AGIP Fluid Dynamics

Eni
Agip E&P Division
Corporate Technical Services

Technological Area: Drilling & Completion
Activity: Mud & Cement Engineering
The Dynamics
of
Drilling
Fluids
Quaderno Tecnico no. 7
THE DYNAMICS OF
DRILLING FLUIDS
INDEX
Introduction
1 - The Rheology of drilling muds

1.1 - Introduction
1.2 - Fluid deformation
1.3 - Flow regimes
Plug flow
Laminar flow
Transitional flow
Turbulent flow
1.4 - Determination of the flow regime
The Reynolds number
1.5 - Viscosities for Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids
1.6 - Thixotropy, rheopecticity and gel strength
1.7 - Rheological classification of fluids during flow
Plastic fluids
Pseudoplastic and dilatant fluids
Yield pseudoplastic and dilatant fluids
1.8 - Rheological models
Models with one constant parameter
Models with two constant parameters
Models with three constant parameters
Models with four constant parameters
Models with five constant parameters
1.9 - Selecting the rheological model
1.10 - Determining rheological parameters by means of
rotational viscosimeter readings
Bingham model
Ostwald & de Waele model
Herschel & Bulkley model
1.11 - The effect of pressure and temperature on rheological
parameters
Plastic fluids
Pseudoplastic fluids
1
2
3
3
3
4
4
5
5
8
12
14
15
16
18
19
19
20
20
21
21
22
25
27
28
29
31
33
37
Yield pseudoplastic fluids

1.12 - Bibliography
38
40
2 - The hydraulics of drilling muds

2.1 - Introduction
2.2 - Laminar flow in circular section
2.3 - Turbulent flow in circular section
2.4 - Critical flow conditions: transition from laminar to
turbulent flow
2.5 - Laminar flow in annular section
2.6 - Turbulent flow in annular section
2.7 - Critical flow conditions: transition from laminar to
turbulent flow
2.8 - Bibliography
43
43
52
56
57
65
69
70
3 - Secondary flows in the hydraulic circuit

3.1 - Introduction
3.2 - Surface circuit
3.3 - The bit
3.4 - Determination of the discharge pressure at the mud pumps
(SPP)
3.5 - Determination of the equivalent circulating density
3.6 - Power required by the mud pump
3.7 - Bibliography
72
72
77
81
81
82
83
Appendix - A brief outline of drilling oil wells

A1.1 A1.2 A1.3 A1.4 A1.5 A1.6 -
Introduction
Drilling techniques
The rig site
Directional drilling
The hydraulic drilling circuit
Bibliography
17 February
84
84
87
89
90
92
First issue
Roberto Maglione
Angelo Calderoni
Giuseppe Libri
Description
Prepared
Checked
Approved
1998
Rev.
Date
Circulation of this document is limited to Eni and affiliate Companies
Rig G-125
Well
Ragusa 53 Dir-A
THE DYNAMICS OF DRILLING FLUIDS

AUTOTRAK - EXTENDED REACH DRILLING
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5 Maggio 1997
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Expandable Pads
Bit
The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids
INTRODUCTION
This technical manual briefly summarises the theoretical aspects of rheology (chapter 1) and the
hydraulics of drilling fluids (chapter II) which are required for calculating flow parameters, pressure
profiles and well head pressure.
A part of the theory discussed in these two chapters was taken from existing publications, while
other aspects were developed for the first time, on the basis of Agips experience.
Chapter III gives some of the most important examples of flows in the hydraulic circuit, which are
defined as secondary in order to distinguish them from the dominant axial flows inside the drill string
and the annular section. The latter are in fact the flow in the surface circuit (of the drilling rig) and
the flow which can be seen at the bit.
Some calculation examples are also given for a simpler and quicker understanding of the practical
use of the various theories explained.
Lastly, the drilling rigsite and well drilling techniques are briefly described in the appendix.
San Donato Milanese, 17th February 1998
1. THE RHEOLOGY OF DRILLING MUDS
1.1 - INTRODUCTION
The inability of a fluid to withstand a tangential force is a fundamental characteristic of liquids. In
fact, if we apply a tangential force to a given volume of fluid, the fluid will lose its shape and
tends to become deformed. If this deformation is continuous, it is known as flow.
The flow of a fluid must always take place within a conduit. Often the conduit does not have a
circular section (e.g. pipe), but may have the most varied of shapes, for example a fluid flowing
down an inclined tabletop is enclosed by the table surface underneath and by the atmospheri on
the sides and top.
Circular sections are the most frequent in the hydraulic drilling circuit and represent the typical
form of the inside of the drill string pipes, whether they are drill pipes, heavy weight or drill
collars. The nozzles of the bit, which mud passes through from the drill string to the annulus,
belong to this category; these nozzles have a circular section, despite their slightly conical internal
shape which promotes mud flow.
A second type of section is annular, formed by the gap existing between the drill string and the
well of the hole or casing.
In the analytical procedures of this manual, the two sections, circular and annular, have been
considered as concentric in order to simplify the development of both the flow theories and
resulting calculations. In reality, the string is hardly ever in line with the hole. In fact during
drilling, the drill string is nearly always eccentric in relation to the hole axis, leading to a gap
which is often variable, not associable to well defined geometries and often difficult to analytically
evaluate. Moreover, while drilling horizontal wells, the drill string nearly always rests on the
lower part of the hole, annulling all annular type geometric conditions.
The type of conduit significantly affects the behaviour of fluid flow. In fact, all analyses of flow
must consider the geometric form of the conduit, as this greatly affects the complexity of the
analytical development for determining the formulas of the flow parameters.
In general, at low flow rates, fluid flow is the result of parallel fluid layers (laminae) sliding past
each other at different velocities. The fluid layer adjacent to the wall of the conduit adheres to the
surface (and so its velocity is practically zero), while each subsequent layer slides past its
neighbour with increasing velocity. This type of flow is called laminar flow.
At higher flow rates, the laminae lose their orderly movement and randomly crash into one
another, while an orderly flow only remains very close to the wall of the conduit. This type of
flow is called turbulent flow.
The change from laminar flow to turbulent flow conditions is called the transitional zone.
1.2 - FLUID DEFORMATION

Figure 1.1. shows the characteristic deformation of an element of fluid, when subject to a
tangential force. We shall consider two parallel layers placed at a distance of h, both moving at a
velocity of v. If we apply a force, F, which is tangential to the upper layer of area A, the velocity
of the upper layer will increase about of v; likewise the sliding of a fluid lamina past the other
lamina will increase. The resistance to this sliding movement or frictional drag, is called shear
stress.
Fig. 1.1 - Characteristic Deformation of an Element of Fluid Subject to Tangential Force
v + v
F
dy
h
vx (y)
.
(y)
(y)
v
The shear stress, , is commonly defined as the applied force, F, divided by the area over which it
acts, A. So the shear stress is:
F
A
(1.1)
The shear stress is commonly interpreted as acting in a direction which is opposite to the direction
of the applied force, F. The velocities of two fluid layers, placed at a distance of dy, are given by
v and v+dv respectively and are constant. Constant velocity indicates that no net force is acting
upon the fluid layers to cause a change in the velocities or an acceleration. As the net force is
equal to zero, the applied force, F, is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the frictional
forces. Accordingly, the shear stress may be directly defined in terms of the applied force, F.
When a force is applied to initially static fluid, the fluid accelerates from zero velocity to an
average constant velocity. During this lapse of time, the applied force, F, is greater than that of
the frictional forces and so the resulting force tends to accelerate the fluid. The state of
equilibrium which is reached may be considered as the state of a flowing system after a very long
or even infinite time of flow. Generally speaking, all fluid flow analyses consider the equilibrium
system as constant in time.
3
.
The stress existing between two adjacent fluid layers is correlated with the value , known as the
shear rate or velocity gradient. The shear rate is defined as the difference in the velocities
between two levels divided by the distance which separates them; in differential terms, it may be
expressed as:
.
. dv
=
dy
(1.2)
.
The relationship between shear stress, , and the shear rate, , defines the fluids rheological
behaviour to flow. For some fluids, the relationship is linear so, if the shear stress is doubled, the
shear rate will also double. These fluids are known as Newtonian fluids. Most of the fluids used
in drilling, however, are non-Newtonian and are instead defined by a more complex relationship
between shear stress and shear rate.
1.3 - FLOW REGIMES

During the flow of drilling fluid in a conduit, four different types of flow regime may be present,
irrespective of the pipes geometry: plug flow, laminar flow, transitional flow and turbulent flow.
PLUG FLOW
In plug flow, the fluid basically moves as a single, undisturbed solid body or plug. The movement
is made possible by the slippage of a thin layer of fluid along the conduit surface. This type of
flow usually occurs at low flow rates and above all when the fluid has very marked plastic
characteristics, with high yield stress values. The Reynolds number of this flow is generally < 100
- 300. A flow regime of this type hardly ever occurs during drilling.
LAMINAR FLOW
The laminar flow of a non-Newtonian fluid in a pipe is characterised by the flow of laminae,
which are similar to concentric cylindrical shells, which slide past one another like the sections of
a telescope. The velocity of the fluid shell at the pipe wall is zero, while the velocity of the fluid
shell at the centre of the section is maximum.
.
Figure 1.2 shows the bi-dimensional velocity profile. As can be seen, the shear rate, , defined in
this case for a pipe with a circular section having radius r, as dv/dr, is simply the inclination of the
curve at any point of the velocity profile. The shear rate is maximum at the wall and zero at the
centre of the pipe.
As the shear stress is directly proportional to the shear rate, for a Newtonian fluid, the shear stress
is also maximum at the wall of the pipe and zero at the centre of the pipe.
Accordingly, both the shear stress and shear rate are related to the radial distance inside the pipe.
The concept of variations in the shear rate and shear stress may cause some confusion.
To explain this concept better, we shall consider another, characteristic parameter of the fluids:
viscosity.
Generally speaking, viscosity indicates the fluids thickness.

