtueofitsspiritualbeing,isamediumofcommunication,andwht
communicatesitselfinitisinaccordancewiththemedialrelation
preciselythismedium(language)itself.Languageisthenthespiritual
essenceofthings.Spiritualbeingistherebypostulatedattheoutsetas
communicable,orratherissituatedpreciselywithinthecommunica
ble.andthethesisthatthelinguistic.beingofthingsisidenticalwith
thespiritual, insofar as thelatter is communicable, becomes inits
"insofar"atautology.Thereisnosuchthingasacontentoflanguage,ds
communication,languagecommunicates aspiritual entitythatis,'a
communicabilityper se.Thedifferencesbetween languagesarethose

ofmediathataredistinguished,asitwere,bytheirdensitywhichis
tosay,gradually;andthiswithregardtothedensitybothofthecom
municating(naming) ndof thecommunicable (name)in thecom
munication.These twospheres, which areclearlydistinguished yet

OnLanguageasSuchandontheLanguageofMan

257

unitedonlyinthenamelanguageofman,naturallycorrespondona
continualbasis.
Forthemetaphysicsoflanguage,theequationofspiritualwithlin
guisticbeing,whichknowsonlygradualdifferences,entailsagrada
tionofallspiritualbeing[Sein]indecrees.Thisgradation,whichtakes
placeintheinteriorofthespiritualentityitself,cannolongerbesub
sumedunderanyhighercategoryandsoleadstothegradationofall
entities,bothspiritualandlinguistic;bydegreesofexistenceorbeing,
suchaswasalreadyfamiliartoScholasticismWithregardto'pirifual
entities.But theequationof spiritualandlinguisticbing isof such
greatmetaphysicalmomenttolinguistictheorybecauseitleadstothe
conceptthathasagainandagain,asifofitsownaccord,elevateditself
tothecenteroflanguagephilosophyandconstituteditsmostintimate
connection with the philosophy of religion. This is the concept of
revelation.Within alllinguistic formation a conflict is waged be
tweenwhatisexpressedandexpressibleandwhatisinexpressibleand
unexpressed.Onconsideringthisconflict,oneseesatthesametime,
inthe perspectiveof theinexpressible, theultimate spiritualentity.
Now,itisclear thatintheequationofSpiritualandlinguisticbeing;
thisrelationof inverseproportionalitybetween thetwo isdisputed.
Forherethethesisruns:thedeeper(thatis,themorexistentandreal)
thespirit,thenioreitisexpressibleandexpressed,anditisconsistent
withthisequation tomakethe relationbetweenspiritandlanguage
thoroughlyunambiguous,sothattheexpressionthatislinguistically
most existent (that is,mostfixed),.the linguisticallymost precise
anddefinitiveinword,themostexpressedisatthesametimethe
purelyspiritual.This,however,ispreciselywhatismeantbythecn
ceptof revelation,if ittakestheinviolability ofthe wordas thesole
andsufficientconditionandcharacteristicofthedivinityofthespiri
tualbeingthatisexpressedinit.Thehighestspiritualdomainofreli
gionis(intheconceptofrevelation)atthesametimetheonlyonethat
doesnotknowtheinexpressible.Foritisaddressedinthe nameand
expressesitselfasrevelation.Inthis,however,noticeisgiventhatonly
thehighestspiritualbeing,asitappearsinreligion, restsexclusively
onmanandonthelanguage'inhim,whereasallart,includingpoetry,
restsiotontheultimatequintessenceofthespiritoflanguagebuton

25 EARLY WRITINGS

thespiritoflanguageinthings,althoughinthatspirit'sconsummate
beauty."Language, the mother of reason and revelation,Stsalpha
andomega,"saysHamann.
Languageitselfisnot completelyexpressed in.thingsthemselves;
This'propositionhasadoublemeaning,indtsmetaphoricalandliteral
senses: the languages of things are imperfect, andtheyare dumb.
Things,are denied the pure formal principle of languagenamely,
sound.Ihey can communicateamong one another only througha
mreQTilessmaterialCommunity.Thiscommunityisimmediateand
infinite^likethatofevery linguisticcommunication;itis magic(for
thereisalsoa magicofmatter). Theincomparablefeature ofhuman
languageisthatits magiccommunitywiththingsisimmaterialand
purelyspiritual,andthesymbolof"thisissound.TheBibleexpresses
thissymbolicfactwhenitsaysthatGodbreathedhisbreathintoman:^
thisisatoncelifeandspiritandlanguage.
If,inwhatfollows,theessenceoflanguageisconsideredontheba
sisofthefirstchapterofGenesis,theaimisneithertopursuebiblical
interpretationinitselfnortotakeapassageoftheBibleobjectivelyas
revealedtruthforreflection,butrathertodiscoverwhatemergesfrom
thebiblicaltextwithrespecttothe natureoflanguageitself;andfor
thispurposetheBibleisinitiallyindispensableonlybecausethepres
ent inquiryfollows its principles in presupposing language,asan
ultimatereality,approachableonlyinitsunfolding, inexplicableand
mystical.TheBible,inregardingitselfasrevelation,must necessarily
evolve thefundamental linguisticfacts.Thesecond version of the
Creationstory,which'tellsofthebreathingofGod'sbreathintoman,
alsoreportsthatmanwasmadefromearth.Inthewholestoryofthe
Creation,'thisistheonlyreferencetoamaterialinvdiicfetheCreator
expresseshiswill,whichisdoubtlessotherwisethoughtofasimmedi
atelycreative.InthissecondstoryoftheCreation,ihemakingofman
didnotcomeaboutthroughthe.word(Godspokeanditwasso),but
thismanwho wasnotcreated fromtheword isnowendowedwith
thegiftoflanguage,andheiselevatedabovenature.
Thiscurious revolution in the act of creation, where it concerns
man,isnolessclearlysetforth,however,inthefirststoryoftheCre
ation;andinanentirelydifferentcontextitvouches,withequalinci

OnLanguageasSuchandontheLanguageofMan 259

siveness,foraspecialrelatinship'betweenmanandlanguageresult
ingfromtheactofcreation.Themanifoldrhythmoftheactofcreation
inthefirst chapterestablishesakindofbasicform,fromwhich only
theactthat createsmansignificantlydiverges. Admittedly,this.{Pas
sagenowhereexpresslyreferstoarelationshipeitherofranorofna
turetothematerialfromwhichtheywerecreated,andthequestionof
whether thewords "He made"envisages a creation out of material
mustherebeleftopen;buttherhythmbywhichthecreationofnature
(inGenesisr1)isaccomplishedis:LettherebeHemade(created)^He
named.Inindividualact&ofcreation(1:3,1:14)onlythe"Lettherebe''
appears.Inthis"Lettherebe"andinthe"Henamed"atthebeginning
andendof theacts,thedeepand clearrelationof thecieativeactto
languageiseachtimemanifest.Withthecreativeomnipotenceoflan
guagethisact begins,and atthe endlanguge,as itwere;embodies
thecreated, namesit. Languageis therefore thatwhich createsand
thatwhichcompletes;itiswordandname.In God,nameis creative
becauseit is.word,^ndiGod'sword is knowingbecause itisname.
"Andhesawthatitwasgood"thatis,,hehadknownitthrough.the
narne.TheabsoluterelationofnametoknowledgeexistsonlyinGod;
onlythereisthe name,becauseit isinwardlyidenticalwith thecre
ative word, the pure medium of knwledge. This means.that;God
madethingsknowable in their names. Man,however, names'them
accordingtoknowledge.
Inthecreationofman,thethreefoldrhythmofthecreationofna
ture has given way to"an entirely different order.Language conse
quentlyhas adifferentmeaninghere;the tripleaspectof theactis
preserved,butallthemoreapparentintheparallelismisthedistance:
inthethreefold "Hecreated"of1:27. Goddid notcreateman from
theword,andhdidnotnamehim.Hedid notwishtosubordinate
him tolanguage, but in man God liberated language,which had
served him as medium of creation; he freed it from himself.God
restedwhenheiefthiscreativepowertoitselfinman.Thiscreativity,
relievedofitsdivineactuality,becmeknowledge.Manistheknower
inthesamelanguageinwhichGodiscreator.Godcreatedhiminhis
image;hecreatedthe.knowerintheimageofthecreator.Forthisrea
son,fKepropositionthatthespiritualbeingofmanislanguageneeds

i6o , E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

explanation.Hisspiritualbeingisthelanguageinwhichcreationoc
curred.Inthewrd,thingswerecreated,ndGod'slinguisticbeingis
theword.Allhumanlanguageisonlyreflectionofthewordinname.
TheTiameisnoclosertothewordthanknowledgeistcreation.The
infinityofallhumanlanguagealwaysremains,inessence,limitedand
analytic,incomparisontotheabsolutelyunlimitedandcreativeinfin
ityofthedivineword.
Thedeepestimageofthisdivinewordandthepointwherehuman
language participates most intimately in the divine infinity of the
purewrd,thepoint atwhichit canbecomeneitherfinite wordnor
knowledge,isthehumanname.Thetheoryofthepropernameisthe
theoryofthelimitoffinitelanguagewithrespecttoinfinitelanguage.
Ofallbeings,manis theonlybnewhonameshisownkind,asheis
theonlyonewhomGoddidnotname.Itisperhapsbold,butscarcely
impossible,toadducethesecondpartofGenesis2:20inthiscontext:
thatmannamedallbeings,'"hutformantherewasnotfoundahelper
fitforhim."Accordingly,Adamnameshiswifeassoonashereceives
her(womaninthesecondchapter.Eveinthethird).By.givingnames,
parents dedicate their children to God;the name they give does
notina metaphysicalrather thanetymological sensecorrespond
toanyknowledge,fortheynamenewbornchildren.Inastrictsense,
nopersonoughttocorrespondtohisname(initsetymologicalmean
ing),forthepropernameisthewordofGodinhumansoundsByit
eachpersonisguaranteedhiscreationbyGod,andinthissenseheis
himselfcreative,asisexpressedbymythologicalwisdominthenotion
(whichdoubtlessnotinfrequentlycorpestrue)thataman'snameisJiis
fate.The proper nameis thecommunion of man with thecreative
wordof God.(Notthe onlyone,however; nianknows yetanother
linguisticcommunitywith God'sword.) Throughtheword, manis
bound tothe languageof things.The humanword isthe nameof
things.There is no room herefor theidea that corresponds to the
bourgeoisviewoflanguage;thatthewordhasanaccidentalrelationto
itsobject,thatitisasignforthings(orknowledgeofthem)established
bysomeconvention.Languagenevergives meresigns.Buttherejec
tionofbourgeoislinguistictheoryinfavorofmysticallinguisticthe
orylikewiserestsona misunderstanding.Foraccording tomj'Stical

OnLanguageasSuchandontheLanguageofMan

261

theory,thewordissimplytheessenceofthething.Thatisincorrect,
becausethethinginitselfhasnoword,beingcreatedfromGod'sword
andknowninitsnameaccordingtoahumanword.Thisknowledgeof
thething,however,isnotspontaneouscreation;itdoesnoteventuate
frotalanguageintheabsolutelyunlimitedandinfinitemangier,ofcre
ation.Rather,thenamethatmangivestothethingdependsonhowit
communicatesitselftohim.Inthename,thewordofGodhasnotre
mainedcreative;.ithasbecome,inpart,receptive,if,Teceptive tplan
guage.Itistothelanguageofthingsthemselves,fromoutofwhichthe
wordof Godsilentlyradiates inthe mutemagicof nature,thatthis
receptiveconception[Empfngnis] isoriented.
Butforreceptionandspontanitytogether,foundastheyareinthis
singular conjunction onlyin thelinguistic realm,language has its
ownword,andthisword appliesalsotothatreceptiveconceptionof
the nameless in the name. It is the translation of the language of
thingsintothatofman.Itisnecessarytogroundtheconceptoftrans
lationin thedeepeststratum oflinguistic theory,for itis muchtoo
farreachingandpowerfultobetreatedinanywayasanafteythpught,
ashashappenedoccasionallyItattainsitsfullmeaningintherealiza
tion that"every higher languager(with theexception of theword of
God)canbeconsideredatranslationofalltheothers.Withtheprevi
ously mentioned relatedness of languages, understoodas a relation
among media of varying densities, the translatability of languages
intooneanotherisgiven.Translationisthecarryingoverofonelan
guageintoanotherthroughacontinuumoftransfotmatioi^s.Transla
tionpasses throughcontinuaof transformation,notabstract zones
ofidentityandsimilarity.
Thetranslation of thelanguageof thingsintothat of manis not
onlytranslationofthemuteintothesonic;itisthetranslationofthe
namelessintoname.Itisthereforethetranslationofanimperfectlan
guagintoamoreperfectone,andcanhotbutaddsomethingtoit
namely, knowledge. The objectivity of this translation is, however,
guaranteedinGod.ForGodcieatedthings;thecreativewordinthem
isthe germ of thecognizing name, justas God,tod,finally named
eachthingafteritwascreated.But,obvionsly/this'namingisonlyan
expression of theidentity in God of theword thatcreates and the

