Abstract:

The principles that were used in this experiment is the Bernoullis principle taking head
loss into account, Reynolds number, laminar and turbulent flow and the friction factor. Surface
roughness inside the pipe and the viscous forces from the fluids are the main contribution to the
total head loss.
The results obtained from the experiment vary to the theoretical results and the errors
between the experimental data and the theoretical value are very large, which is at least 70%.
The friction factor for both laminar flow and turbulent flow obtained experimentally match
rather well with the moody charts plot. The value of the relative roughness obtained from the
moody chart is 0.08.
Several errors have been made during the experiment. Such examples of errors are
systematic error, human error and parallax error. The errors may cause the data obtained
experimentally vary differently from the theoretical value. Such example of parallax errors are
the eyes is not align to the reading level while obtaining the data through readings. Errors in
reading the data may lead to other inaccurate calculation, hence causing accumulated error.
Assumption of negligible minor losses are made during the analysis while in real life, there may
be minor losses through the bending of the pipe.
Introduction:
The principles used in this experiment is the loss of energy or the total head of the fluid
through a pipe of a real fluid flow. The cause of the energy losses is the frictional resistance of
the fluid, causing the velocity of the fluid at the layer to slow down over time. Bernoullis
principle is applied but with the addition of energy loss as the experiment is now dealing with
real fluids, which consists of viscosity. The loss of energy is usually referred to the total head
loss in Bernoullis equation.
The total head loss is made up of 2 components, which is the minor head loss and major
head loss. The losses due to the surrounding is accounted into the major losses whereas the losses
through fitting or accessories are accounted into the minor losses. Examples of fitting or
accessories are bends of the pipe, valves, contractions of the pipe, etc. The major head loss is
defined as,
2

h L, major=f

l v
D 2g

Where,
l is the length of the pipe
f is the friction factor
Reynolds number is a dimensionless unit that is used to determine the flow of the fluid.
It is the ratio of inertial force to viscous force. The Reynolds number is defined as,

vD
u

A fluid has 2 types of motion, which is laminar flow and turbulent flow. Laminar flow is
defined as a smooth flow having parallel streamlines. Laminar flow tends to flow at low velocity
as there will be no eddy produced. Its Reynolds number is usually less than 500,000. Turbulent
flow is a flow of fluids with high velocity. Eddies are produced causing a chaotic flow in which
its flow is hard to predict. Its Reynolds number is usually more than 500,000. For laminar flow,
the friction factor is a function of Reynolds number only. The friction factor of laminar flow can
be defined as,
f=

64

However, the friction factor for a turbulent flow is a function of Reynolds number and the ratio
of surface roughness to the diameter of the pipe (the relative roughness). The friction factor can
be obtain from the Moody chart.
Pipe losses are important during application, especially for long distance transportation of
liquids such as oil or water. The head loss can be theoretically reduced based on the formula,
h L, major=f
-

l v2
D 2g

Since the friction factor is a function of Reynolds number and relative roughness, the
total head loss can be reduced if the inner surface of the pipe is smooth or the velocity of
the fluid being transported is slow, so that the Reynolds number can be minimized as
much as possible.
Since the head loss is inversely proportional to the diameter of the pipe. Large pipe
diameter can reduce the amount of head loss.