In quantitative terms, it is
expressed as the ratio between
the shear stress and shear rate,
based
on
the
following
expression:
Fig. 1.2 - Velocity Profile of a Fluid with Laminar Flow
dv/dr = 0
(1.3)
For a Newtonian fluid, the ratio

is constant and the viscosity is
the same at every point
throughout the fluid, while the
viscosity varies with the shear
rate for a non-Newtonian fluid.
Accordingly, the viscosity varies
from one point to another inside
the pipe, for a non-Newtonian
fluid.
flow
velocity
V max
radius
In general terms, regardless of the type of fluid studied, viscosity is considered as a fixed
homogeneous characteristic for a given substance. This notion is not however very accurate if the
flow concerns a non-Newtonian fluid.
TRANSITIONAL FLOW
This flow is marked by a gradual transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow characteristics.
Initially, when the flow is still orderly, a random destabilisation of the laminae or concentric
cylinders sliding past one another, like telescope sections, may be noted due to the presence of
random vortical and chaotic movements.
As the flow rate, and hence the velocity of the flow, gradually increase, the vortical and chaotic
movements in the fluid also increase until they become predominant and annul nearly entirely the
laminar characteristics of the flow. In this case, the flow becomes turbulent.
It is difficult to represent the trend of the flow rate profile in this type of regime, due to the
randomness of the vortices, for which there are no analytical expressions that accurately define
this type of fluid.
TURBULENT FLOW
Turbulent flow is caused by high flow rates and low fluid viscosity values and is characterised by
the chaotic and disorderly movement of fluid particles. This random movement consists of two
velocity components: one, transversal to the flow and the other longitudinal to the flow. The
longitudinal velocity tries to move the fluid particles in a parallel direction to the pipe axis, while
the transversal velocity tries to move the fluid in a direction which is normal to the pipe axis.
Despite this random movement of the fluid particles, the final flow rate profile tends to be uniform
along nearly all the transversal section of the flow, with a part, close to the pipe wall, where the
velocity decreases very rapidly.
Figure 1.3 shows the velocity

profile of a non-Newtonian fluid
Fig. 1.3 - Velocity Profile of a non-Newtonian Fluid with with turbulent flow. Due to the
chaotic and random movement,
Turbulent Flow
the fluid essentially moves as if it
were a plug, the only difference
being that a thin layer with laminar
flow characteristics is present very
close to the wall. Accordingly the
shear rate velocity is high close to
the walls of the pipe, while it is
low in other pipe zones.
During drilling, an effort is made
to prevent turbulent flow in the
flow
velocity
annular section, as the turbulence
may cause major hole erosion
Vmax
problems.
However,
during
cement jobs, turbulent rather than
laminar flow is preferred, as it
facilitates removal of the mud cake
from the side wall, enabling the
cement to adhere to the formation
surface and providing better
results.
r
0
r
radius
1.4 - DETERMINATION OF THE FLOW REGIME

As stated, fluid flow may be plug, laminar or turbulent. A flow region also exists, the transitional
zone, where the flow is neither laminar nor turbulent.
Publications report on various methodologies to determine the flow regime existing in a given
condition. The most well known and widely applied uses the Reynolds number, conceived for
water flow and subsequently applied to the flow of fluids with different behaviours, such as
plastic, pseudoplastic, yield pseudoplastic or dilatant.
THE REYNOLDS NUMBER
The type of flow is determined by calculating the Reynolds number, while the field of existence of
a flow regime may be determined either by calculating the critical Reynolds number (named after
the person who discovered it, Sir Osborne Reynolds, who defined this method for determining the
critical velocity of water in pipes in 1883), or the critical velocity. The Reynolds number is
directly proportional to the pipe diameter, the average velocity of the flow and the fluid density,
while it is inversely proportional to the fluid viscosity.
It may be considered as the ratio between the inertial forces and the frictional forces of the
flowing fluid.
The Reynolds number equation for circular section pipes, using International System
measurement units, is given by the following:

Re =
V di
(1.4)
likewise, for the annular section:

Re =
V ( D d e )
(1.4a)
where:
di
de
D
V
=
=
=
=
=
=
diameter of the circular section, m

internal diameter of the annular section, m
external diameter of the annular section, m
average flow velocity, m/s
flow density, kgm/m3
fluid viscosity, Pas
using British system measurement units, this becomes the following, for the circular section:
Re = 927.58
Vd i
(1.5)
and for the annular section:

Re = 927.58
V ( D d e )
(1.5a)
where:
di
de
D
V
=
=
=
=
=
=
diameter of the circular section, in

internal diameter of the annular section, in
external diameter of the annular section, in
average flow velocity, ft/s
flow density, lbm/gal
fluid viscosity, cP (centiPoise)
Sometimes, the following formula, with mixed units (field units) is applied. For the circular
section:
Re = 2.54 10 4
V di
(1.6)
for the annular section:

Re = 2.54 10 4
V (D de )
(1.6a)
where:
di
de
D
V
=
=
=
=
=
=
diameter of the circular section, in

internal diameter of the annular section, in
external diameter of the annular section, in
flow density, kgm/dm3
fluid viscosity, cP (centiPoise)
By performing studies on water flow in a circular section pipe, Reynolds discovered that
turbulence began at an approximate value of 2,100. So, in the case of water, the critical velocity
which determines the transition from laminar to turbulent flow, may be calculated by simply
applying the following expression:
VC = 2100
d i
(1.7)
where = 1000 kgm/m3 e = 110-3 Pas (1 centiPoise).

In any case, for every type of non-Newtonian fluid other than water, and for every flow regime
passage, a critical Reynolds number exists which defines the end of a given behaviour and the
start of a new behaviour which is characteristic of the subsequent regime.
As a result, the critical velocity for each passage of regime must be calculated case by case; it is
not a set value, not even for the same family of fluids (for example all fluids with yield
pseudoplastic behaviour) and depends on the relative critical Reynolds number. The complex
procedures for determining this value, which are required to evaluate the passage from one regime
to another, shall be given in the next chapter.
EXAMPLE 1.1
We shall consider a flowing drilling mud with a density of = 1200 kgm/m3, at a flow rate of Q =
2450 lt/min (0.0408 m3/s), inside a drill string with a 4.27 diameter (0.1084 m) flowing up the
annular section with diameters of 8.535 (0.217 m) and 5 (0.127 m). We shall determine the
Reynolds number for the two sections, knowing that the mud viscosity inside the pipes is c =
62.5 cP (0.0625 Pas) and a = 69.0 cP (0.069 Pas) inside the annular section.
The velocity inside the pipes is given by:

Vc =
Q
0.0408
=
= 4.42 m / s
2
A 01084
.
4
while the velocity of the annular section is given by:

Va =
Q
0.0408
=
= 1.68 m / s
A (0.217 2 0.127 2 )
4
So the Reynolds number inside the pipes is the following:

Re c =
Vc d i 1200 4.42 01084

.
=
= 9199
3
c
62.5 10
while in the annular section it is as follows:

Re a =
Va ( D d e ) 1200 1.68 (0.217 0127

. )
= 2629
=
3
a
69 10
1.5 - VISCOSITIES FOR NEWTONIAN AND NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

For ideal or Newtonian fluids, the property which determines the braking action or resistance to
shear, which develops when a fluid layer slides above another, is called viscosity. The viscosity of
a Newtonian fluid, already discussed in paragraph 1.3, is a parameter which correlates the
relationship of shear stress with the shear rate, according to the following equation, formulated by
Newton (English physicist) in 1687:
.
(1.8)
In the equation (1.8), is the viscosity and is often called dynamic to differentiate it from
kinematic viscosity. It is constant at a given temperature and pressure.
However, real solids and liquids frequently do not have these characteristics, but intermediate
ones between these two extremes, with equations which relate stress and deformation in a highly
complex manner. The fluids used for drilling are, for example, non-Newtonian, thixotropic and
have viscoelastic properties.
As already mentioned, fluids tend to resist, to a greater or lesser extent, to continuous
deformation and flow, depending on their viscosity.
The equation (1.8), known as Newtons Law, applies to Newtonian fluids and correlates the shear
.
stress , the viscosity and the shear rate .
Figure 1.4 shows the action of

Fig. 1.4 - The Action of Velocity as a Result of Sliding velocity as a result of sliding, due to
force F applied to the upper layer of
area A, and to the braking action of
the liquid.
L
The shear stress, , can be defined as
follows:
moving plate, A
F
A
(1.9)
flowing fluid
where:
= shear stress, (ML-1T-2)
F = applied force, (MLT-2)
A = area, (L2)
wall pipe
The measurement unit of in the

technical system is 1 at (technical
atmosphere) in SI units 1 Pa (Pascal)
and in the fps British system - 1 psi
(pound per square inches).
Often, and especially when the shear stress is determined in the lab instruments, the measurement
unit lb/100ft2 is used. At times, though less frequently, g/100cm2 is used, above all when filling in
daily drilling reports.
The conversions from one system to another are as follows:
1 lb/100ft2
1 g/100cm2
=
=
6.9410-5 psi
0.9807 Pa
The dynamic viscosity, determined by the equation (1.8) is measured in centiPoise (or Poise) in
the Technical System, in Pas in the International System and in centiPoise (or Poise) in the fps
British system.
However, dynamic viscosity is often measured in the British system in lbs/ft2 or in lbm/fts. The
conversions from one system to another are as follows:
1 Poise = 1 g/cms = 1 dyns/m2
1 centiPoise = 10-2 Poise
1 centiPoise = 10-3 Pas
1 centiPoise = 2.088610-5 lbs/ft2 = 6.71910-4 lbm/fts
1 lbs/ft2 = 47880 centiPoise
In practice, the parameter kinematic viscosity, , is often used and is defined as the ratio between
the (dynamic) viscosity and density of the considered fluid. The following is therefore obtained:
10
(1.10)
where, using Technical System units:

= kinematic viscosity, m2/s
= dynamic viscosity, kgps/m2
= fluid density, kgp/m3
in the International System (SI):
= kinematic viscosity, m2/s
= dynamic viscosity, Pas
= fluid density, Kgm/m3
and in the fps British system:
= kinematic viscosity, ft2/s
= dynamic viscosity, lbs/ft2
= fluid density, slug/ft3 (lbs2/ft4)
At times, the kinematic viscosity is also measured in St (Stokes) which is the measurement unit of
the CGS System. In this case:
1 St = 1 cm2/s
As stated previously, the equation (1.8) is only applicable when the fluid is classified as
Newtonian. At given pressure and temperature values, these types of fluids are characterised by a
constant ratio between shear stress and shear rate. All fluids which have no direct proportional
relationship between the shear stress and shear rate, at constant pressure and temperature, are
classified as non-Newtonian.
Suspensions of solids in liquids are generally non-Newtonian, in the same way as drilling fluids
and cements. Moreover the (dynamic) viscosity of these fluids varies, not only in relation to the
change in the shear rate, but also to the duration of the shearing stress.
As drilling fluids, have a non-Newtonian flow behaviour, they are characterised by viscosity
values, sometimes called apparent or effective which distinguish them from Newtonian fluids;
these are related to the sliding velocity, the shear rate range considered, the chemical-physical
characteristics of the fluid and various operative parameters, such as temperature, pressure,
setting time and shear history.
Figure 1.5, below, shows the trend of shear stress in relation to shear rate of a non-Newtonian
.
fluid (yield pseudoplastic) in the diagram (, ).
11
shear stress
Fig. 1.5 - Trend of Shear Stress vs Shear Rate for a non-Newtonian Fluid (Yield
Pseudoplastic)
2
1
.
1
.
2
shear rate
The sliding shear rate greatly affects the velocity of non-Newtonian fluids, which may either
.
decrease or increase as increases. In drilling muds, the apparent viscosities generally decrease
.
as increases (shear thinning). Figure 1.6 shows the trend of apparent viscosity in relation to the
shear rate for a fluid with pseudoplastic yield behaviour.
apparent viscosity
Fig. 1.6 - Trend of Apparent Viscosity vs Shear Rate for a Fluid with Yield Pseudoplastic
Behaviour
.
1
.
2
shear rate
12
At low values, the apparent viscosities are higher as the interactions between the shale and/or
polymer particles in the mud maintain their gel-like structure (developed in static conditions)
.
which has a strong braking or shear resistance action. As the increases, the apparent viscosities
decrease as the gel-like structure breaks up and the fluid dynamic units trend in the direction of
the flow, with a reduced braking action.
The interactions between particles and the formation of a gel-like structure are determining
factors in the complexity of the rheological response to different operative factors. Moreover,
these interactions are also the cause of the muds thixotropy and viscoelastic properties.
1.6 - THIXOTROPY, RHEOPECTICITY AND GEL STRENGTH
gel strength
Thixotropy is the ability of a fluid to develop a gel strength over time, i.e. to create a rigid
structure when it is in static or slow moving conditions; this structure may change back to a fluid
state after mechanical shaking or a return of the flow.
By applying a sequence of increasing shear rates, a thixotropic material will break in relation to
both time and the maximum shear value applied.
Rheopectic fluids instead behave inversely. In fact by applying a deformation velocity, an internal
structure will gradually form in rheopectic fluids.
This behaviour is observed at moderate flow values, which are lower than a threshold value
beyond which the formed structure is destroyed. This rheology is characteristic of different fluid
types, including aqueous dispersions of bentonite.
Drilling fluids generally have a
thixotropic behaviour. If the initial
shear stress measures the attractive
Fig. 1.7 - Trend of Weak and Strong Gels in Relation forces of a fluid in flow conditions,
and is a constant parameter for a
to Time
given dispersion, the gel strength
measures the attractive forces in
static fluid conditions. In the case of
thixotropic systems, such as drilling
fluids, the higher the static time is,
the greater the increase of the gel
strength.
Two different types of gel exist: weak
weak gel
gel (fragile gel), when the gel
strength increases slowly over time,
and strong gel (progressive gel) when
strong gel
the strength increases more quickly.
The latter increase is due to the
increase in the concentration of shale
time
particles in the dispersion.
Figure 1.7 shows the trend of weak
and strong gels in relation to time.
The gel strength is measured using a Fann rotational viscometer, setting the viscometers rotation
rate at 3 revolutions per minute. These measurements are recorded for a static mud sample, for 10
seconds and 10 minutes respectively; the results are then compared to determine the formation
velocity and characteristics of the gel.
13
In general terms, strong gels should not be used as they may lead to problems such as excessive
pressures when circulation begins (due to the gels breaking up) with potential risks to the wells
hydraulic circuit. In fact, for this very reason, the well head pressure may be far higher than
necessary when circulation begins in order to maintain the required flow rate.
If the gel strength value is known, the pressure gradient needed for breaking the gel may be
calculated and well circulation can begin at the desidered flow rate. As the shear stress is greater
at the walls of the pipes - because the shear rate value is greatest - initial fluid movement will
occur at this point. By relating the shear stress at the walls with to the gel strength, the following
is obtained for the pipes:
p 4
= g
L di
(1.11)
while for the annulus:

p
4
=
g
L ( D de )
(1.11a)
where:
p/L
g
di
de
D
=
=
=
=
=
pressure gradient, Pa/m

gel strength, Pa
internal diameter of the pipes, m
external diameter of the pipes, m
internal diameter of the casing or hole diameter, m
in sas system units, the following is obtained:
g
p
=
L 300 di
(1.12)
g
p
=
L 300 ( D de )
(1.12a)
where:
p/L
g
di
de
D
=
=
=
=
=
pressure gradient, psi/ft

gel strength, lb/100ft2
internal diameter of the pipes, in
external diameter of the pipes, in
internal diameter of the casing or hole diameter, in
In very thin annular sections, such as slim holes, with muds that have strong gels, it may be
necessary to have high pressures in order to break the gel and begin circulation. This pressure may
sometimes exceed the formation fracturing pressure. In these cases, in order to reduce the
pressure needed to begin circulation, the drill string can be rotated before to start the pumps so
14
that they partially break the gel strength and reduce the initial pressure value for starting well
circulation. Moreover, the pump speed can be increased very slowly, while the drill string is being
rotated, in order to minimise annular pressure losses caused by the mud flow.
EXAMPLE 1.2
We shall consider a well being drilled, with a 5 casing shoe at 4,000 ft and a well with a mud
circulation of 9.5 lbm/gal. Viscometer readings defined a gel strength at 10 minutes of 42
lbf/100ft2. The internal diameters of the casing and external diameters of the drill pipes are 4 1/4
and 3.7 respectively. In this example we want to find out the existing pressure and equivalent
density at the casing shoe when circulation starts up again.
The pressure gradient needed to break the gel strength at the pipe walls is given by:
g
42
p
=
=
= 0.254 psi / ft
L 300 ( D de ) 300 (4.25 3.7)
The shoe pressure when the gel beings to break is given by:
p = 0.052 L +
p
L = 0.052 9.5 4000 + 0.254 4000 = 1976 + 1016 = 2992 psi
L
while the equivalent density at the shoe is given by:
e =
p
2992
=
= 14.38 lbm / gal
0.052 L 0.052 4000
As can be noted from these calculations, the gel strength creates a major overpressure when fluid
circulation in the well begins. In the example, the increase in pressure is equal to 51% of the
static pressure. This could cause fracturing problems under the casing shoe if the formation
fracturing gradient is exceeded. This problem is, however, not so evident for standard geometry
wells, where values well below those for slim geometry wells exist.
1.7 - RHEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS DURING FLOW

A rheological model represents a fluids behaviour to flow, using a mathematical relationship to
correlate shear rate and shear stress.
Published material contains many equations to define the rheological behaviour of a fluid, yet
none of these universally defines the phenomenon. Generally, drilling muds and cements are
typically non-Newtonian and may be plastic, pseudoplastic, yield pseudoplastic and also dilatant at
times, even though the latter is not very common.
Three rheological models are given below, for non-Newtonian fluids: the Bingham model for
plastic fluids; the Ostwald & de Waele model for pseudoplastic and dilatant fluids and the
Herschel & Bulkley model for yield pseudoplastic and dilatant fluids.
PLASTIC FLUIDS
15
The ratio between the shear stress, , and shear rate, , of these fluids, also called Bingham
fluids, is linear and very similar to that of Newtonian fluids.
With reference to the flow curve in figure 1.8 (a), the equation which defines this type of
rheological behaviour is as follows:
.
= o + p
(1.13)
where:
= shear stress
= yield point
p = plastic viscosity
.
= shear rate
The yield point, 0, also termed yield stress and often indicated by the symbol YP, is the positive
intercept on the axis of the shear stress values (for zero shear rates) and p, which is sometimes
indicated by the symbol PV as well, is proportional to the inclination of the curve.
Unlike Newtonian fluids, this type of fluid does not flow until the applied shear stress, , exceeds
a given value 0. After this point, equal increases in the shear stress lead to equal increases in the
shear rate which are proportional to p.
The apparent viscosity is defined as the relationship between the shear stress and the shear rate
and is given by the dip of the line which joins the origin with a general point of co-ordinates (,
.
).
Fig. 1.8 (a) e (b) - Trend of the Shear Stress (a) and Apparent Viscosity (b) vs Shear Rate
for a Plastic Fluid
2
shear stress
p
1
2
1
= tg1
.
1
= tg
2
apparent viscosity
. lim = . =
p

2
shear rate
shear rate
(a)
(b)
16
.
In figure 1.8 (a) the apparent viscosity is given, for different shear rate values ( 1 , 2 ) by the thin
continual lines; as can be noted, the viscosity decreases as the shear rate increases until it reaches
the plastic viscosity value of the equation (1.13), as the shear rate tends towards infinite. This
phenomenon is known as shear thinning. Figure 1.8 (b) shows the trend of apparent viscosity, ,
.
in relation to , which tends to p for high shear rate values.