262 EARLY WRITINGS

namethatknows,notthepriorsolutionofthetaskthat'Godexpressly
assignstomanhimself:thatofnamingthings.Inreceivingthemute,
namelesslanguageofthingsandtransmittingit throughnamesinto
sounds,man performsthistask.It wouldbe insoluble,were notthe
namelanguageofmanandthenamelesslanguageofthingsrelatedin
Godand releasedfrom thesame creativeword, whichin thingsbe
came communication of matter in magic community, and in man
languageofknowledgeandnameinblissfulspirit.Hamannsays,"Ev
erythingthatmanheard inthebeginning,sawwithhiseyes...and
feltwith*hishandswas...livingword;for Godwas theword.With
thiswordin theheartandonthelips,theorigin oflanguagewas as
natural,asnearand easy,asachild'sgame.. FriedrichMller,in
hispoem"Adam'sFirstAwakeningandFirstBlissfulNights,"hasGod
summon man to namegiving in these words:"Man of earth,step
near;ingazing,growmoreperfect,moreperfectthroughtheword."'"
Inthisassociation ofvisionandnamingisintimatedthecommunir
eating mutenessof things (of animals),communicating toward the
wordlanguageofman,whichreceivestheminthename.Inthesame
chapterof hispoem, thepoet givesvoice tothe understandingthat
onlythe wordfrom which thingsare created permitsman toname
them,for the word communicatesitself, if mutely, in the manifold
languagesof animals.Thisunderstanding isexpressed inan image:
Godgives theanimals,eachinits turn,asign,whereupon theystep
before man to be named.In an almost sublime way, thelinguistic
communityofmutecreationwithGodisthusconveyedintheimage
ofthesign.
Insofarasthe mutewordin theexistenceof thingsfallsinfinitely
shortofthenamingwordintheknowledgeofman,andinsofarasthe
latterinturnfallsshortofthecreativewordofGod,therearegrounds
forthemultiplicity ofhumanlanguages. Thelanguageof thingscan
passintothelanguageofknowledgeandnameonlythroughtransla
tionsomanytranslations,somanylanguagesoncemanchasfallen,
thatis,fromthe paradisiacalstatethat knewonlyonelanguage.(Of
course,accordingtotheBible,thisconsequenceoftheexpulsionfrom
Paradisecomes about,onlylater.) The paradisiacallanguage of man
musthavebeenoneofperfectknowledge,whereaslaterallknowledge

OnLanguageasSuchandontheLanguageofMan

263

isagain infinitelydifferentiated inthe multiplicityof language,was

indeedforcedtodifferentiate itselfonalowerlevelas.creationinthe
name.ThatthelanguageofParadisemusthavebeenperfectlycogni
zantis somethingthateven theexistenceof theTree of,Knowledge
cannotconceal. Its apples were supposed to impart knowledge of
whatisgoodandwhatisevil.Butalready,ontheseventhday,Godhad
recognized with the words of creation: "And, behold, it was yery
good.""Theknowledgetowhichthesnakeseduces,theknowledge
ofgoodandevil, isnameless.Itisvainin thedeepestsense,aijd this
veryknowledgeisitselftheonlyevilknowntotheparadisiacalstate.
Knowledge of good andevil abandonsthe name;it isa knowledge
fromwithoutitheuncreativeimitationofthecreativeword.Thename
stepsoutsideitself inthisknowledge:the Fallmarksthebirthof the
humanword,thatinwhichnamenolongerlivesintactandthatwhich
hassteppedoutofnamelanguage,thelanguageof knovfledge,from
whatwe may'callitsownimmanentmagic,inordertobecome,asit
were frbm without, expressly magic. The word must communicate
something(otherthanitself).Thatreallyisthefallofthespiritoflan
guage.Thewordassomethingexternallycommunicating,aparodyas
itwerebytheexpresslymediatewordoftheexpresslyimmediate,
creativewordofGod,andthedecayoftheblissfulspiritoflanguage,
theAdamitespirit,that standsbetween them.Indeed,there existsa
fundamentalidentitybetweenthewordthat,afterthepromjseofthe
snakeknowsgoodandevil,andtheexternally,communicatingword.
Theknowledge of thingsresides inthe name,whereas thatof good
andevilis,intheprofoundsenseinwhichKierkegaardusestheterm,
"emptytalk,"andknows onlya purificationand elevation,to which
thetalkativeman,thesinner#was.thereforesubjected:judgment/^.Of
course,forthejudgingword,knowledgeofgood andevilisimmedi
ate. Its magic is different from that of name, but it is nonetheless
magic.This judgingword expelsthefirst humanbeingsfrom Para
dise;they themselveshave arouseditin accordancewith aneternal
lawbywhichthisjudgingwordpunishesandawaitsitsownawak
eningasthesoleanddeepestguilt.IntheFall,sincetheeternalpurity
ofthenamewasviolated,therearosethesternerpurityofthejudging
word,ofjudgment.Fortheessentialcontextoflanguage,jtheFallhasa

254 EARLY WRITINGS

threefoldsignificance(inadditiontoitsothermeanings).Instepping
outside the pure language of name, man makeslanguage a means
(thatis,aknowledgeinappropriatetohim),andthereforealso,inone
partatanyrate,a meresign;andthislater resultsinthe pluralityof
languages.ThesecondmeaningisthatfromtheFall,asrestitutionfor
theimmediacy of namethat wasdamaged byit, a newimmediacy
nowarises:themagicofjudgment,whichnolongerrestsblissfullyin
itself.Thethirdmeaningthatcanperhapsbeventuredisthattheori
ginof abstraction,too,asa facultyofthespirit oflanguage,is tobe
soughtintheFall.Forgoodandevil,beingunnamableandnameless,
standoutside thelanguageof names,which manleavesbehindpre
ciselyintheabyssopened bythisquestion.Thename,however,with
regardtoexistinglanguage,offers onlythegroundinwhichits con
creteelementsarerooted.But theabstractelementsoflanguagewe
mayperhapssurmisearerootedin thejudgingword,in judgment.
Theimmediacy(which,however,isthelinguisticroot)ofthecommu
nicabilityofabstraction residesinthe judgment.Thisimmediacyin
thecommunication of abstractiontook onthe characterof judging
when,intheFall,manabandonedimmediacyinthecommunication
oftheconcretethatis,nameandfellintotheabyssofthemediate
nessofallcommunication,ofthewordasmeans,ofthehollowword,
intotheabyssofchatter.Foritmustbesaidagainthe questionas
togoodandevilintheworld wasemptytalkaftertheCreation.The
Treeof Knowledgestood inthe gardenof Godnot invirtueof any
enlightenmentitmighthaveprovidedconcerninggoodandevilbut
as emblem of judgment over the questioner.This immense irony
marksthemythicoriginoflaw.
AftertheFall,which,inmakinglanguagemediate,laidthefounda
tionforitsmultiplicity,linguisticconfusioncouldbeonlyastepaway.
Oncehumanbeingshadinjuredthepurityofname,theturningaway
fromthatcontemplationofthingsinwhichtheirlanguagepassesinto
manneededonlytobecompletedinordertodeprivehumanityofthe
commonfoundation of thealready shakenspirit of language.Signs
mustbecomeconfusedwherethingsareentangled.Theenslavement
oflanguageinemptytalkisfollowedbytheenslavementofthingsin
follyalmostasitsinevitableconsequence.Inthis turningawayfrom

OnLanguageasSuchandontheLanguageofMan

265

things,whichwasenslavement,theplanfortheTowerofBabelcame
intobeing,andwithittheconfusionoftongues.
Thelifeofmanin thepurespiritoflanguagewasbUssful. Nature,
however,ismute.Tobesure,itcanbeclearlyfeltinthesecondchapter
ofGenesishowthismuteness,namedbyman,itselfbecamebliss,only
oflowerdegree.Inhispoem,FriedrichMllerhasAdamsayoftheani
malsthatleavehimafterhehasnamedthem,"AndIsawbythenobil
itywithwhichtheyleaptawayfrommethatthemanhadgiventhema
name."AftertheFall,however,withGod'swordthatcursestheground,
theappearanceof natureisprofoundly altered.Nowbeginsits other
muteness,whichiswhatwemeanwhenwespeakofthedeepsadness
ofnature.Itisametaphysicaltruth thatallnaturewouldbegintola
mentif itwere endowedwithlanguage (though"toendowvdthlan
guage"ismorethan"tomakeabletospeak").Thisproposition hasa
doublemeaning.Itmeans,first,thatnaturewouldlamentlanguageit
self.Speechlessness:thatisthegreatsorrowofnature(and,forthesake
ofher redemption,thelifeandlanguageof mannotonly,asissup
posed,of thepoetarein nature).This proposition means,second,
thatnaturewouldlament.Lament,however,isthe mostundifferenti
ated,impotentexpressionoflanguage.Itcontainsscarcelymorethan
thesensuousbreath;andevenwherethereisonlyarustlingofplants,
thereisalwaysalament.Becausesheismute,naturemourns.Yetthe
inversionofthispropositionleadsevenfurtherintotheessenceofna
ture;thesadnessofnaturemakeshermute.Inallmourningthereisthe
deepestinclinationtospeechlessness,andthisisinfinitelymorethan
theinabilityorunwillingnesstocommunicate.Whatissadfeelsitself
thoroughlyknownbytheunknowable.Tobenamed evenwhenthe
namerisgodlikeandblissfulperhapsalwaysremainsanintimation
ofmourning.Buthowmuchmoremournfultobenamednotfromthe
oneblessedparadisiacallanguageofnames,butfromthehundredlan
guagesofman,inwhichnamehasalreadywithered,yetwhich,accord
ingtoGod'spronouncement, haveknowledgeof things.Thingshave
nopropernamesexceptinGod.For inthecreativeword,Godcalled
themintobeing,callingthembytheirpropernames.Inthelanguage
ofmen,however,theyareovernamed.Thereis,intherelationofhuman
languagesto that of things,something thatcan beapproximately

266 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

describedas"overnaming"thedeepestlinguisticgroundofallsorrow
and(fromthepointofviewofthething)aUkeepingmute.Overnaming
asthelinguisticessenceofthesorrowfulpointstoanotherremarkable
circumstance oflanguage: theoverdetermination that obtainsin the
tragicrelationbetweenthelanguagesofhumanspeakers.
Thereisalanguageofsculpture,ofpainting,ofpoetry.Justusthe
language of poetry is partly, if not solely,' founded on the name
languageofman,itisveryconceivablethatthelanguageofsculptur
orpaintingis'founded oncertain kinds of thinglanguages,that in
themwefindatranslationofthelanguageofthingsintoaninfinitely
higherlanguage,whichmaystillbeofthesamesphere.Itisaquestion
hereofnameless,nonacousticlanguages,lnguagesissuingfrommat
ter;atthispointweshouldrecallthematerialcommunityofthingsin
theircommunication.
Moreover, the communication of things must certainly have a
communalcharacter,suchthatitcomprehendstheworldingeneralas
anundividedwhole.
Foranunderstandingofartisticforms,oneshouldattempttograsp
themallaslanguagesandtoseek theirconnectionwith naturallan
guages.Anexamplethatisappropriatebecauseitisderivedfromthe
acousticsphereisthekinshipbetweensongandthelanguageofbirds.
Ontheotherhand,itiscertainthatthelanguageofartcanbeunder
stoodonlyindeepestrelationtothetheoryofsigns.Withoutthelatter
anylinguistiGphilosophyremainsentirely fragmentary,because the
relation betweenlanguage and sign (of whichthatbetween human
languageandwritingaffordsonlyaveryparticularexample)isorigi
nalandfundamental.
This providesan opportunityto describeanother antithesisthat
permeatesthewhole sphereoflanguage'andhasimportantrelations
to the aforementioned antithesis between language in a narrower
senseandthesign,withwhich,ofcourse,languagebynomeanssim
plycoincides.Forlanguageisineverycasenot onlycommunication
ofthecommunicable butalso,atthesametime,symbolof thenon
communicable.ThissymbolicsideoflanguageJjelongstogetherwith
itsrelationtothesign,butextends,forexample,incertainrespects,to
nameandjudgmentalso.Thesehavenotonlyacommunicatingfune

OnLanguageasSuchandontheLanguageofMan

267

tion,butmostprobablyalsoacloselyconnectedsymbolicfunction,to
which,atleastexplicitly,noreference'hasherebeenmade.
Theseconsiderationsleaveus,then,Witha purifiedconceptoflan
guage,howeverimperfect itstillmaybe.Thelanguage ofanentityis
themediuminwhichitsspirituaLbeingfcommunicatesitselfTheunin
terruptedflowofthiscommunication runsthroughthewholeofna
ture,fromthelowestformofexistencetoman,andfrommantoGpd.
MancommunicateshimselftoGodthroughthen^meshegivestona
tureand(in propernames)to hisownkind;andtonaturehegivesa
nameaccording tothe communication hereceives fromher, for the
wholeofnature,too, isimbued witha nameless,mute language,the
residueofthecreative,wordofGod,whichhaspreserveditselfinman
asthecognizingnameandabovemanasthjudgmentsuspendedover
him.Thelanguageof natureiscomparable toasecretpasswordthat
eadhsentrypassestothenexfinhis ownlanguage,butthe.content
of thepassword is'thesentry'slanguageitself Allhigherlanguageis
translationfrom thelower, untilinultimate claritythewordofGod
unfolds,whichistheunityofthismovementoflanguage.

Notes
"berSpracheberhaupt.und.berdieSprachesdesMenschen"(GS2,140
157)waswrittenNovember1916andpublishedposthumously.Translatedby
EdmundJephcot.
1.InaletterofNovember11,1916,BenjaminwrotetoGershomScholem:
"AweekagoI,beganalettertoyouthatendedupb^ngeighteenpageslong.It
wasmyattempttoanswerincontextsomeofthenotinconsiderablenumber
ofquestionsyouhadputJome.Inthemeantime,Ifeltcompelledtorecastitas
ashortessay,sothat Icouldfprmulate thesubjectmoreprecisely Iamnow
producingafaircopyfit.Inthisessay,itwasnotpossibleformetoenterinto
mathematicsandlanguage,thatis,mathematics^ndthinking,mathematics
andZion;becausemythoughtsonthisinfinitelydifficultthemearestill'quite
unripe.Otherwise,however.Idoattempttocometotermswiththenatureof
languageinthis.egsayandtotheextentIunderstanditinimmanentrela
tiontoJudaismandinreferencetothefirstchaptersofGenesis 1can'tsend

OnLanguageasSuchandontheLanguageofMan 269

268 E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

you theessay forawhileyetimpossible tosay whenmaybe in a week,

maybeevenlaterthanthai;asIsaid,it'snotcompletelyfinished. Fromtheti
tle,'nLanguageasSuchandontheLanguageofMan,'youwillnoteacer
tainsystematicintent,which,'however,alsomakescompletelyclearformethe
fragmentarynatureofits ideas,becauseIamstillunable totouchonmany
points"(CWB,8182).Thefragmentarystatusoftheessayitselfisindicated
byapassageInScholem'smemoirs,inwhichhementionsthe"questions"that
occasionedtheessay'scomposition:"Aroundthattime[summerfall1916],I
wrotearatherlonglettertoBenjaminabouttherelationbetweenmathematics
andlanguage,'andsubmittedanumberofquestionsonthesubject.Hislong
replytome,whichhebrokeoffinthemiddle,waslaterreworkedintohisessay
'berSpacheberhauptundberdieSprachedesMenschen.'Hehandedme
acopyinDecember1916,uponhisreturntoBerlin[fromuniversitystudiesin
Mithich],designatingit thefirst part,tobe followed bytwo morq"(Walter
Benjamin:TheStoryofaFriendship,'truns.HarryZohn[NewYork:Schocken,
1981],34).WhatBenjaminhadinmindforthesetwoprojectedpartsmaybe
indicataciinfragmentsfrom1916to1917translatedinSWl,8791,andinthe
fragmentaryessayof1916,"EidosundBegri^(EidosandConcept),first ti
tled"BegriffundWesen" (ConceptandEssence), in,GS6,2931. Benjamin's
continuingpreoccupationwith thelanguageessayspeaksfromhisletter of
February27,1917,toErnstSchoen:"Iam...givingalotofthoughttoamore
extensivestudywhich Ibegan fourmonthsago andwhich I'myearning to
continue"(CWB,85;seealso108).Thessayisfifthinalistoffiveofhisrecent
essayswhichBenjaminrecommendstoHerbertBelmoreinaletterfromthe
endof1916 (CWB,84).Concerningtheessay's'fundamental importanceto
Benjamin's'laterworkonthetheoryoflanguage,particularlyinUrsprungdes
deutschenTrauerspiels (Originof theGermanTrauerspiel) and"Lehrevom
hnlichen"(Doctrineof theSimilar),see CWB,101 (1917),242 (1924),261
(1925),and414(1933).
2."Spiritualessence"translatesgesitigesWesen.ThetermWesen, inthis
essay,isalsotranslatedas"being"and"entity."
3.Orisitratherthetemptationtoplacethehypothesisatthebeginning
thatconstitutestheabyssofallphilosophizing?(Benjamin'snote).
4.TheGreekwordlogosmeans'both"word"and"reason."
5.Genesis2:19(Benjamin'semphasis).WetranslateheretheGermanver
sionby MartinLuther cited byBenjamin. Inthenext sentence, Benjamin
continuestheemphasison "called"with histerms Ausrufand Anruf,both
derivedfromrufen,"tocall."Thisdistinctionisthenechoedinthatbetween
aussprechenandansprechenintheneXtsentence.

6. Johann Georg Hamann,letter of October 18, 1785, to F. H.Jacobi.

Knownas"theMagusoftheNorth"becauseofhiscrypticandparadoxical
writingstyle,Hamann (17301788)was authorof Sokratische Denkwrdig
keiten (Socratic Memorabilia; 1759) and other philosophicaltheological
worksopposedtotherationalisticspiritoftheEnlightenment.Hecriticized
hisfriendKantforhisneglect oftheproblemofla.nguageandhelpedshape
the philological consciousness of Herder and German Romanticism.The
phrase"spiritoflanguage."inBenjamin'sessay,translatesSprachgeist,aterm
fundamentaltothisphilologicaltradition.
7.Genesis2:7.
8."SoGodcreatedmaninhisownimage;intheimageofGodhecreated
him;maleandfemalehecreatedthem."
9.Hamann,"DesRittersyonRosencreuzletzteWillensmeynungberden
gttlichen und menschlichen Ursprung der Sprache" (Ihe Knight of the
RoseCross'sLast Willand TestamentConcerning theDivineand Human
OriginofLanguage;1772).
10."Adamserstes Erwachenund ersteseelige Nchte"(1779). Friedrich
Mller(17491825), knownas"Maler Mller"(Painter Mller),wasa Ger
manpainterandwriteroftheSturmundDrangperiod.
11.Genesis 1:31.It isactually the^sixth dayon whichGod pronounces
f

* I

thesewords.
12.SeeSorenKierkegaard,ThePresent Age(1846),trans.AlexanderDru
(NewYork:Harper,1962),6972.Kierkegaard'stextwasfirsttranslatedinto
German,withthetitleKritikderGegenwart(CritiqueofthePresentAge),in
1914.B'enjamin iicorporates passagesfrom thisparagraph on"judgment"
intothe conclusionof hisUrsprung desdeutschen Trauerspiels,which was
writtenbetween1923and1925.

Aphorisms 271

Cosmogonymustexplainloveinitshighestform;otherwise,itisfalse.
chapter41

Aphorisms

Inthe ghostly,all formsof reproduction (division,procreation) are

prefiguredasformsofexistence.

Thelanguageofdreamliesnotinwordsbutunderthem.Wordsina
dream are random products of the meaning, which resides in the
wordlesscontinuityofaflow.Inthedreamlanguage,meaningishid
denin thesamewaythatafigure ishiddenin apicture puzzle.It is
evenpossiblethattheoriginofpicturepuzzlesistobesoughtinthis
direction,thatistosay,asdreamstenograph.^

heideaofcomedyisthehumanbeingaslogicalsubject.Thehu
manbeingassubject oftragedyisironic.The tragicmask:the
expressionlesscountenance [Antlitz].Thecomicmask:the pureface

Theproblemofhistoricaltimeisalreadygivenwiththepeculiarform
ofhistoricaltime.Theyearscan becountedbut,in contrasttomost
thingscountable,notnumbered.^

[Gesicht].^

Theory,of course,cannot refer to realitybut belongs together with

language.Implicithereisanobjectionagainstmathematics.
Logosandlanguage.TheRomansweregreatoratorsandbadphiloso
phers;theJewsweregiftedlogiciansandbegotprophets.

Notes
Thetrueagingoftheparentsisthedeathofthechild.

The academy has turned into the university and students into
academicians.

Therelationbetweenmanandwomancontainslovesymbolically.Its
actualcontentmaybecalledgenius.

270

"Aphorismen" (GS2, 601602) was written ca. 19161917 and published

posthumously.
1.Ihissmallsetofreflectionshascomedownto us,withouttitle,inthe
formofacopymadebyGershomScholeminanotebookcontainingcopiesof
otherwritings byBenjamin fromtheyears 1916and 1917.It isindexed by
Scholemas"Bemerkungen" (Remarks).Thetitle"Aphorisms"was supplied
bytheeditorsoftheGesammelteSchriften,whopointtothegeneralaffinity
ofthesereflectionswithBenjamin'sessaysof1916.

272 EARLY WRITINGS

2."Picturepuzzle"translatesVexierbild,and"dreamstenograpji"trans
latesTraumstenogramm.Ontheassociationofpicturepuzzles with"dream
work,"andwith historicalperception,seetheessay"Traumkitsch"(Dream
Kitsch)of19251926(SW2,4)..
3."Countable"translates zhlbar,from theverb zhlen,which, cognate
with the English "tell," has the root meaning"to recount"as well as"to
count."Analternativetranslationis:"Theyearscanbetoldbut...notnum
bered."SeethefollowingsentencesonTheorie.

Chapter42

Balzac

heuniversahtyofBalzac(andperhapsofthegreatmodernFrench
novel ingeneral) rests partlyon thefact that,in metaphysical
questions,theFrenchspiritproceeds,sotospeak,inthemannerofan
analyticgeometry;thatis,itknowsofasphereinwhichthingsare,in
principle, resolvable accordingto a methoda method'which does
notlookintotheindividual (asitwere,perceptual) depthofspecific
problemsbutresolvestheminamethodicalway,throughwhichtheir
resolvabilityisestablishedinadvance.Aproblemingeometrycanre
quiregeniusforitsgeometricsolution;foritsanalyticsolution,only
methodisrequired.Theproblemisnonethelesssolvedinbothcases.It
istothismethodicalprocedureinthetreatmentofgreatmetaphysical
realitiesthatBalzac's oeuvreowesits universality,and,measuredby
other (as it were, geometric) standards, it can appear as notdeep
(whichdoesnotmeanshalloworsuperficial).'