The Bingham model has been and is still widely applied in the oil industry as it is easy to use and
represents the behaviour of some drilling fluids commonly employed up until a few years ago,
fairly well (such as bentonite muds).
This model was so widely used in the past that one of the most important measurement
instruments for determining rheological parameters, the Fann rotational viscometer, was
exclusively designed and calibrated for directly determining the parameters of the Bingham model.
In any case, this model does not reflect real conditions as it does not accurately represent the
trend of most drilling fluids currently used, especially at low shear rate values, or even, at low
flow rate values. In fact, other rheological models which take account of these trends are used at
present.
PSEUDOPLASTIC AND DILATANT FLUIDS
These types of fluids have no yield point and the apparent viscosity is a non linear function of the
shear rate. In a pseudoplastic fluid, the apparent viscosity decreases as the shear rate values
increase; the dip of the flow curve decreases continually and very often tends to a constant value
at high shear velocity rate values.
The rheological behaviour of a dilatant fluid is the opposite of that of a pseudoplastic fluid,
because its apparent viscosity increases as the shear rate increases.
The rheological model which best represents the behaviour of these fluids was conceived by
Ostwald & de Waele, also known as the power law, at two constant parameters. This model is as
follows:
. n
= k
(1.14)
where:
= shear stress
k
n
= shear rate
= consistency index
= flow behaviour index
Generally speaking, the consistency factor, k, indicates the degree of fluid viscosity and is the
analogous as the apparent viscosity. By increasing the k value, the fluid becomes more viscous.
The exponent, n, called the flow behaviour index, is a quantitative index which may be used to
evaluate the behaviour of a non-Newtonian fluid.
17
The greater the difference of n from 1, in both directions, the more marked the non-Newtonian
characteristics of a fluid are.
In fact the following distinction can be made:
0<n<1
n=1
n>1
pseudoplastic fluid
Newtonian fluid
dilatant fluid
Figure 1.9 (a) shows the trend of the flow curves as the value of the flow behaviour index
changes. Figure 1.9 (b) shows the rheological trend of the relative apparent viscosity for various
types of behaviour.
Fig. 1.9 (a) and (b) - Shear Stress trend (a) and Apparent Viscosity (b) vs Shear Rate for a
Pseudoplastic Fluid
shear stress
>1
te, n
tan
dila
.
1
shear rate
(a)
n>1
apparent viscosity
<1
,n
co
i
t
s
pla
1
do
n=
eu
ps
o,
n
ia
on
wt
Ne
n=1
n<1
.
2
shear rate
(b)
This model is still widely used in the oil industry today and has replaced, for the most part, the
Bingham model, which was most commonly adopted in the past. The power law model is in fact
simpler to use as it can be easily adapted to graphic type analyses: in fact the readings taken using
the Fann rotational viscometer, in relation to the velocity of rotation and the pressure losses of the
hydraulic circuit in relation to the flow rate can be represented far more easily than other models,
by straight lines on a bi-logarithmic graph.
Moreover this model simulates, to a far better extent, the behaviour of drilling fluids at low shear
rates, which are typical of low flow rates or flow in very wide annular sections. One disadvantage
however, is that this model does not include the yield stress value and is therefore not very
accurate for extremely low shear rate values.
Besides a behaviour which is very similar to a pseudoplastic fluid, a drilling fluid also has a yield
stress value, more or less high, and shear thinning properties. Irrespective of the type, at high
shear rate or flow rate values, all the above mentioned models simulate the rheological behaviour
of a drilling fluid fairly well. The main differences among models occur at low shear rate values.
18
The Bingham model includes the yield point value but does not account for the variation in shear
stress at low shear rate values. The power law model describes the flow at low shear rates fairly
well, but does not include a yield point value in its equation. So the best rheological model and
the most suitable for simulating the behaviour of drilling fluids must take account of all these
parameters.
YIELD PSEUDOPLASTIC AND DILATANT FLUIDS
Yield pseudoplastic fluids have a yield point and apparent viscosity which have no linear
relationship with the shear rate, as already noted for pseudoplastic fluids.
In these fluids, the apparent viscosity decreases as the shear rate values increase; the inclination of
the flow curve, instead, continually decreases and very often tends to a constant value at high
shear rate values.
The rheological behaviour of a dilatant fluid, with yield point, is opposite to that of a
pseudoplastic yield fluid, because its apparent velocity increases as the shear rate increases.
The rheological model which best represents the behaviour of these fluids was conceived by
Herschel & Bulkley, at the beginning of this century, to simulate the behaviour of rubber and
benzene solutions, with three constant parameters. This model is as follows:
. n
+ k
(1.15)
where:
= shear stress
= yield point or yield stress
.
k
n
= shear rate
= fluid consistency index
= flow behaviour index
Generally, the consistency index, k, indicates the degree of fluid viscosity and at times is
analogous as the apparent viscosity. By increasing the k value, the fluid becomes more viscous.
The exponent n, known as the flow behaviour index, is a quantitative index which may be used to
evaluate the behaviour of a non-Newtonian fluid.
The greater the difference of n from 1, in both directions, the more marked the non-Newtonian
characteristics of a fluid are.
In fact:
0<n<1
n=1
n>1
pseudoplastic yield fluid

Bingham fluid
Dilatant fluid
Figure 1.10 (a) shows the trend of these rheological behaviours, while figure 1.10 (b) shows the
relative trend of apparent viscosity in relation to the shear rate.
19
Fig. 1.10 (a) e (b) - Shear Stress Trend (a) and Apparent Viscosity (b) vs Shear Rate for a
Pseudoplastic Yield Fluid
1
n<
o,
tic
s
a
pl
do
eu
=1
ps
d
,n
l
m
yie
ha
g
n
Bi
,
nte
ata
dil
1
1
n>
.
1
shear rate
(a)
n>1
apparent viscosity
shear stress
n=1
n<1
.
2
shear rate
(b)
1.8 - RHEOLOGICAL MODELS

Besides the previously mentioned models, which are commonly used to simulate the behaviour of
muds, published material describes many other equations which may be equally valid. Often these
equations have been devised to simulate the rheological behaviour of fluids which are entirely
different from the drilling fluids, but they do have an analytical structure and accuracy of data, or
simplicity of use, so they can also be applied as well as the models in use to predict the rheological
behaviour of the drilling fluids.
As far as non-Newtonian fluids are concerned, where the viscosity is a parameter which varies vs
the shear rate and therefore the shear stress, there is no universal mathematical model suitable for
describing the behaviour of all fluids. So some knowledge of alternative rheological models may
be useful in some cases.
Some of the most common rheological models used to simulate the behaviour of non-Newtonian
fluids are described below. These models are divided into groups, according to the number of
constant parameters in the basic equation.
MODELS WITH ONE CONSTANT PARAMETER
Besides the Newton model, the Schwedoff model also has one constant parameter; this model was
devised in the late 19th century by Schwedoff, who is considered as the father of modern rheology,
in order to simulate the flow of solutions in gelatine. His equation is as follows:
.
= 0 +
(1.16)
20
where 0 is the yield stress. This formula is above all of historical interest, as it is hardly ever used
nowadays.
MODELS WITH TWO CONSTANT PARAMETERS
There are many models with two constant parameters, devised to simulate the behaviour of
plastic, pseudoplastic and yield pseudoplastic fluids. One of the most important is:
Casson Model, with the constant parameters o and p,
.
= o + p
(1.17)
This is widely used in the field of medicine, for studying the rheological behaviour of blood, as
well as in the food industry.
MODELS WITH THREE CONSTANT PARAMETERS
There are various models with three constant parameters, devised to simulate the behaviour of
pseudoplastic and yield pseudoplastic fluids. Some of these are described below:
Collins & Graves Model, with the constant parameters A, B and C:
.
= (A + B )(1 e( C ) )
(1.18)
This model was purposely devised to simulate the behaviour of drilling fluids, with the aim of
having a model which could accurately follow both the trend of data with low shear rates and
pseudoplastic characteristics and data with high shear rates and plastic characteristics. Moreover,
this model does not have points of singularity so it is easier to use - than the Bingham model with numerical simulators. This model has not been widely adopted and is above all, historically
important.
Parzonka and Vocadlo Model, with the constant parameters o, k and n,
= 0n + k
1
n
(1.19)
This model is very similar to the Robertson & Stiff model, and the two are sometimes mixed up.
It is used to simulate the behaviour of pseudoplastic yield fluids.
Gucuyener Model, with the constant parameters o, k and n,
= 0n + k
(1.20)
this model was devised in the mid seventies to simulate the flow of drilling fluids. It is applicable
to yield pseudoplastic fluids. However, there has been little development in its application in the
field of fluid rheology.
Casson & Shulman model, with the parameters o, p and m,
1
m
0
.
+ p
1
m
(1.21)
21
This is an intermediate model between the Casson model (with two parameters) and the Shulman
model (with four parameters) valid for yield pseudoplastic fluids, and at times attributed to
Saunders. This model is not used often in practice.
Robertson & Stiff Model, with the parameters o , k and n:
.
= k ( o + )n
(1.22)
This model was purposely devised in the mid seventies to simulate the rheological behaviour of
drilling fluids. The inventors proposed this model, stating that it provided an adequate description
of the behaviour of these fluids, comparing the results to the models of Bingham and Ostwald &
de Waele (power law). Even though it approximates the flow at low and high shear rate values
fairly well and has a yield point, the models results are slightly less accurate compared to those
obtained using the Herschel & Bulkley model, which is preferred for simulating the rheological
behaviour of drilling fluids. The former is used above all in North Sea countries, replacing the
Herschel & Bulkley model.
Papanastasiou model, with the parameters o, and n,
.
.
= + o 1 e ( n )
(1.23)
the basic structure of this model is very similar to that of the Collins & Graves model. As the
Papanastasiou model incorporates an exponential term in its analytical structure, it is more
suitable, than other models, for simulating the trend of a fluid in a wider behavioural range. It is
not currently used in the oil industry.
MODELS WITH FOUR CONSTANT PARAMETERS
Few models have been developed with four constant parameters, due mainly to the difficulty of
directly determining the values of the models characteristic parameters. The most important of
these models is:
Shulman Model, with the constant parameters o, k, n and m,
1
n
0
.
+ k
(1.24)
this was devised in the late seventies. It is probably one of the best models for simulating drilling
fluids, but has not been widely used because of application difficulties inherent to the complexities
of the analytical calculations. It is used above all in Russia and Eastern European countries.
MODELS WITH FIVE CONSTANT PARAMETERS
Published materials report on very few models with five constant parameters. These types are
certainly the most accurate, but the parameters must be solved using sophisticated numerical
calculation procedures, so practical application is difficult. The most important five constant
parameter models are:
Maglione, Ferrario, Rrokaj & Calderoni (MFRC) Model, with the constant parameters a, b, c, n
and m,
1/ n
.
= a + b
1/ m
1/ n
. m
+ c