273

274 EARLY WRITINGS

Notes
Chapter43
"Balzac"(GS2,602)waswrittenca.I9I61917andpublishedposthumously.

Dostoevsky'sTheIdiot

1.Thisshort,fragmentarypiecehascomedowntous,withouttitle,inthe
formofacopymadebyGershomScholeminanotebookcontainingcopiesof
otherwritingsfrom19161917,includingthe"Aphorisms"translatedabove.
It is indexed byScholem as"Balzac," and the editors of the Gesammelte
Schriftenhaveusedthisdesignationasthetitle.Theexactdateofcomposition
isunknown.

ostoevskydepictsthedestinyoftheworldinthemediumofthe
destinyofhispeople.' Thispointof viewis typicalofthe great
nationalists,accordingtowhomhumanitycanunfoldonlyintheme
dium of a particular national heritage. The novel's greatness is re
vealedinthewaythemetaphysicallawsgoverningthedevelopmentof
humanity and those governing the development of the nation are
showntobe absolutelyinterdependent.Hencethereis noimpulseof
deephumanlifethatwouldnothaveitsdefinitiveplaceintheauraof
theRussianspirit.Topresent thishumanimpulseinthemidstofits
aura,floating quitefreelyinthenationalandyetinseparablefromit,
asfromitsproperplace,isperhapsthequintessenceoffreedominthe
greatartofthiswriter.Thiscanbeappreciatedonlybysomeonewho
isawareof thedreadfulcobblingtogetherofdisparateelements that
looselymakeforcharacterinnovelsofaninferiorsort.There,thena
tional type,the regional type,the individualperson and thesocial
personarepastedone totheotherinpuerilefashion,andtherepul
sivecrustofthepsychologicallypalpablecoveringitallcompltsthe
mannequin.ThepsychologyofthecharactersinDostoevsky,bycon
trast,isnotatallthewriter'sstartingpoint.Itis,sotospeak,onlythe
dlicate sphere in which pure humanity is generated in transition
275

276 EARLY WRITINGS

Dostoevsky'sTheIdiot 277

fromthefiery, primordialgas ofthe national.Psychologyis onlyan

expressionoftheboundedexistence [Grenzdasein] ofthehumanbe
ing.Everything thatappears to thecritics todayas a psychological
problemisinrealitynotthatatall;theywriteasifwh.atwasatissue
weretheRussian "psyche"or the"psyche"ofan epileptic.Criticism
demonstratesitsright toapproach theworkof artonlyinsofar asit
respects theterritory proper tothat work;andtakes care not toin
fringeonit.Itisabrazentransgressionofthisboundarytopraisean
authorforthepsychologyof hischaracters,andifcriticsandwriters
deserveoneotherforthemostpart,itisonlybecausetheaveragenov
elistmakes useof thosethreadbare stereotypeswhich thecriticcan
thenidentifyand,justbecausehecanidentifythem,alsopraise.This
ispreciselythespherefromwhichcriticismmustkeepitsdistance;it
wouldbe shamefulandfalse tomeasureDostoevsky's workbysuch
concepts.Whatmatters,instead,istograspthemetaphysicalidentity
ofthenational, aswellas ofthehuman,in theideaof Dostoevsky's
creation.
For,likeeveryworkofart,thisnovelrestsonanidea;it"ha#ana
prioriideal,anecessityinitselftoexist,"asNovalissays,anditispre
ciselythis necessity,and nothingelse, that criticism hasto demon
strate.^Theentireactionofthenovelacquiresitsfundamentalcharac
terfromthefactthatitisanepisode.Itisanepisodeinthelifeofthe
maincharacter.PrinceMyshkin.Hislifebeforeandafterthisepisode
isessentiallyveiledindarkness,notleastinthesensethathespends
theyears immediately precedingit, like thosefollowing,it, abroad.
WhatnecessitycarriesthismantoRussia?HisRussianexistencerises
outof hisobscure timeabroad,as thevisible bandof thespectrum
emergesfromdarkness.But whatlightis refractedduringhislifein
Russia?Itwould beimpossibletosaywhathe reallyaccomplishesin
thisperiod,apartfromhismanymistakesandmanyshowsofvirtue.
Hislifepassesfruitlesslyand,eveninitsbestmoments,resemblesthat
ofanailingincompetent.Heisnotjustafailureinsociety'seyes;evep
hisclosestfriendif thenovel's rationaledid notprevent himfrom
havingonewouldbeunable todiscoveranyideaorpurposivegoal
inhislife. Heisenveloped almostunobtrusivelyin thefullestisola
tion:allrelations involvinghim seemquickly toenter thefield ofa

forcethatprohibitstheirgrowingintimate.Notwithstandingtheutter
modestyandeVenhumilityofthisman;heiscompletelyunapproach
able,andhis life radiatesanorder whosecenter ispreciselyhisown
solitude, ripeto thepoint of disappearance.This entailssomething
quitestrange:alleventsinthenovel,howeverfarfrom,himtheytake
theircourse,effectivelygravitatetoward him,'andthisgravitationof
allthingsandpersonstowardthesolitaryonegivestheboOkitscon
tent.Thesethingsandpersonsarejustaslittledisposedtoreachhim
asheisinclinedtoretreatbeforethem.Thetensionis,asitwere,inex
tinguishable and,simple; it is the tension of life in its ever more
agitatedbutneverdissipatedunfoldingintotheinfinite.Whyisthe
prince'shouse,andnotthatoftheYepanchins,thecenteroftheaction
inPavlovsk?'
ThelifeofPrince Myshkinislaid beforeusas anpisodeonlyin
orderto makeitsimmortalityvisible symbolically.Infact, hislifeis
nomore tobe extinguishedrindeed,it isless extinguishablethan
naturallifeitself,.to whichitnevertheless bearsa,profound relation.
Natureisperhapseternal,buttheprince'slifeismost certainlyand
thisistobeunderstoodinaninwardandspiritualsenseimmortal.
Hislife,likethelifeofallinhisgravitationalfield.Theimmortallifeis
nottheeternallifeofnature,thoughitmayseemclosetoit;forinthe
conceptof eternity,infinity isovercome, whereasinfinityattainsits
greatestglory inimmortality.The immortallifeto which thisnovel
testifieshasnothingtodowithimmortalityintheusualsense.For,in
thelatter,itispreciselylifethatismortal,andwhatisiriimortalisthe
flesh,energy,person,spiritintheir.variousguises.Thusthewordsof
Goethe,spokeninconversationwithEckermann,ontheimmortality
oftheactive,accordingtowhichnatureisobligedtogiveusnewscope
foractivityonceour presentfieldof actionhasbeen takenfromus.'*
Allofthatisfarremovedfrom thimmortalityoflifefromthelife
thatinfinitelyvibratesitsimmortalityinsense,andtowhichimmor
talitygivesashape.Forhereitisnotaquestionofduration.Butwhat
lifeis immortal,if itis notthat of natureor the person?Of Prince
Myshkinonemaysay,onthecontrary,thathispersonwithdrawsbe
hindhislife,astheflowerbehinditsfragranceorthestarbehindits
twinkling.Theimmortallifeisunforgettable:thatisthesignbywhich

278 EARLY WRITINGS

Dostoevsky'sTheIdiot 279

we recognize it.It is thelife that,without monument or memento,

perhpseven without witness, would be necessarily unforgotten. It
cannotb'e forgotten.This life remains, as*though withoutvessel or
form,theimperishable life.And "unforgettable"does notjust mean
thatwecannot forgetit;itpoints tosomethingin thenature ofthe
unforgettableitself,wherebyitisunforgettable.Eventheprince'sloss
ofmemoryduringhissubsequentillnessisasymboloftheunforget
tablecharacterof hislife; for thisseeminglylies buried nowin the
abyssofhisrecollectionofhimself,fromwhichitarisesnmore.The
othercharactersvisithim.The briefconcludingchapter ofthenovel
leaves them all with the lasting imprint of this life in which they
sharedtheyknownothow.
Thepurewordforlifeinitsimmortality,however,is"youth."Dos
toevsky'sgreatlamentinthebookisfor this:thefailureoftheyouth
movement.Itslife remainsimmortalbutlosesitself initsown light:
"theidiot.''^DostoevskylamentsthefactthatRussiacannotretainits
ownimmortal lifefor thesepeople bearwithin themthe youthful
heartof Russiacannotabsorb itinto itself Itfalls onalien soil;it
crossesthe borderand runsaground inEurope, "inthis windyEu
rope."Just as Dostoevsky's political doctrine again and again con
ceivesregenerationfromwithinthenationalheritage[imreinenVolk
stum] astheonlyhope,so theauthorof thisnovel recognizesinthe
child the only salvation for young people and their country. That
wouldalreadybeevidentfrom thisnovel(in whichthe childlikefig
uresofKolyaandtheprincearepurestofall),evenifDostoevskyhad
notgone on,inThe Brothers Karamazov,to representthe unlimited
healingpowerofthechildlikelife.Thisyounggenerationsuffersfrom
adamagedchildhood,sinceit ispreciselythedamagedchildhoodof
the Russian individualand the Russian land that has paralyzed its
energies.ItisalwaysapparentinDostoevskythatthenobleunfolding
ofhumanlifefromoutofthelifeofthepeopletakesplaceonlyinthe
spiritof thechild. Beforethe child'slack oflanguage, thespeech of
Dostoevsky's characters dissolves, as it were, and an overwrought
yearningforchildhood(in modernparlance:hysteria) consumesthe
women in this novelLizaveta Prokofyevna, Aglaya, and Nastasya
Eilippovnaabove all.The whole movement of thebook resembles

thecaveinofagiantcrater.Becausenatureandchildhoodareabsent,
liumanitycanbearrivedatonlyincatastrophicselfdestruction.The
relationof humanlife totheliving being,right downto itscollapse
and ruin,the immeasurableabyss ofthe crater from which mighty
energiesmayonedayburstforth,humanlygreatthisisthehopeof
theRussianpeople.

Notes
"DerIdiot vonDostojeWskij" (GS2,237241) waswrittensummer1917and
publishedinDieArgonauten,1921.TranslatedbyRodneyLivingstone.

1.FyodorDostoevsky'sTheIdiot(1868) tellsthestoryofPrinceMyshkin,
aChristlikefigurecaughtinthesnaresofSt.Petersburgsociety;itwastrans
latedintoGerman in1909.OnFebruary 27,1917, Benjaminwrote toErnst
Schoen:"Afewweeksago Iread Dostoevsky'stremendousnovelThe Idiot."
Towardtheendofthatyear,hesentSchoenacopyofhisessayonthenovel,
andinanaccompanyingletterhecommented:"Iamfinallyinthepositionf
beingabletokeepmypromiseandsendyousomeofmywork.Ifyouareal
readyfamiliar with my,critiqueof Dostoevsky's The Idiot, thereis all the
morereasonformetoaskyoutoacceptthishandwrittencopyasagift.Ibe
lievethatthebookitselfmustbeofinfinitesignificanceforeachofus,andI
amhappy if,for mypart,I havebeen abletoconvey this"(CWB,85, 114).
GershomScholem received a>copyof theessayaround thesame time:"In
November1917, Benjaminsent mea copyof hisnote onDostoevsky's The
Idiot, written thatsummer, which moved meas muchasmyreply moved
him.Ihadwrittenhimthatbehindhisviewofthenovelandofthefigureof
PrinceMyshkinIsaw thefigure ofhisdeadfriend"^Wo/terBenjamin: The
Storyof a Friendship, trans.Harry Zohn [NewYork:Schocken, 1981],49).
ScholemrefersfoBenjamin'sfriendFrit&Heinle,ayoungpoetwhohadcom
mittedsuicide on theeve of World War I,and towhom Benjamin'sessay
"Two Poemsby Friedrich Hlderlin"(Chapter 30 in thisvolume) is dedi
cated.BenjaminwrotebacktoScholemonDecember3,1917:"Since receiv
ingyourletter.Ihaveoftenfound myselfinafestive mood.It'sasthoughI
haveenteredaholidayseason,andImustcelebratetherevelationinwhatwas
disclosedtoyou.Foritissurelythecasethatwhathasreachedyou,andyou
alone,wasaddressedjusttoyouandhascomeintoourlifeagainforamoment.

28o E A R L Y W R I T I N G S

Ihaveenteredanewepochin mylifebecausethatwhichdetached mewith

planetaryvelocityfromallhumanbeingsandpushedevenmymostintimate
relationships,exceptfor mymarriage,into theshadows,unexpectedly sjir
faces somewhereelse and createsa bond"(CWB, 102). Nothingis known
about Benjamin'sefforts topublish theessay. As regardsits appearancein
1921inDie Argonauten,a journaleditedinHeidelbergbytheExpressionist
poetErnstBlass,seeCWB. 168,andGB2.193.See alsoBenjamin'sletter of
July1.1934.toLeoLwenthal,concerningthelatter'sarticleonthereception
ofDostoevskyinprewarGermany(GB4,444445).Notpreciselydatableare
asetof notesprojecting"anew"critiqueofTheIdiot," oneinvolvingacom
parisonwithShakespeareandwithfairytales(GS2.979980).
2.See Novalis,Schriften (Jena:Diederichs.1907), 2:231. The passageis
citedalsoin"Two Poems>byFriedrichHlderlin." Benjaminmakesfurther
useofthewritingsofNovalis,pseudonymofFriedrich.FreiherrvonHarden
berg(17721801).inhisdissertationof1919,"DerBegriffderKunstkritikin
derdeutschen Romantik"(The Conceptof Criticismin GermanRomanti
cism),4nSWl,116200.
3.TheYepanchinsareafamilytowhichthemaincharacterinTheIdiotis
related.PavlovskisasuburbofSt.Petersburg,favoredas"asummerresortof
thecity'smiddleclasses.
4.See Conversations with Eckermann, trans.John Oxenford (1850; rpt.
SanFrancisco:North Point,1984),233:"Tome,the'eternalexistenceof my
soulisprovedfrommyideaofactivity;ifIworkonincessantlytillmydeath,
natureisboundto givemeanotherform ofexistencewhen thepresentone
cannolongersustainmyspirit"(February4.1829).JohannPeterEckermann
(17921854)began in1823to recorda seriesofconversationswith thepoet
JohannWolfgangvon Goethe(17491832), whichcontinued untilGoethe's
death.Thetranscriptionwaspublishedintwovolumesin1836.
5.AttheendofDostoevsky'snovel,PrinceMyshkinsuccumbstohisner
vousillnessand nolongerrecognizes theothercharacters.Benjamin'ssen
tencecanbeconstruedtomeaneitherthatthelifeofyouthorthatthelifeof
themovement(BewegungderJugend)remainsimmortal.OnBenjamin'spar
ticipationintheGermanyouth movementbeforethewar,seetheintroduc
tiontothisvolume.
6.Dostoevskypublishedhislastnovel.TheBrothersKaramazov,in1880.

Chapter44

OnSeeingtheMorningLight

Thoughmanemergefromblindtravail
Howcouldawakeningtakeitsownmeasure?
Soul'sfloodtidefillstheear
Untilitsebbislostintheday
Anddreamthatprophesiedhasforgottenitself
Butformcomesfirstofalltohim
Whosehandreachesintotheancestralpreserve
Refugeofsorrowthedeepwoods
Initstreetopsalighthasripened
Whoseshineiswearyandnightchilled
HowsoonamIaloneinthisworld
Whichincreatingreachesoutmyhandstops
Andwithashudderfeelsitsownnakedness
Ifthenthisspaceistoosmallfortheheart
Wherewillitbreathethroughitspropermagnitude?
Wherewakingisnotdivorcedfromsleep
Aradiancebeginsthatisgarbedlikethemoon
Andyetnoluciditythreatenstomockit
Themeadowofmanwherehegrazesdrowsily

281

282 EARLY WRITINGS

Indream'solddarknessnolongersuffers
Inolddream'slightawakes:God.'

Chapter45'

TheCentaur

Notes
"BeimAnblickdesMorgenlichtes"(GS7,569570)waswrittenca.September
1917andpublishedposthumously.
1.Thispoem,whichhas avaried rhymeschemeintheGerman,wasen
closedinaletterofSeptember10,1917, toErnstSchoen.Anearliertransla
tionbyManfred R.Jacobson andEvelyn M.Jacobson (CWB,96) wascon
sulted.TheideaofahistoricalawakeningoccupiedBenjaminthroughouthis
careerasawriter;seeespeciallyConvolutesKandN(Nl,9andN3a.3through
N4,4)inDasPassagenWerk(TheArcadesProject),composed19271940.

hecentauroriginallybelongs'tothoseperiodsofGreeknturein
whichtKecreationwasgivenlifethroughthespiritofwaterand
wasunfoldedthrughit.'"Wanderingaround,"waterishereadirec
tionlessforstillbelongingtochaos;lateritbecornesthestreamwith
adirection,theinceptionofthelifegivingprocessandofthecosmos.^
Itisalsohereth,&stagnatingand;hencedeadelement,andhereitbe
comestheseethingandfermenting,thelivingelejnentthatgiveslife.
Itwas presumablythis.existenceof water.inthecreation thatThaes
hadinmindwhenhedeterminedittobethefirstprinciple.^Moistre
waslife,althoughitwasatthesametimetheformlessarid,asitwere,
inanimateelementfromwhich theiivingthingisformed;itvVas the
mediumofemergentlife.Becuseitwasmedium,itwastheunityof
opposites [EinheitberdenGegenstze].Theconceptofthecentaur,
saysHlderlin,wasthatofthelifegivingwater.''Indeed,theauthenti
callyGreek sorrowfulnessof thesefigures was related totheir exis
tence in thelifegiving element, in the unf^ldin^g creation and the
force thatgiveslife there.For where thereis,givingof life, there is
forcewherethespiritdoesnotgivelife.That,however, jstheword.
Wheretheword doesnotgive life,lifetakes itstimecomingawake,
andwherethecreationtakesitstimeandlingers,itissorrowful.^This
283

284 EARLY WRITINGS

TheCentaur 285

istheJewishserenityinthecreation:thatitisbornfromtheword,full
ofdeepseriousnessbutalsofullofheavenlyjoy.Greek naturecomes
toitselfblindly,rousessorrowfully,andfindsnoonetowakeit.Inthe
centauritawakes.

Hisconception derivesfrom Homer,for whom theTitan Oceanus,an im

mense. backwardflowing stream encircling the universe, a river without
sourceormouth,is theoriginnotonlyofallwaters, includingtheriversof
Hades,butofthegodsthemselves(Iliad,14.201).
4.Hlderlin writesin hisPindar commentary(see note1 above):"The
conceptofthecentaurisapparentlythat ofthespiritofastream,insofar as
thelattermakesachannelandborder,withforce,ontheoriginallypathless,
burgeoningearth"(citedGS7,567).
5."DieechtgriechischeTraurigkeitdieserGestaltengaltaberihremDas
einim Belebenden,derSchpfungdiesichentfaltet undderGeWalt, dieda
belebt.DennwobelebtwirdistGewalt,wonichtderGeistbelebt.Dasistaber
dasWort.WonichtdasWortbelebt,wirdLebenmitWeilewachundwosich
dieSchpfungverweiltistsietraurig."Thepassageisnotableforitsparono
masiaor chimingverbalperrftutations (onthe modelof Hlderlinand ar
chaictexts).

Notes
"Der Centaur" (GS7, 26) was written ca. December 1917 and published
posthumously.
1.InGreekmythology,thecentaurswerearaceofoftenunrulymonsters
havingthehead,arms,andtrunkofamanandthebodyandlegsofahorse.
Inthe summerof 1917, Benjaminbecame interestedin a prosepoem, "Le
Centaure,"bytheFrenchRomanticpoetMauricedeGurin(18101839);the
workconcernsthewiseandmelancholyleaderofthecentaurs,Chiron."After
Ihadreadit,"BenjaminrecountsinaletterofJuly30,1917,toErnstSchoen,
"IopenedHlderlin's mightyfroment,'DasBelebende [ThatWhichGives
Life]'...,andthe world ofGurin's centaursenter[ed] thelarger world of
Hlderlin'sfragments"(CWB,91).Herefersheretoafragmentarycommen
taryonthefifthcentury B.C.Greek poetPindar bytheGerman Romantic
poetFriedrichHlderlin (17701843);thecommentary(ca. 1803)accompa
niesHolderli'shighlyoriginaltranslationsofodesby'Pindar.Attheendof
1917,B'ejaminsentSchoenthefruitofthisreading,ashort,possiblyunfin
ished meditation, with the remark:"...Ienclose 'Der Centaur,' thoughts
which Ideveloped onthe basisof Hlderlin'smighty fragment,'DasBele
bende'"(GBl,415).Assourcefortheprintedtextof"DerCentaur,"thereex
istsonly a photocopyof an untitled manuscript by Benjamin dated 1921,
whichmayormaynotbeidenticaltothecompositionof1917.
2.InhisPindarcommentary(seenote1above),Hlderlinwrites:"Origi
nally,thestreamhadtowanderaround[umirren] beforeitcutachannelfor
itself" (cited GS7, 567). The ancient Greek concept of chaos (from a root
meaning"to gape") signified aformless primordial space preexisting the
emergenceofearthandsky.
3.Acitizen oftheGreekcolonyof MiletusinAsia Minor,Thaes(624?
546? B.c.) istraditionally consideredthefirst philosopher inthe West.He
maintainedthatthefundamentalprincipalofthingsthatfromwhichthey
originateandthatwhichpersiststhroughall changeiswaterormoisture.

Credits

Chapter19, "Experience."Reprinted by permission of the publisher

fromWalterBenjamin:SelectedWritings,Volume1,19131926,edited
byMarcusBullockandMichaelW.Jennings,pp.35,Cambridge,Mass.:
TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,Copyright1996by
thePresidentandFellowrsofHarvardCollege.
Chapter26.TheMetaphysicsofYouth.Reprintedbypermissionofthe
publisherfromWalter Benjamin: SelectedWritings, Volume 1, 1913
1926, editedby MarcusBullock andMichael W.Jennings, pp.617,
Cambridge,Mass.: TheBelknap Pressof Harvard UniversityPress,
Copyright1996bythePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege.
Chapter30,TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin:"ThePoet'sCourage"
and"Timidity."ReprintedbypermissionofthepublisherfromWalter
Benjamin: SelectedWritings, Volume 1, 19131926,edited byMarcus
BullockandMichaelW. Jennings,pp.1836,Cambridge,Mass.:.The
BelknapPressofHarvard UniversityPress,Copyright 1996bythe
PresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege.
Chapter 31, The Life of Students. Reprinted by permission of the
publisherfromWalterBenjamin:SelectedWritings,Volume1,19131926,
editedbyMarcusBullockandMichaelW.Jennings,pp.3747,Cam
bridge,Mass.:TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,Copy
right1996bythePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege.

287

288 Credits

Credits 289

Chapter32,A Child'sViewofColor. Reprintedbypermissionof the

publisherfrom WalterBenjamin: SelectedWritings, Volume 1, 1913
.1926,editedbyMarcus Bu}lockandMichaelW.Jennings,pp.5051,
Cambridge, Mass.:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
Copyright1996bythePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege.