22
+1
(1.25)
This model is applicable for non-Newtonian plastic and pseudoplastic fluids as well as yield
pseudoplastic and dilatant fluids.
The five constant parameters which are characteristic of the fluid are correlated with the fluid
properties as follows:
a
b and c
m and n
yield point
correlated with the fluid viscosity
correlated with the flow behaviour
The equation (1.25) summarises many rheological models whereby, with a variation in the above
mentioned constants, the expression coincides and adapts to describe the behaviour of a different
fluid.
At present, this expression is complex to apply, because of the sophisticated numerical
calculations that have to be performed to solve the differential equation of the model; as a result,
its use is limited to predicting the rheological behaviour of drilling fluid from lab data.
1.9 - SELECTING THE RHEOLOGICAL MODEL

As mentioned previously, the Herschel & Bulkley rheological model is the most commonly used
to describe the flow behaviour of a drilling fluid. Most of the other models are either particular
cases of the previous model, or have different mathematical equations, approximating the trend of
lab data in a more or less accurate way.
It is sometimes possible to use other rheological models, when these approximate the actual trend
of the drilling fluid to a better extent, compared to the Herschel & Bulkley model, for example
whenever the model with three constant parameters fails to approximate the rheological behaviour
for the entire field of shear rates studied.
This may happen, for example, when the fluid has trends which can no longer be predicted by
applying a parabola equation.
One (published) method for determining the capacity of a model to approximate lab data is based
on calculating the coefficient of non linear regression of the interpolator curve, also known as the
Best Index Value. This value is defined as the ratio between the sum of the squares of the
deviation of the value calculated from the mean value and the sum of the squares of the deviation
of the value measured from the mean value. This is given by the following formula:
BIV =
(
i
(
i
where:
c ,i
m, i
)
)
(1.26)
23
m ,i
(1.26a)
The closer the BIV value is to 1, the better the approximate capacity is, of the lab data which
predicts the configuration of the rheological model.
A second method for determining the quality of the approximation of a curve to experimental data
is to calculate the square of the correlation coefficient, r. In fact, the statistics programmes which
are used to determine the equations for interpolator curves of lab or experimental data, are based
on the square value of r.
This is defined as follows:
.
.
,
,
i
c
i
i
c
i
r2 =
2
.
.

2
2
n i i n c , i c , i
2
(1.27)
where:
n
c,i
=
=
number of readings at the viscometer

calculated i-th shear stress
the i-th shear rate
In this case too, the closer the r2 value is to 1, the better the approximation is of the interpolator
curve to experimental data.
EXAMPLE 1.3
We shall consider the rheological measurements, taken using a Fann VG 35 rotational viscometer,
on a polymeric mud, which are shown in table 1.1 below:

RPM
[rpm]
3
6
10
30
60
100
200
300
400
500
600
shear rate
[1/s]
5.1
10.2
17.0
51.1
102.5
170.3
340.6
510.9
681.2
851.5
1,021.8
24
readings
[degree]
3.0
4.0
4.7
7.0
10.0
12.0
17.0
21.0
25.0
28.0
31.0
shear stress
[Pa]
1.53
2.04
2.40
3.57
5.10
6.13
8.68
10.72
12.76
14.30
15.83
Tab. 1.1
Fig. 1.11 - Rheological Behaviour in Co-ordinates (, ) of

the Polymeric Mud of Table 1.1.
18
16
shear stress [Pa]
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
200
400
600
800
1 000
1 200
shear rate [1/s]
Rheological Model
MFRC
Casson & Shulman
Shulman
Herschel & Bulkley
Robertson & Stiff
Parzonka & Vocadlo
Gucuyener
Ostwald & de Waele
Casson
Papanastasiou
Collins & Graves
Bingham
Tab. 1.2
Figure 1.11 represents the

rheological behaviour in co.
ordinates (, ). As can be
noted, the figure shows the
typical parabolic trend of a
drilling mud.
In this case we want to
determine the degree of
approximation of rheological
models in terms of lab data.
By using the equation (1.27)
and a statistical programme,
the square value of the
correlation coefficient, r2, was
determined for the mud
specified in table 1.1,
adopting the rheological
models most widely described
in publications.
The values are shown in table
1.2 below.
r2
0.99984
0.99983
0.99983
0.99976
0.99960
0.99960
0.99960
0.99837
0.99710
0.99609
0.99608
0.98424
25
As can be seen from the examples, the Herschel & Bulkley model, used the most at present for
simulating pseudoplastic yield fluids, is the most suitable compared to the Robertson & Stiff,
Ostwald & de Waele, Casson and Bingham models, for showing the trend of lab data for the
entire range of investigated shear rates. Other models, such as MFRC, Shulman and Casson &
Shulman, are far better at representing rheological behaviour than the previous models. The latter
are however very problematic for practical application due to the complexity of their analytical
formulas, so they are limited to interpreting lab data. Lastly, models such as Parzonka &
Vocadlo, Gucuyener, Papanastasiou and Collins & Graves are less accurate in simulating
rheological behaviour, compared to conventional models. To sum up, the Herschel & Bulkley
model is best for approximations and for its easy and simple practical application.
1.10 - DETERMINING RHEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS BY MEANS OF
ROTATIONAL VISCOMETER READINGS
The rheological behaviour of a fluid is studied in the lab on samples, by means of flow tests using
a rotational viscometer. One of the most widely used viscometers in the oil industry is the Fann
VG. 35, shown in figure 1.12 (a). Figure 1.12 (b) shows the principle of operation. A mud
sample is put into a cylinder which rotates at different speeds. This cylinder contains a second,
coaxial, fixed cylinder; by means of a built-in spring this measures the stress the fluid layer close
to the rotating cylindrical surface is subject to, on the actual surface. The fluid flow in the Fann
VG. 35 type coaxial cylinder device (figure 1.12 a), is comparable to two cylindrical surfaces
moving in relation to one another.
Fig. 1.12 (a) and (b) - Fann VG 35 Viscometer (a) and Principle of Operation (b)
measuring device
liquid
motor
di
de
N
Vmax
Vr
(a)
(b)
r
26
If the flow in the annulus of the viscometer is laminar and steady, for a given fluid model, the
system may be described in mathematical terms; accordingly the instrument makes it possible to
obtain the characteristic parameters of the flow and the rheological parameters which determine
the fluids behaviour vis--vis the flow. This is no longer possible when the fluid becomes
unstable and turbulent: in this case investigation of the characteristics and flow parameters is no
longer valid and other types of viscometer (for example capillary) must be used.
International standards define the following limits for the ratio between the external and internal
radius of the cylinder:
1,00 1,10
Clearly, it is not possible to use a ratio of = 1,00, while, with a ratio of = 1,10 errors are made
in calculating the velocity gradient due to the laminar flow value moving into the unstable flow
zone range.
This ratio is defined as follows for the Fann viscometer:
=
1,8415 cm
= 1,067846
1,7245 cm
Figure 1.12 (b) shows the profile of fluid velocities through the concentric surfaces in the annulus
of the viscometer.
The parameters of a rheological model can be determined, starting from a set of measurements
taken with the rotational viscometer, using two different procedures:
Numerical calculation. In this case, the parameters of rheological models are determined by
applying numerical calculation procedures based on minimum squares to the lab data set. This
method is generally used to determine the characteristic parameters of highly complex models,
where the explicit analytical determination of parameters is extremely difficult. This procedure
is very often applied to calculating the parameters of rheological models which are far less
complex, as well, where the analytical equation is sometimes very simple. The reason for this
is, when other conditions are equal, the formulas of the models with parameters determined
using a numerical calculation approximate lab data far better than those models where the
parameters are determined analytically.
The quality of a given equation to approximate lab data is quantified by calculating the
coefficient of non linear regression of the formula determined using the equation (1.26) or the
square of the correlation coefficient given by the formula (1.27). The closer these values are to
1, the better the formula used approximates the trend of the lab data studied.
Analytical calculation. This approach is applied above all for the simple and quick
determination of the parameters of a given rheological model. This procedure is now being
used far less and is limited to cases where it is difficult to acquire suitable numerical calculation
tools and computers. This method is still used widely at rigsites and all the flow parameters
are determined by applying equations based on analytical calculation.
All the formulas for analytically determining the characteristic parameters of some of the most
commonly used rheological models, Bingham, Ostwald & de Waele (power law) and Herschel &
Bulkley, are given below.
27
BINGHAM MODEL
The parameters of this model are determined from two measurements, N2 = 600 rpm and N1 = 300
rpm. We therefore have:
p =
( 600 300 )
478.9
(1.28)
where:
300 = viscometer reading at 300 rpm, deflection degree
600 = viscometer reading at 600 rpm, deflection degree
p = plastic viscosity, lbs/100ft2
or, by expressing the plastic viscosity in centiPoise, we have the following:
p = 600 - 300 [centiPoise]
(1.29)
While the value of the yield point, directly expressed in lb/100ft2 is given by:
o = 2300 - 600
[lb/100ft2]
(1.30)
The formula (1.30) shows that the difference between the doubled value of the reading at 300 rpm
with the reading at 600 rpm gives the initial shear stress (yield point), based on the Bingham
model, directly expressed in lb/100ft2.
EXAMPLE 1.4
We shall consider a water base mud (WBM) with the rheological measurements taken using a
Fann VG 35 rotational viscometer and shown in table 1.3.
RPM
[rpm]
3
6
100
200
300
600
shear rate
[1/s]
5.1
10.2
170.3
340.6
510.9
1021.8
readings
[degree]
7.0
11.0
26.0
33.0
38.0
52.0
shear stress
[Pa]
3.58
5.62
13.28
16.86
19.41
26.57
Tab. 1.3
In this example we shall determine the rheological parameters, plastic velocity and yield point,
using both an analytical and numerical procedure.
By using the expressions (1.29) for plastic viscosity and (1.30) for the yield point, we obtain:
28
p = 52 - 38 = 14 centiPoise = 0.014 Pas