Chapter43,Dostoevsky'sThe Idiot.Reprintedbypermissionofthe
publisherfromWalterBenjamin:SelectedWritings,Volume1,1913
1926,editedbyMarcusBullockandMichaelW.Jennings,pp.7881,
Cambridge,Mass.:TheBelknapPressof HarvardUniversityPress,
Copyright1996bythePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege.

Chapter36,Socrates.Reprinted bypermissionofthepublisher from

Walter Benjamin: Selected Writings, Volume 1, 19131926, editedby
Marcus Bullock and Michael W. Jennings, pp. 5254, Cambridge,
Mass.:The BelknapPress of HarvardUniversity Press,Copyright
1996bythePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege.Originallyap
pearedinEnglishinThePhilosophicalForum15,nos.12(19831984)
Chapter38,Trauerspiel andTragedy.Reprinted bypermissionofthe
publisherfrom WalterBenjamimSelected Writings,Volume 1, 1913
1926,editedby MarcusBullockandMichaelW.Jennings,pp.5558,
Cambridge, Mass.:The Belknap Pressof Harvard UniversityPress,
Copyright1996bythePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege.
Chapter39,TheRoleofLanguageinTrauerspielandTragedy.Reprinted
bypermissionofthepublisher fromWalterBenjamin: SelectedWrit
ings,Volume 1, 19131926,editedbyMarcusBullockandMichaelW.
Jennings,pp.5961,Cambridge,Mass.:TheBelknapPressofHarvard
UniversityPress, Copyright 1996by thePresident andFellows of
HarvardCollege.
Chapter40,OnLanguage asSuchandontheLanguage ofMan.Re
printedbypermissionofthepublisherfromWalterBenjamin:Selected
Writings,Volume1,19131926,editedbyMarcusBullockandMichael
W.Jennings,pp.6274,Cambridge,Mass.:TheBelknapPressofHar
vardUniversityPress,Copyright1996bythePresidentandFellows
ofHarvardCollege.OriginallyappearedinEnglishinWalterBenja
min,Reflections,English translationcopyright 1978byHarcourt
Brace Jovanovich, Inc. Published by arrangement with Harcourt
BraceJovanovich,Inc.

Index

Absolute(the),inperception,216;
MiddleAgesand,238239
Absolutecolor,216
"Absolutedependence,"78,83n26
Absolutenessofcreation,163
Absolutepedagogicdemands,107,112
Absolutespirit,7,44n2
Absolutetask,174
Abstraction,languageand,264
Abstractvs.,concretetime,10
Academiclife,inadequaciesof,
200209;reformand,1,3,56,5761
Achievement,totality.vs.fragmenta
tionand,200201
Actualization,79
Adamite,76,83n24
Aeschylus.96,99nl6
Aestheticism^72,77
Aesthetics:ofcolor,11;montage,12n4
Aestheticvalue,educationon,9093
Agamemnon,230,231232n5
Agathon<Greekpoet),142ril

291

Alarcos(Schlegel),243244,245n7
Amordei,68,81nl0
Analects(Confucius),114n4

Anaxagoras,96,99iil8'
AnnaKarenina(Tolstoy),33,37nl

AntonioMontecatino(fictional
character),28,31n6
"Aphorisms"(Benjamin),270272
Arminias,103,106n5
Art,1112;forart'ssake(l'artpour
l'art),6263K80n2;authoritative
feelingand,67;canonand,215217,
219,.221n3,226;critiqueofeducation
on,93;formsaslanguage,266;
imagination,;:oIorand,214223;
moflrningand,247;poetic,11,
171196;religio'Usconsciousness
and,73;romanticismand,132>133;
space'nd,224'225;.studentsociety
and,161
AtheneGermania(fictionalcharacter),
122,125n7

Index 293

292 Index

"AtNight;ThoughtsSuggestedbya
SchumannComposition"
. (Benjamin),1617
Avenarius,Ferdinand.136.138n5

Romanticism,13.52n6,280n2;
OriginoftheGermanTrauerspiel,
52n6,236n4,244245nl,250nl
Benjamin.Walter,essaysof:"The

"Aviator.The"(Benjamin),126127

Centaur,"8n2,283285;"AChild's

Awakening:historical,1011,120,

ViewofColor,"211213;"Conversa

282nl;ofhumanity,Kantand,76;of

tiononLove."139143;"Dialogueon

thejudgingword,263;ofreligious

theReligiosityofthePresent."5,8,

feeling,76.109;ofyouth,12,69,

lln3,6284;"Dostoevsky'sThe

2632,60,133,144,168

Idiot,"13,275280;"Epilogue,"3,
5356;"EroticEducation,"166167;

"Balzac"(Benjamin).273274

"'Experience,'"4,116119;"TheFree

Beauty,28,61n2,63,104105,143nl.

SchoolCommunity,"3945;"The

177178,187,190,215217,219221,

HappinessofAncientMan,"228232;

224,226,229,258

"TheLifeofStudents,"56,10,

Bebel.AugustFerdinand,99nll

197210;"TheMetaphysicsofYouth."

Belmore,Herbert.SeeBlumenthal

910.12.144160;"MoralEduca

(Belmore),Herbert
Benjamin,Dora(nePollack),13,
222nl5,236nl

tion,"107115;"OnLanguageas
SuchandontheLanguageofMan."
11,12.251269;"OntheMiddle

Benjamin,Emil,49.51nl

Ages,"238240;'TheRainbow:A

Benjamin,PaulineSchoenflies,49,

ConversationaboutImagination,"

51nl,87nl
Benjamin,Walter,113;academic

11,214223;"TheRainbow,orThe
ArtofParadise."224227;'^The

reformand,1,3,56;correlationof

ReligiousPositionoftheNew

thepoliticalandtheologicalby,89;

Youth,"89,168170;"TheRoleof

"CurriculumVitae"of.4952;diary

LanguageinTrauerspieland

of(Pentecost,1911),3338;family

Tragedy,"246250;"Romanticism:

background'of,2;atHaubinda

AnUndeliveredAddressto

boardingschool,13,4950;at

Students,"101106;"Romanticism:

KaiserFriedrichSchool,4950.

Replyofthe'Unsanctified,'"

5356;metaphysicsof,911;poetics

132134;"SchoolReform:ACultural

andtheoryoflanguageof,1112;

Movement,"5761;"Sleeping

studentactivismof,25,12,210n3;

Beauty,"6,2632;"Socrates,"9,

atUniversityofBerlin,4,52n6;at

233237;"StudentAuthors'

UniversityofFreiburg,34,5152n6;

Evenings,"161165;"Teachingand

atUniversityofMunich,13;World

Valuation,"9,90100;"Thoughtson

WarIand,1213

GerhartHauptmann'sFestivalPlay,"

Benjamin,Walter,dissertationsof:

ConceptofCriticisminGerman

120125;"TrauerspielandTragedy,"
241245;"TwoPoemsbyFriedrich

Hlderlin."11,12.171196;"Youth

Cal,Walter,79,83n27

WasSilent,"135138

Canon,artand,215216,219,221n3,

Benjamin.Walter,fragmentsof:
Aphorisms,"270272;"Balzac,"
273274
Benjamin,Walter,poemsof:

226
"Centaur,'The"(Benjamin),8n2,
283285
"Centaure,Le"(Gurin),284nl

"EstrangedLand,"8889;"On

Charity,140,143n2

SeeingtheMorningLight,"281282;

Childhood:damaged,Russiaand,

"ThePoet,''1415;"Spring's
Hideaway,"2425;"Storm."2223;
untitled,36,152
Benjamin,Walter,storiesby:"AtNight:

278279;happinessin,229;
imaginationin,219220
"Child'sViewofColor,A"(Benjamin),
211213,222n9

ThoughtsSuggestedbyaSchumann

Christians,early,8,169,206

Composition,"1617;"TheAviator,

Cicero,MarcusTullius.97,100n21

126127;"DeathoftheFather,"

Circulusegregius,60,61n5

128131;"ThePanofEvening,"

Classicaltragedy,171,242243

4648;"QuietStory."8587;"The

Classicism,7677,102,163

ThreeWhoSoughtReligion."1821

Coeducation,2,26.4143.167nl,206

Bentham,Jeremy,45n8

Coherence,poetryand,172174,179,

Bergson,Henri,910
Bible,242fGenesis(13),255,258260,

183,191
Color:aestheticsof,11;in"AChild's

262265;Luke(17),7,143nl

BirthofTragedy,The(Nietzsche),
99nl5,236n4
Blcher,GebhardLeberechtvon,121,
125n6
Blumenthal(Belmore),Herbert,7,36,

ViewofColor,"211213;imagina
tion,artand,214220,225227
Communication,languageand,
251256,258,262,264,266267
Community:moraleducationand,
109111;solitudeand,9,12n4:

38nl3,51n5,60nl;89nl;98nl,

studentauthors'eveningsand,162;

115nl3,119nl,124nl,131n2,158n2,

studentlifeand,199205;with

159n8,231nl.236nl.244nl,250nl,
268nl
Blsche,Wilhelm.82nl6
Botticelli.Sandro,239,240n3
Bourgeoisvalues/attributes,4,80n5,

womenandchildren,206207
Complacence,102,199

ConceptofCriticisminGerman
Romanticism,The(Benjamin).13,
52n6,280n2

102,230,260;studentlifeand,

Concretevs.abstracttime,10

200202,204,205206,207.Seealso

Confucius,108;Anfl/ecfs,114n4

Philistinism

Conversation:cultureof,6;in"The

Bchner,Georg,Lenz,229,231n4

MetaphysicsofYouth,"10,144149;

Burckhardt,Jakob.DiKulturder

in"TheRainbow:AConversation

RenaissanceinItalien,50,51n5

aboutImagination,"11,214223;

294 Index

Conversation(continued)
Socraticmethodand,235;women
and,146149,158159n2
"ConversationonLove"(Benjamin),
139143

ConversationswithEckermann
(Goethe),111,280n4
Courage:inHlderlin'spoems,177,
181,190192;youthand.124,198,
207
Cousin,Victor.80n2
Creation,languageand,258265
Creativespiritvs.vocationalspirit,
203204

"DialogueontheReligiosityofthe
Present"(Benjamin),5,8,lln3,
6284 .

Index 295

Empiricism,81nll;moraleducation
and,109
Enemies:diaryand,154,156;young

Diaryasanactofliberation,150156

generationas,40;youthstruggle

DieKulturderRenaissanceinItalien

and.41,136,170,170n3

(Burckhardt),51n5

EnemyofthePeople(Ibsen),28,31n9

Dilettantism,163164,165n3

"Epilogue"(Benjamin).5356

Dissonance,poetryand,185

Eros,158159n2;eroticconventions

"Dostoevsky'sTheIdiot"(Benjamin),
13,275280
Dr.Stockman(fictionalcharacter),28,
31n9
Dreams,energiesof,144,156157,
281282;languageof,271

and,205207;Socratesand,233,235
"EroticEducation"(Benjamin),
166167
Eroticrealm,104105,146
Error,117,119n2
"EstrangedLand"(Benjamin),8889

Formalism,inMiddleAges,239
Fraternities,207208,210n6
Freedom,27.60,62,113nl,184,275;
academic,199;Hauptmann'sFestival
Playand,123;historyandstruggle
and,123124;moraleducationand,
109,110
FreeGermanYouth,210n2;Congress
of.135137,137nl
FreeReligiousMovement,66,80n7
FreeSchoolCommunity(Freie
Schulgemeinde),23,43nl,109
"FreeSchoolCommunity,The"
(Benjamin),3945

Crisis.6,65,123,198

Dreamworld,imaginationand,220

Ethicoftheartist,163164

Culturalhistory,lackofeducationon,

Dualism:religionand,68,79,80n7;

Ethics.94,112;Kantian,107108

123124;Nietzscheandloveof,

Ethicalindependence,6566

83n22;inserviceto,120;youthand,

Ethicalnecessity(sittlichnotwendig),78

10,26,5960

94
Culturalmovement,schoolreformas,
1,5759
Culture:ofconversation,6;emergent,
60;historyandstrugglefor,123124;

ofsocialmoralityandpersonality,
71,77
Duality,unmastered,178

Ethicalpersonality,164

Duty,27,40,54,64,77,108,112;

Euler,Leonhard,103,106n5

Geheeb,Paul,43nl

"Experience"(Benjamin),4,116119

Geibel,Emanuel,166,167n2

Expression,languageand,252,257

Genesis(13),258260,262265

derivativeconceptof,201

prostitutesand,158159n2
"CurriculumVitae"(Benjamin),4952

Eckermann,JohannPeter,277,280n4

Cynicism,72

Ecstasy,75,77

Fall(the),languageand,263'265

Education:creativelifeoffeelingand,

Family,39.41.95,166167,205206,

Death;inHlderlin'spoems,177178,

Future:historyandstrugglefor,

6768;in"Epilogue,"5356;in

Genius,146,163,164,176,181,184,

231;protestagainst.5,136

234235,270,273
George,Stefan,4,82nl5,194^195nl;
"H.H.,"208,209

190192;immortalityand,156,

"EroticEducation,"166167;

Fate,timeand.14^,151152,154156

242243;aslastinterval,150,

Germanliterature,2,3,44n2,9093,95

functionanddefinitionof,40,58;

152154,156

isolatedfromthereal,103;lackof

Faust(Goethe),28,31n8
Faustina(Wassermann),75,83n23

GermanYouthMovement,1,4,12,13,

idealsandrightsin,5455;in"The

Feelings:authoritative,67;language

38n5,44n2,45n9,51n3,135138,

"DeathoftheFather"(Benjamin),
128131'
Decadence,77

LifeofStudents,"197210;in"Moral

and,247248

GermanSecessionmovement,93,98n9

210nn23,278,280n5

Education,"107115;in"School

Feminine,geniusand,234235.See

Democritus,96,99nl8

Geschickt,183,189,196nl2

Reform,"5761;in"Teachingand
Valuation,"90100

alsoWomen
FestivalPlayinGermanRhymes

Goethe,JohannWolfgangvon,67,81n8,

DerAn/a^(journal),1,45,30nl,
97nl,113nl,119nl,137nl
Despair,150151
Destiny,poetryand,177186,188189,
192
Developmentaltime,10.151
Dialogue,tragedyand,246

Effective[aktuell] existence,poetry
and,172173

Egmont(Goethe),92,98n7,105,106n8

(Hauptmann),12125
Fichte.JohannGottlieb.70.81nl3.108,
114n3.125n5

91;ConversationswithEckermann,
277,280n4;ethicsand,110,114n8;

Faust,28,31n8;ongender,4445n6;
HermannundDorothea,9192,98n5;

Ehrlich,Paul,69,81nl2

FlowerDays(Blumentage),65,80n5

poetryand,171,195n2;onShake

Emerson,RalphWaldo,195n4
Empedocles,96,99nl8

Foerster,FriedrichWilhelm,Ju

speare,243,245n3;TorquatoTasso,

gendlehre,111112,114115nll

2728,30n2,31n6

2fi6 Index

Index 2P7

Gothicstyle,239,240n3

Henson,Matthew,81nl2

Hume,David,69,81nll

Grace,101,113nl,169,170nl

Heracles,29,73

Humility,6869,79

Greekphilosophy,96,99nnl718

"Heracles'EarthlyJourney"(Spitteier).

Humormagazine,53,55nl

GregersWerla(fictionalcharacter))
2829,31n9
Groundlessnessofbeing,9,110
Grnewald,Matthias,234,236237n5;

IsenheimAltarpiece(painting),3,
220,222223nl6
Gurin,Mauricede,"LeCentaure,"
284nl

73

Hypocrisy,65,80n5

IsenheimAltarpiece(Grnewald),3,
220,222223nl6

IsraelitischesFamilienblatt(Israelite
FamilyPaper),3334,38n4

Heraclitus,81n8,96.99nl8,187,
196nl5

HermannundDorothea(Goethe),
9192,98n5

"I,"timeand,150151,155156

Jealousy,140141

Ibsen,Henrik,73,82nl7,98nl0;Enemy

Jewishness,interestin,8n2

"H.H."(George).208209

ofthePeople,28,31n9;TheMaster
Builder,29.31nll;TheWildDuck,

HildaWangel(fictionalcharacter),29,

2829,31n9

31nll

Idealism,6,12,29,42.98nl,119nl,

Joyousness,64
Judgment,languageand,263264,
269nl2

Jugendlehre{Foeister),111112,

Gumpert,Martin,45

Hiller,JCurt,209nl

236n2;lackof,ineducation,5455;

Gnther,A.E.,167

Historicalawakening,1011,120,

objectivespiritand,40;poseof,

Jugend(Youth)magazine,33,37n4

2729,103104

Haeckel,Ernst,80n7

Justice,conceptof,7nl,64

Historicalsense,120,123

Halm,August,43nl

Historicaltime,241242,244,247248,

282nl

HalvardSolness(fictionalcharacter),
29,31nll
Hamann,JohannGeorge,258,262,
269n6

Hamlet(Shakespeare),67,27,29,50,
106nl,248,250n5
"HappinessofAncientMan,The"
(Benjamin),228232
Hardnbferg,Friedrich,Freiherrvon.

SeeNovalis
Haubindaboardingschool.13,35,
38nl2,4950,51n3
Hauptmann,Gerhart,73,82nl8,124nl;

271
History:critiqueofeducationon,94;

Identity,poetryand;174,180,182,
184187,189,191192

Idiot,The(Dostoevsky),13,275280
Imagination:children,colorand.
212213;in"TheRainbow:A

106n7;ethics/moralityand,66,76,

ConversationaboutImagination,"

80n6,107,108,110,111,113n2,

relationshiptothepresent,197198;

214223

tragedyand,241244;youthand,

Imago(Spitteler),29,32nl2

123124

Immediacy,9,78;languageand,

HistoryofAncientArt(Winckelmann),
99nl4
Hofmannsthal,Hugovon,7273,
82nl5
Hlderlin,Friedrich,50,51n4,132,144,
158nl,194nl,279nl,283,284nnl2,

252253,258,263264
Immortality:deathand,156,242243;
oflife,13,277278
Immortaltime,10,150
IndependentStudents'Association,3,
6162nl,209210n2
Individualism;7172,73

120125

by,1112,171196;"ThePoet's

Individuation,243

Courage,"175176,176179;

Infinity:Dostoevsky'sTheIdiotand,

243,245n4
Hegel,GeorgWilhelmFriedrich,40,
44nn23,70,81nl3
Heine,Heinrich,133n2
Heinle,ChristophFriedrich(Fritz),12.
195nl.222nll.279nl
Hellingrath,Norbertvon,194195nl

"Epilogue"on,5356'
Kant,Immanuel,3,70,80n2,81nl3,

fromdevelopmentof,103;in

285nn45;commentaryonpoems

Hebbel,ChristianFriedrich,50,51n4,

KaiserFriedrichSchool,49,50,51n2;

interruptionof,121,125n4;isolation

FestivalPlayinGermanRhymes,
HauptundStaatsaktionen,247,250n4

114115nll

"Timidity,"176,179191
Honesty:dialogueonreligiosityand,

spatial,215216,225
Innocence,218219,228229,230

cismand,103,104

Intellectualism,56,198

100n20,195n8
Hubris,189,230
Humanism,67,96,106n6

3031n4
Keil,Ernst,136,137n3
Kierkegaard,Soren,8,263,269nl2
Kleist,Heinrichvon,98n8
Knowledge,6,29,53,6668,7678,
144,151,154,198199,204205,209,
234235,252,254255,259260:of
goodandevil,263;sublimityof
sovereign,69
Krauss,Erich,167

277;languageand,253254,260;

73,74,7576,79,82n20;romanti
Horace(QuintusHoratiusFlaccus),97,

114nlO,269n6
KarlMoor(fictionalcharacter).2728,

Intellectualperceptualstructure,
poetryand,171173,179?182183,
191192
Ionia,81n8

Lament,247249,249nl;natureand,
265
Landscapesurroundingtheself,10,
152154
Language:bourgeoisviewof,255,260;
Jn"OnLanguageasSuchandonthe
LanguageofMan,"251269;in"The

2^8 Index

Language(continued)

Index 299

LaoTzu,149,159n6

MinnavonBarnhelm(Lessing),92,98n6

HistoryforLife,9,96,99nl5;The
BirthofTragedy,99nl5,236n4;on
Socrates(TheGayScience),236n4:
supermanyouth(bermenschenr
Jugend)derivingfrom,104,106n6;
ThusSpokeZarathustra,74,83n22,

Lawofidentity.SeeIdentity,poetryand

Modernart,93,273

106n6,118,119n5

Lenz(Bchner),229,231n4

Modernhappiness,228230

Lessing,GottholdEphraim,Minnavon

Modernity,2,56,27,64,66.68,70,78,

RoleofLanguageinTrauerspieland
Tragedy,"246250;symbolicsideof,
266267;theoryf,1112,252253,
257,260261;womenand,148149

Barnhelm,98n6
Liebknecht,Wilhelm,99nll

developmentin,275279;social
activityandlackof,65
"TheMetaphysicsofYouth"(Benjamin),
910,144160
MiddleAges,238240

94;ineducation,39,60,93,96,199,
202203

Norm:bourgeois,200;critical'
aesthetic,49;morallawas,107109
Novalis(Friedrich,Freiherrvon
Hardenberg),172,195n5,276,280n2

Lietz,Hermann,49,50,51n3

Modernreligiosity,89,83n28

"LifeofStudents,The"(Benjamin),

Monism,7,7,80n7

OlympianSpring(Spittelei),29,82nl9

Montageaesthetics,12,12n4

"OnLanguageasSuchandonthe

56,10,197210
Linguisticbeing,253257,256,259
Literati,7475,83n21.203

"MoralEducation"(Benjamin),
107115

Logos,252,252n4

Morallaw,107110

Longing/yearning:loveand,140;

Mourning,246248,249nl,265

religionand.72,74,168;youthand,
151,156,208,278

Mller,Friedrich,262,265,269nl0
Muse,216217

Lostgreatness,144,208

Music,Trauerspieland,244,247249

Love,conversationon,139143

Mysticism,7677,170

Luserke,Martin,43nl,136,138n4

Mythicsphere:MiddleAgesand,239;
poetryand,173174,176179,181,

Magic:languageand,253,258,
262264;ofmatter,258

183184,188,190191,193194;
Socratesand,233234,236nl

Magicalschematism(inMiddleAges),
239
Mann,Thomas,7273,82nl5
Manning;OttoHarald,131n2
Marriage,139140,205,207

125n3

MasterBuilder,The(Ibsen),29,31nll

Naturalism,73

MaxPiccolomini(fictionalcharacter),

Nature,1112;beautyof,224;

2728,31n5
Memory,145,146,219,278;ontological
viewof,910

LanguageofMan"(Benjamin),11.
251269
"OnSeeingtheMorningLight"
(Benjamin),281282

OntheAdvantageandDisadvantageof
HistoryforLife(Nietzsche),9,96,
99nl5
"OntheMiddleAges"(Benjamin),
238240

OriginoftheGermanTrauerspiel

imagination,artand,212,214216,

PerceptualintellectualStructure,poetry
and.171173,179,182183,191192
Pericles,96,99nl6
Personality,determinationof,711,
PessimiSm,'idealismstartingas,6t7,
2729

<

Philistiades(fictionalcharacter),121,
125n4
Philistinism,63,95,102;experience
210n6
Philosophers'stone,239,240n2

PictureofDorianGray,The(Wilde),
112,115nl3
Pindar(Greekpoet),177178,
194195nl,230,232n6,284nnl2
Plasticity,poetryand,186189,191192
Plato,7,99nl8,204,106n9;The

Republic,21n2;Stratesand,
233234,236nl,236n3,237n8;