o = 238 - 52 = 24 lb/100ft2 = 11.49 Pa
the value of the square of the correlation coefficient, r2, using the expression (1.27) will be given
by:
r2 = 0.9679
Calculating the parameters p and o using the numerical calculation procedure, the following are
obtained:
p = 0.015 Pas
o = 11.26 Pa
with a value of r2 equal to:
r2 = 0.9702
As mentioned previously, the parameters determined using the numerical calculation procedure
approximate the trend of the studied lab data well, as the r2 value in the second case is closer to
the unit, compared to the value obtained by analytically calculating the parameters.
OSTWALD & DE WAELE MODEL
The parameters of this model are obtained from readings taken at the velocities of N1 = 300 rpm
and N2 = 600 rpm. The flow behaviour index is given by:

log 600
300
n=
log ( 2)
(1.31)
while the consistency index is given by:
k = 10664
.
300
1
n
(1 0.877 n )
62.83
[lb s n / 100 ft 2 ]
(1.32)
EXAMPLE 1.5
We shall consider the WBM of the previous example, determining the parameters n and k
according to the power law model.
Using equations (1.31) and (1.32) the following is obtained:
29
52
log
38
n=
= 0.4525
log(2)
1
0.4525
k = 10664
38
.
(1 0.877 0.4525 )
62.83
0.4525
= 2.3289 lb s n / 100 ft 2 = 11153

Pa s n
.
The r2 value, using the expression (1.27) will be given by:

r2 = 0.9970
Calculating the parameters n and k using the numerical calculation procedure, the following are
obtained:
n = 0.3289
k = 2.5518 Pasn
with a r2 value equal to:
r2 = 0.9987
Like the previous example, the parameters determined using the numerical calculation
approximate the trend of the studied lab data better.
HERSCHEL & BULKLEY MODEL
The Herschel & Bulkley model includes both the Bingham model (valid when fluids have a certain
flow threshold) and the power law (applied to pseudoplastic fluids when the flow threshold is
zero), in its mathematical formula.
As a result, the entire ranges relative to the Bingham model and the power law are covered, and
the actual flow curves of drilling fluids are accurately followed.
The formulae for obtaining the indexes of the model are based on four readings taken with a Fann
VG 35 rotational viscometer at 100, 200, 300 and 600 rev per minute, and are the following:
o = 0.5107
600
600
100 200 300 )
+ 100 200 300 )
600 200
log
300 100
n=
log (2)
k=
(0.5107 600 o )
with:
20 z
z
1
z
[ Pa ]
(1.33)
(1.34)
[ Pa s n ]
(1.35)

z=
30
2 log (2)
600
log
300
where:
= 1.06784
EXAMPLE 1.6
We shall consider the WBM of the previous examples, determining the parameters n, k and o
according to the Herschel & Bulkley model.
By applying the formulas (1.33), (1.34) and (1.35) for high shear rate values, the following is
obtained:
o = 0.5107
(52 26 33 38)
(52 + 26 33 38)
= 7.151 Pa
52 33
log
38 26
n=
= 0.6629
log (2)
k=
( 0.5107 52 7.151)
20 4.42 10678
.
4.42
10678
1
.
4 .42
0.6629
= 0187
Pa s n
.
with:
z=
2 log (2)
52
log
38
= 4.42
The r2 value will be given by:

r2 = 0.99342
Calculating the parameters k o using the numerical calculation procedure, the following are
obtained:
o = 1.702 Pa
n = 0.4352
31
k = 1.206 Pasn
with a r2 value given by:
r2 = 0.99965
In this case as well, the parameters determined using the numerical calculation approximate the
trend of the studied lab data better.
Table 1.4 summarises all the values of the square of the correlation coefficient calculated for the
three models, in relation to parameters determined using both the analytical and the numerical
calculation procedure.
Model
Bingham
Ostwald & de Waele
Herschel & Bulkley
square of the correlation coefficient, r2

analytical procedure
numerical procedure
0.96790
0.97020
0.99700
0.99870
0.99342
0.99965
Tab. 1.4
The table shows that, for any given model, the quality of approximation of the curve is always
better when parameters are calculated using the numerical method. Moreover, the Herschel &
Bulkley model best approximates the trend of lab data.
1.11 - THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE ON RHEOLOGICAL

PARAMETERS
The rheological properties of drilling fluids under well pressure and temperature conditions may
often be very different from those measured in ambient pressure and temperature conditions. In
fact, at high depths, the pressure applied by the mud column may even exceed 1,400 bar, while
the temperature is a function of the geothermal gradient and can exceed 260C at the bottom hole
in the case of very deep wells. In these conditions, the viscosity of muds at depth may be higher
or lower than that measured at the surface; in fact an additive which reduces viscosity at surface
pressure and temperature may increase values in bottom hole conditions.
At present, the rheological properties of a drilling fluid are considered independently of well
pressure and temperature in hydraulic calculations. In many cases, this assumption leads to good
approximations. Indeed, in shallow wells, the changes in temperature are not very great and so
the rheological variations in relation to the temperature are very slight. Moreover, in many wells
there is a major difference between the pore pressure and fracturing pressure, so any errors made
in estimating the circulation pressure do not affect the wells stability or the probability of a kick
occurring.
In very deep wells, with small differences between the pore pressure and fracturing pressure, it is
however necessary to carefully analyse in detail the effects of temperature and pressure on well
hydraulics and on the probability of a kick occurring. Even recently reported cases of kicks have
been the result of an approximate and inaccurate evaluation of mud rheology and well hydraulics.
32
In general, high temperature and pressures can significantly affect the rheological properties of
drilling fluids in the following ways:
Physically. An increase in temperature decreases the viscosity of the liquid phase, while an
increase in pressure increases the density of the liquid phase and therefore the viscosity.
Chemically. All hydroxides above a temperature of 94 C react with clays. With alkaline base
muds, such as those treated with lignosulfonate, the effect on rheological properties is not
significant, while muds with a high alkaline content may have major effects, depending on the
temperature and the type of metal ion of the hydroxide. In the case of calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
the metal ion is calcium. For instance, in the case of muds with a high content of solids treated
with lime, hydrate aluminosilicates may form, with a consistency which becomes very similar to
cement above a temperature of 300 F (149 C).
Electro-chemically. An increase in temperature causes an increase in the ionic activity of any type
of electrolyte and in the solubility of any type of partially soluble salt which may be present in the
mud. The resulting changes in the ionic equilibrium alter the balance between the repulsive and
attractive forces of the particles, and thus change the degree of dispersion and flocculation. The
magnitude and direction of these changes, and their effects on the rheology of muds, varies
according to the electrochemical properties of the mud.
Due to the many variables present, the behaviour of a drilling fluid at high temperatures, and
especially a water base mud, is unpredictable and still not entirely clear. In fact, even small
changes to the composition of mud may lead to major changes in rheological characteristics.
Mud rheology at high temperatures and pressures is studied by using various types of viscometer.
One of these is the consistometer: it measures the transit time of a bob, magnetically controlled,
through a mud sample. It is a useful tool for comparing a wide number of variables, but gives no
indication as to the shear rate value during flow, so the data obtained have an empirical value.
To determine the characteristic parameters of plastic (Bingham), pseudoplastic (Ostwald & de
Waele) and yield pseudoplastic (Herschel & Bulkley) fluids, required for hydraulic calculations,
capillary or rotational viscometers modified for use at high pressures and temperatures have to be
used.
The most widely adopted rotational viscometer is the HPHT Huxley & Bertram. This instrument
can work at pressures of up to 500 bar and temperatures of up to 175C. The 750 ml mud
sample, is put inside an autoclave which is electrically heated by the elements welded in a an
aluminium sleeve. The system is air cooled for temperatures above 120C and water cooled for
temperatures below this value.
Fig. 1.13
33
The temperature of the sample is