Symposium,97,100nl9,106n8,
142143nl,234,237n7

(Benjamin),52n6,236n4,244245nl,

"Poet,The"(Benjamin),1415

250nl

Poetized(the),172174,180,189193,

Naming,languageand,254^256,
259267

Perception,pure,213,216,217,219220

and,4,117118;fraternitiesand,207,

"Overnaming,"266

NapoleonI(EmperorofFrance),121,

Pedagogy,60,95,107,112113

195n4
Poetry:aestheticcommentaryon,

Painting,215216,225,266'
Pannwitz,Rudolf,58,61n3
"PanofEvening,The"(Benjamin),
4648
Pantheism,6669,7172,76,78,80n7,
81n8

171196;languageand,258,266
"Poet'sCourage,The"(Hlderlin),
175176;commentaryon,176179
Politics,5;correlationofwiththeology.
89
Pollack,Dora.SeeBenjamin,Dora

218220;languageand,247248,

Paquet,Alfons,66,80n7

255,265,267;religionand,33,70

Particularism,102103

Presence,910
Pres'nt/presentmoment,911;in

Messianictime,242

Nibelungenlied,91,98n3

Pathos,literatiand,75

Metabasiseisallogenos,243,245n5

Nietzsche,Friedrich,2,910,26,30n2,

Possession,conceptof,7,7nl

Paul,Jean(JeanPaulRichter),133n2

"DialogueohtheReligiosityofthe

Metaphysics:Benjamin's,911;French

31nl2,44,61n3,79,83n28,204;On

Peace,123

Present,"5,8,6284;histryand,

spiritand.273;humanandnational

theAdvantageandDisadvantageof

Peary,RobertE.,8Znl2

197198

300 Index

Primalimages,216217y219,221
PrinceMyshkin(fictionalcharacter),
13,^76278,280n5
Professions,academiclifeand,203204
PrometheusandEpimetheus(Spitteler),
29,31nl2
Prostitutes:conversationand,146149,
158159n2;eroticsand,166167;in
studentlife,*206207
Psychology,50,83n26,111112,
275276
Puretime,10,151
Quietism,170,170n2
"QuietStory".(Benjamin),8587
Radt,Grete,214,221nl
"Rainbow,The:AConversationabout
Imagination"(Benjamin),11,
214223
"Rainbow,The,orTheArtofParadise"
(Benjamin),224227
Reality,dynamicfieldtheoryof,11
Reception,pure,215,218,220,222n9,
226

Receptiveconception,219,261
Receptivesensation,218
Redemption,7,73,150,154,156,170,
248,265
Reform,academic,1,3,56
Religion:"DialogueontheReligiosity
ofthePresent"and,6284;ethical
communityand,109111;nature
and,33;nondogmaticandnonescha
tological,89;threewhosought,
1821

"ReligiousPositionoftheNewYouth,
The"(Benjamin).89,168170
Repetition:metaphysicalprinciplesof,
248;temporal,244

Republic,The(Plato),21n2

Resurrectionoftheself,10,152
Revelation,146,148,164,279nl;
languageand,257258
Rilke,RainerMaria,38nll,66,80n7
Robbers,Th(Schiller),2728,3031n4
"RoleofLanguageinTrauerspieland
Tragedy,The"(Benjamin),246250
Romanticism,68,70;Benjamin's
dissertationon,13,52n6,280n2;
false,102103;neo,7273;of
opennessandtruth,105
"Romanticism:AnUndelivered
AddresstoStudents"(Benjamin),
101106
"Romanticism:Replyofthe'Unsancti
fied'"(Benjamin),132134
Rousseau,JeanJacques,41,44n4
Sachs,Franz,55nl
Salomon,Friedrich,34,38n7
Sappho,148149,159n5
Schelling,F.W.J.,81nl3
Schiller,Friedrichvon,30n2,58,61n2,
63,80n3,193,228;classicismand,
102,106n3;TheRobbers,2728,
3031n4;Wallenstein,2728,31n5
Schlegel,AugustWilhelm,30n3
Schlegel,Friedrich,238,240nl;Alarcos,
243244,245n7
Schleiermacher,Friedrich,78,83n26
Schnitzler,Arthur.7273,82nl5
Schoen,Ernst,55nl,195nl,268nl,
279nl,282nl,284nl
Scholem,Gershom,5,7nl,13,13n5,
30nl,55nl,159n8,194nl,236nl,
240nl,249nl,267268nl,271nl,
274nl.279nl
"SchoolReform:ACulturalMove
ment"(Benjamin).5761

Index 301

Science.68,69,70;studentlifeand,198
Sculpture,215,225,266
Secondary,schools,90100;classical,,
9497,99nl2;modern,9094,99nl2
Seder,34,38n6
Seligson,Carla,7,9,12,113nl,143nl
Seligson,Rika,12
Sensation,receptive,218
Sentimentalinan,228
Sexualorder,75
Shakespeare,William;Hamlet,67,27,
29,.50,106nl,248.250n5;tragedyof.
243
Shame:childrenand,212,212n4,
222nl3;religionand.75
SibyllineBooks.239.240n2
Silence,144149,
Simplicifsimus,35,38nll
Sittlichkeit(morals),31n6,159n2
"SleepingBeauty"(Benjamin),6,
2632
Sociabilityamongyouth,104105,
106n7
Socialactivity,metaphysicalserious
nessand,8,65
SocialDemocraticParty,94,99nll
Socialism,5.26,40,65,71,72,77
Socialwelfarework,201
"Socrates"(Benjamin),9,233237
Socraticmethod,235
Solitude,9,75.110.129,157,194nl,
208277
I
Solomon'sring,239,s240n2
Sophia(wisdom),142nl
Sophists,96,99nl8
Sorrow,languageand,247248
Sound,languageand,247249,258
Space,7nl,11,146,151,178,181182,
186,188,211212,215,219220,
224226

Spatialinfinity,215216,225
Spatialprinciple.SeePerceptual
intellectualstructure,poetryand
Spinoza,Baruch,67,68,81nn810,117,
119n2
Spirit:Asiaticorientationof,238;
behindhistoricalfigures,103;bodily
sensationof,78;children,colorand,
211213;eroticismand,167;
experienceand,117118;formand,.
224;Hauptmann'sFestivalP}ayand,
121;historyand,123124;imagina
tion,artand,215218;MiddleAges
formalistic,238239;objective,2,40;
propagationofvaluesof.58;
romanticismand,132133;Socrates
and,234235;youthand,78,
4043,132133,135,136,144,159n2,
161162
Spiritualentity/essence,language^nd,
252254,256257,259260
Spirituallifeofstudents,200209;
banalconceptionoflifeand, j.
205209;vocationalideologyand,.
203204
Spitteler,Carl,3132nl2,34,38n5,
45n9;'^Heracles'EarthlyJourney,"
73;Imago,29.32nl2;Olympian
Spring,29.82nl9;Prometheusand
Epimetheus,29,31nl2
"Spring'sHideaway"(Benjamin),
2425
Steinfeld,Alfred,3336,37n3
Steinmann,Dr.,4,56n2
"Storm"(Benjamin),2223
Strau,Fritz,55nl
Strindberg,August,79,8384n28
Struggleofyouth,123124,170
"StijdentAuthors'Evenings"
(Benjamin),161165

302 Index

Students:ideals,rightsand,5455;in
"TheLifeofStudents,"197210;role
of,6;in"Romanticism:AnUndeliv
eredAddresstoStudents,"101106;
in"SchoolReform,"5761
Subspecieaeternitatis,58,61n4,70
Supermanyouth(bermenschen
Jugend),104,106n6
Surface,inpainting,215216,225
Symposium(Plato),97,100nl9,106n8,
142I43nl,234
System,90,182,198,268nl;closure,
109;lackof,inmoraleducation,110;
ofproperty,7nl;ofsigns,II;of
thinkers,50
Task:ofdilettante,163;educational,6,
57,104,110,206207;historical,120,
197;ofhumanity,40,201;of
individual,4041;infinite,70;of
languagetheory,252;ofnaming,
262;poetic,171174;inSchiller,63;
ofstudentbody,205
"TeachingandValuation"(Benjamin),
9,90100
Technologicalsemiliteracy,63
Temporality,layered,910.Seealso
Timeandtimelessness
Thaes,96,99nl8,284285n3
Theology,correlationofwithpolitics,
89
"ThoughtsonGerhartHauptmann's
FestivalPlay"(Benjamin),120125
"ThreeWhoSoughtReligion,The"
(Benjamin),1821
ThusSpokeZarathustra(Nietzsche),74,
83n22,106n6,118,119n5
Timeandtimelessness,10,150158;
historyand,241243;plasticityof,
186189

"Timidity"(Hlderlin),176;commen
taryon,179191
Tolstoy.Leo,8,79,83n28.201,2I0n4;
AnnaKarnina,33.37nl
TorquatoTasso(Goethe),2728,
31n6
TowerofBabel.265
Tragicomiclaw,70
Tragicsenseoflife.2.7,164,241
Tragictime,241242
Transformation:poetryand,173,179,
183184.186,192;translationand.
261;thewordin.247
Translation,languagetheoryand,261,
262,266267
Trauerspiel,defined,245n2
"TrauerspielandTragedy"(Benjamin),
241245
Travel,diariesand,3338,37n2
TreeofKnowledge.263.264
Truth.29.64,77,104;experienceand,
117;poetryand,172,182183,186,
188,192;primalimagesand,
216217,219;romanticismof,105
Truthfulness:ineducation,59;ofart,
11

"TwoPoemsbyFriedrichHlderlin"
(Benjamin),11,17*196
Unity,75;poetryand,172174,
177178.180,182,184,189192;
studentlifeandconscious,198
University,conceptof,6.Seealso
Academiclifelinadequaciesof
Values:educationonaesthetic,9093;
historyandstrugglefor,123124;
teachingand.90100;vs.exprience.
117
Victory,happinessand,230231

Index

Virtue,conceptof,7nl
Vocationalspiritvs.creativespirit.
203204
Wallenstein(Schiller),27.3In5

WalthervonderVogelweide.90,98n2
WarFury(Kriegsfurie),121,125n3
Wassermann.Jakob,Faustina,75
Water,creationand.283.
284285nn23
Wedekind.Frank,96,99nI7
Weibertreue(woman'sfidelity),178,
196nI0
Weltschmerz.132.133134n2
Whitman.Walt.66,80n7
WildDuck,The(Ibsen),2829,31n9
Wilde.Oscar.ThePictureofDorian
Gray,112,115nl3
Will:toart,162;moraleducationand,
107110,113;Socratesand.233;to
unmooring,72;youthand,105,117,
123,135
Winckelmann,JohannJoachim,96;
HistoryofAncientArt,99nl4
Women:conversationand,146149,
158159n2;educationof,4143
Word:creationand',283284(seealso
Creation,languageand);divine
(God's).259263.265,267;human,
263;judging,263264;mute.262,
265,267;pure,247

303

Work,valueof,5354
Worldliness,64
Wyneken,Gustav,12.3,4,12,38nl2,
41,45n8,51n3,82nl9,82n20,113nl,
136,165n4,167nl;FreeSchool
Communityand,43nnl2,
137138n4,138n5
Wynekenians,3,8n2
Xanthippe,235,237n8
Yearning.SeeLonging/yearning
Youth:awakeningof,12,69,2632,
60,133,144,168;Dostoevsky'sThe
Idiotand,278,280n5;epitaphfor,
13,13n5;eroticrealmandsociabil
ityamong,104105,106n7;
experienceand,4;historyand,
123124;in"TheMetaphysicsof
Youth,"144160;in"TheReligious
PositionoftheNewYouth,"168170;
romanticismand,101,105;school
reformand,5960;senseofitselfof,
9;spiritand,78.4043,132133,
135,136,144,159n2,161162;
struggleswithlaw.6.27.Seealso
FreeGermanYouth;GermanYouth
Movement;Students
Youthfultime.10,150
"YouthWasSilent"(Benjamin),
135138