measured by a thermocouple and
controlled by a digital PID controller
in cascade, up to a temperature of
300C.
The sample pressure is
measured instead by a transducer and
controlled by a digital PID controller.
This value may vary from 0 to 1,375
bar. The device can be both manually
and automatically operated with a
shear rate range of 1-1500 s-1 and a
shear stress of 0-200 Pa.
One of the major problems of these
viscometers is the size which means
they are normally used in the lab and
rarely at the rigsite; another problem
is the time needed for the tests: 4
hours for performing tests on just one
mud sample. Figure 1.13 shows an
HPHT Huxley Bertram viscometer.
viscosity, cp
PLASTIC FLUIDS
Many studies have been carried out to assess the effects of pressure and temperature on the
rheological parameters of a plastic fluid, which comes under the Bingham law, i.e. plastic viscosity
and yield point.
Annis and Hiller studied the rheology of
water base muds at high temperatures,
coming to the conclusion that if a
Fig. 1.14 - Trend of Plastic Viscosity vs
suspension is entirely deflocculated, i.e.
Temperature for a Bentonite Suspension
the reactive clay debris does not
80
contaminate the mud nor alter its
18 ppg bentonite suspension
rheological properties, then plastic
70
100 1/s shear rate
viscosity and yield point decrease as the
60
plastic viscosity
temperature increases, up to 350 F
normalized viscosity of water
50
(177 C), whereas if the mud is
flocculated, only the plastic viscosity
40
decreases while the yield point sharply
30
increases at higher temperatures up to
the water boiling point.
20
The plastic viscosity of a shale
10
suspension decreases as the temperature
increases at high shear rates, as a result
0
50
100
150
200
250
of the decrease in water viscosity.
temperature, F
Figure 1.14 shows the trend of plastic
viscosity of a bentonite suspension, in
relation to temperature; this trend
coincides nearly exactly with that of
normalised water viscosity.
34
viscosity,
cp
gel strength, lb/100ft2
The actual viscosity of the same suspension at low shear rates increases as the temperature
increases. The reason is that high temperatures cause an increase in the attractive forces of the
particles, as shown by the increase in gel strength in figure 1.1.5, and the actual viscosity is
affected by the forces between the particles at low shear rates, but not at high shear rates.
Moreover, when the mud is
dynamically aged, the degree of
Fig. 1.15
dispersion
increases
considerably.
The actual
viscosity
of
a
bentonite
160
suspension increases at both high
18 ppg bentonite suspension
140
30 minute gel
and low shear rates, after the
120
suspension has been dynamically
100
aged at a high temperature. The
80
increase in viscosity at high shear
60
rates is mainly due to an increase
40
initial gel
in the degree of dispersion. The
20
behaviour of calcium clay
suspensions at high temperatures
50
100
150
200
250
300
temperature, F
differs from that recorded for
sodium clay suspensions and is
far more complex.
The repulsive forces between the calcium clay particles are far weaker than those of sodium clay;
as a result the effect of high temperatures on the degree of deflocculation is far higher and so
plastic viscosity increases.
Behaviour at high temperatures varies a great deal depending on the type of mud. For example,
salt water base muds are fairly stable because the high electrolyte content prevents the dispersion
of clay. The behaviour of gypsum muds is similar to that of calcium montmorillonite. Lime muds
develop powerful gel strengths due to the reaction between the hydroxides and the clays, while
muds with calcium surfactants remain fairly stable at temperatures above 350 F.
The studies conducted by Annis
Hiller
do,
however,
Fig. 1.16 - Trend of Viscosity in Relation to Pressure for and
demonstrate that an accurate
OBM
evaluation of the rheological
1000
parameters of water base muds at
Temp = 150 F
Mud Weight = 12 ppg
high temperatures can only be
performed by taking direct
100
measurements with a rotational
20000 psi
viscometer
at
relevant
10000 psi
1500 psi
temperatures.
10
Oil base muds deteriorate to a
lesser extent compared to water
base muds and can withstand
1
1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
higher temperatures. Unlike water
shear rate, 1/s
base muds, the viscosity of these
muds is mainly affected by
pressure, as shown in figure 1.16.
The effects of pressure and temperature on oleofinic inverse emulsion muds is nearly entirely
physical and the changes in the properties are mainly due to the effect of pressure and temperature
on the viscosity of the continual phase which is usually diesel oil. Combs and Whitmire measured
35
the actual viscosities using a capillary viscometer at different temperatures and pressures and
discovered that when the values were normalised with those of diesel oil values, at the same
temperature and pressure, the points all fell on the same curve for each temperature, as shown in
figure 1.17.
Fig. 1.17
viscosity mud / viscosity diesel oil
103
mud weight = 12 ppg
102
10
150 F - 1500/10000/20000 psi

300 F - 10000/20000 psi
1
1
102
10
103
104
105
shear rate, 1/s
These results demonstrate that viscosity in the well with these types of oil base muds may be
determined, starting from the viscosity measured at ambient temperature, by means of correction
factors based on the viscosity of diesel oil at the studied pressure and temperature, seeing as the
mud basically remains stable.
Oil base muds in asphalt
colloidal
suspensions
Fig. 1.18 - Trend of the Yield Point for an Asphalt
sometimes have a very complex
Suspended in Diesel Oil
behaviour. Figures 1.18 and
1.19 show the trend of the yield
point and plastic viscosity
respectively, measured for
asphalt suspended in diesel oil,
using the rotational viscometer.
As can be noted, the increase in
the yield point and plastic
viscosity as the pressure
changes, is greater at higher
temperatures
than
lower
temperatures.
40
100 F
suspension of asphalt
in diesel oil
30
yield point, lb/100 sq ft
130 F
20
150 F
10
170 F
200 F
pressure, 1000 psig
10
12
14
16
36
Fig. 1.19 - Trend of Plastic Viscosity for an Asphalt Suspension in Diesel Oil
80
plastic viscosity, cp
70
F
0
10
60
(suspension of asphalt
in diesel oil)
50
F
130
40
F
150
30
F
170
20
200 F
10
0
0
10
12
14
16
pressure, 1000 psig
Sun developed some expressions for determining the rheological parameters of inverse emulsion
synthetic base muds, with plastic behaviour in relation to pressure and temperature.
The variation in plastic viscosity for these muds is given by the following expression:
PV = ( 9.172 + 0.000368 P) e
( 199. 2 + 0 .008473 P )
(1.36)
whereas the variation in the yield point is given by the following expression:
YP = 10.2 e
115.4
(1.37)
where:
PV
YP
T
P
=
=
=
=
plastic viscosity, cP
yield point, lb/100ft2
temperature, F
pressure, psi
The yield point expression does not include pressure, as the results obtained from laboratory
experiments show that this parameter, unlike temperature, does not affect the YP variation. The
conclusion is very similar to the conclusions drawn by several authors on the importance of
pressure in the YP variation of diesel based mud.
37
EXAMPLE 1.7
With an SBM type drilling fluid, having plastic behaviour, we shall determine the yield point and
plastic viscosity values at a temperature of 150 F and at a pressure of 10,000 psi.
By using the expressions (1.36) and (1.37) the following are obtained for the plastic viscosity and
the yield point, respectively:
PV = ( 9.172 + 0.000368 10000) e
115. 4
YP = 10.2 e
150
( 199. 2 + 0 .00847310000 )
150
= 85.3 cP
= 22.01 lb / 100 ft 2
PSEUDOPLASTIC FLUIDS
Published materials contain little information about the behaviour of pseudoplastic fluids which
adhere to the Ostwald & de Waele model (power law). McMordie et al demonstrated that the
behaviour of oil base muds at high temperatures and pressures can be described using the
following expression:
.
ln = ln k + n ln + A p + B / T
(1.38)
where:
= shear stress
k
n
A
B
=
=
=
=
=
shear rate
consistency index of the fluid
flow behaviour index
constant referred to the pressure
constant referred to the temperature
Fig. 1.20
The values A and B

must however be
determined separately
for every type of mud.
Figure 1.20 shows the
correlation
between
shear stress and shear
rate values determined
experimentally
and
using the previous
expression.
100
actual
500
shear stress, dynes/cm2
calculated
200
100
g
psi
00
- 20
F
g
psi
150
000
- 10
F
g
s
p i
250
000
- 14
F
350
50
20
10
10
20
50
100
shear rate, 1/s
200
500
1000
38
YIELD PSEUDOPLASTIC FLUIDS

Accurate studies and research on the rheological behaviour of yield pseudoplastic both on water
and oil base fluids have been conducted in the last few years. Rommetveit et al performed studies
on OBM and WBM muds using the HPHT viscometer. They noted that the shear stress in the
well could be identified, starting from the known value in standard pressure and temperature
conditions and using a corrective factor in relation to the pressure, temperature and shear rate.
This corrective factor is expressed by the following formula:
.
f ( p, T , ) = e g1 ( p , T ) + e g2 ( p , T )
(1.39)
the functions g1(p, T) and g2(p, T) are represented by the sum of squared, bi-linear and linear
terms with constant terms. The coefficients of the constant terms are determined from the best fit
of the data obtained experimentally.
For oil base muds (OBM), the functions g1(p, T) and g2(p, T) in equation (1.39) can be written as
follows:
g 1 ( p , T ) = 3.696 + 0.0008787 p +
0.02381 p
58.92
2.039 10 7 p 2 +
T
T
g 2 ( p , T ) = 1882
.
+ 0.000543 p
(1.40)
(1.41)
whereas for water base muds (WBM) the functions g1(p, T) and g2(p, T) in equation (1.39) are
the following:
g 1 ( p , T ) = 5594
.
+ 0.0001595 p +
446.4
( T + 130.2)
g 2 ( p , T ) = 1263
.
0.003913 T
(1.42)
(1.43)
where, in (1.40), (1.41), (1.42) e (1.43):
shear stress, Pa
=
=
=
=
=
shear rate, s-1

pressure in standard conditions, 1 bar
pressure, bar
temperature in standard conditions, 20 C
temperature, C
p0
p
T0
T
The trend of shear stress in well conditions, at pressure, p, temperature T and the shear rate
.
, can be represented as follows:
.
.
p, T, = p o , To ,
f p, T,
39
(1.44)
f p o , To ,
while in standard conditions, the shear stress has the following trend:
.
. n ( po , To )
p o , To , = o ( p o , To ) + k ( p o , To )
(1.45)
finally the function:

.
f ( p 0 , To , ) = e g1 ( p0 , To ) + e g 2 ( p0 , T0 )
(1.46)
is the same for general p and T conditions, apart from the fact that it is determined at standard
pressure and temperature values.
EXAMPLE 1.8
We shall determine the shear stress value of an oil base mud (OBM) at a pressure of 1,050 bar
.
and a temperature of 182 C, and a shear rate of = 1021.8 s-1, knowing that the rheological
parameters in standard conditions are o = 8.3 Pa, k = 0.135 Pasn and n = 0.65, respectively.
By applying the formulas (1.40) and (1.41), the following are obtained:
g1 ( p, T ) = 3.696 + 0.0008787 1050 +
58.92
0.02381 1050
= 2.5371
2.039 10 7 1050 2 +
182
182
g2 ( p, T ) = 1.882 + 0.000543 p = 2.4521

while the function given by the expression (1.39) will be:
.
f ( p, T , ) = e 2. 5371 10218
. + e 2 .4521 = 92.43 s 1
from the expression (1.45), the following shear stress value in standard conditions is obtained:
.
po , To , = 8.3 + 0.135 10218
. 0 .65 = 20.5 Pa
the expression (1.46) is calculated applying the formulas (1.40) and (1.41) in standard pressure
and temperature conditions:
.
f ( p0 , To , ) = e 0 . 7479 1021.8 + e1.8825 = 490.25 s 1

where:

g1 ( p, T ) = 3.696 + 0.0008787 1 +
40
58.92
0.02381 1
2.039 10 7 12 +
= 0.7479
20
20
g2 ( p, T ) = 1.882 + 0.000543 1 = 1.8825

So, the shear stress value, in the assumed pressure and temperature conditions, is given by the
following expression (1.44):
p, T, = p o , To ,
.
f p, T,
f p o , To ,
.
= 20.5
92.43
. Pa
= 386
490.25
1.12 - BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 API BUL 13 D: The Rheology of Oil Well Drilling Fluids
2 Bachvalov N. S.: Metodi Numerici, Editori Riuniti, 1981
3 Bingham E. C.: Fluidity and Plasticity, McGraw Hill, New York, 1922
4 Bird R. B., Stewart W.E. and Lightfoot E. N.: Transport Phenomena, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1960

5 Bourgoyne A. T. Jr., Chenevert M. E., Millheim K. K. and Young F. S. Jr: Applied Drilling
Engineering, SPE, Richardson, TX, 1986

6 Bukhman Y. A., Lipatov V. I., Litvinov A. I. and Mitelman B. I.: Rheodynamics of Non-linear
Viscoplastic Media, Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, October 1982

7 Casson N.: Flow Equation for Pigment Oil Suspensions of the Printing Ink Type, Rheology of
Dispersed System, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1959

8 Collins R. E., Graves W. G.: A New Rheological Model for non Newtonian Fluids, paper SPE
7654, 1978
9 Darley H. C. H. and Gray G.: Composition and Properties of Drilling and Completion Fluids,
Gulf Publishing Co, Houston, 1988

10 Draper N., Smith H.: Applied Regression Analysis, Wiley, New York, 1981
11 Ghiringhelli L.: Reologia dei Fluidi, Agip, S. Donato M.se, 1981
12 Gucuyener I. H.: A Rheological Model for Drilling Fluids and Cement Slurries, paper SPE
11487 presentato a Middle East Oil Technical Conference of SPE, Manama, Bahrain, 14-17
March 1983
41
13 Hemphill T., Campos W. and Pilehvari A.: Yield-Power Law Model More Accurately Predicts
Mud Rheology, Oil & Gas Journal, 23 August 1993

14 Herschel W. H. and Bulkley R.: Measurement of Consistency as Applied to Rubber-Benzene
Solutions, Proc. ASTM (1926), no 26

15 Maglione R.: New Method Determines Flow Regime and Pressure Losses during Drilling and
Cementing, Oil & Gas Journal, 4 September 1995

16 Maglione R., Ferrario G.: Equations Determine Flow States for Yield Pseudoplastic Drilling
Fluids, Oil & Gas Journal, 5 February 1996

17 Makosko C. W.: Rheology, Principles, Measurements and Applications, VCH Publishers,
New York, 1994

18 Merlo A., Maglione R., Piatti C.: An Innovative Model for Drilling Fluid Hydraulics, paper
SPE 29259, presentato a Asia Pacific Oil & Gas Conference, Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), 20-22
March 1995
19 Munson B. R., Joung D. F., Okiishi F.: Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1994

20 Nelson E. B.: Well Cementing, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1990
21 Okafor M. N.: Experimental Comparison of Rheology Models for Drilling Fluids, paper SPE
24086, 1992
22 Ostwald W. & Auerbach R.: Kolloid Z. , 38, 1926
23 Papanastasiou T. C.: J. Rheol., 1987
24 Parzonka W. & Vocadlo J.: Methode de la Caracteristique du Comportement Rheologique des
Substances Viscoplastiques dapres les Mesures au Viscometre de Couette (Model Nouveau

Trois Parametres), Rheologica Acta, 4, 1968
25 Rabia H.: Rig Hydraulics, Entrac Software, Newcastle, 1989
26 Robertson R. E. & Stiff H. A.: An Improved Mathematical Model for Relating Shear Stress to
Shear Rate in Drilling Fluids and Cement Slurries, Soc. of Petr. Eng. Journal, February 1976
27 Rommetveit R., Bjorkevoll K. S.: Temperature and Pressure Effects on Drilling Fluids
Rheology and ECD in Very Deep Wells, paper SPE/IADC 39282 presentato a Middle East
Drilling Technology Conference, Bahrain, 23-25 November 1997
28 Ryan N., Johnson M.: Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow in Pipes, AIChE Journal,
Volume 5, nr 4, 1959
29 Schuh F. J.: Computer Makes Surge Pressure Calculations Useful, O&GJ, August 3, 1964
42
30 Schwedoff T. G.: J. of Phys., 9, 1890

31 Shulman Z. P.: One Phenomenological Generalisation of Viscoplastic Rheostable Disperse
System Flow Curves, Teplo-Massoperenos, Minsk (1968), v. 10

32 Sun H.: Effect of Temperature and Pressure on the Hydraulics of Oil Based Muds, Energy
Week Conference & Exhibition, Houston, 28-30 January 1997

33 Various Authors:
Drilling Mud and Cement Slurry Rheology Manual, Edition Technip,
Parigi, 1982
34 Walker R.: Hydraulics Limits Are Set by Flow Restriction, Oil & Gas Journal, 4 October 1976
35 Walker R.: Annular Calculations Balance Cleaning with Pressure Loss, Oil & Gas Journal, 18
October 1976
36 Whittaker and Exlog Staff: Theory and Application of Drilling Fluid Hydraulics, IHRDC
Publishers, Boston, 1985

37 Zaho S.: Idraulica dei fluidi di perforazione, Agip, S. Donato M.se, 1986
43
2 - THE HYDRAULICS OF DRILLING MUDS
2.1 - INTRODUCTION
All the considerations made so far and the formulated laws enable us to define the main
characteristics and parameters of mud flow in a hydraulic drilling circuit. These values have to be
associated to the systems conditions of motion, i.e. the flow properties in circular and annular
sections represented by the internal section of the drill pipes and by the annular gap between the
drill string and the hole/casing respectively.
In the next few paragraphs, the characteristics of laminar flow and turbulent flow will be analysed,
without considering the effects of plug flow (which is considered as a part of laminar flow) and
transitional flow. In fact, it is common practise to assume that only two types of flow regimes can
exist for drilling fluids: laminar (usually at low flow rates) and turbulent (at high flow rates). The
transition between the two types of flow regime is defined by a critical point determined by a
critical Reynolds number. The most frequently used expressions concerning flow parameters,
such as the friction coefficient, the Reynolds number and pressure losses, for the most widely used
rheological models (Bingham, Ostwald & de Waele and Herschel & Bulkley) are described in this
section.
2.2 - LAMINAR FLOW IN CIRCULAR SECTION

We shall consider the flow of a non-Newtonian fluid in a circular section, with a radius R (inside
the drill string), and a cylinder of fluid, inside this pipe, with a general radius r, which is coaxial to
the pipe (see figure 2.1).
The force applied to the cylinder of fluid,
in two given sections, 1 and 2, placed at
Fig. 2.1
distance L, meant as the difference in
pressure needed to exceed the pressure
fluids without yield point
fluids with yield point
losses is given by:
R
max
F = r 2 ( P2 P1 ) = P r 2
(2.1)
Vmax
Vmax
Vr
Vr
r
R
(a)
(b)
With an incompressible fluid, with

stationary and isothermal laminar flow,
(where the paths of the individual fluid
particles are parallel to the pipe axis), the
friction balances this force with the fluid
mass circulating inside the cylinder. We
therefore have:

F = 2 r L r
44
(2.2)
where r is the shear stress at distance r from the pipe axis. We can therefore formulate:
Pr 2 = 2r L r
(2.3)
or simply:
Pr = 2 L r
(2.4)
By replacing r with the analytical relation of the rheological model which is the most suitable for
the actual behaviour of fluid flow, we obtain the relation which links fluid flow and pressure
losses; these obviously vary depending on the pipes geometry.
By using the expression (2.4) for the radius R of the circular pipe, we obtain the expression for
total pressure loss. This is given by:
P = 2
r =R
L
R
(2.5)
where:
r=R
shear stress at the wall
In English texts the initial w is often used (this letter stands for the wall of a pipe) rather than r=R,
which represents the wall conditions. In any case, the two letters indicate the same conditions
during the flow.
The most widely used models in drilling fluid hydraulics, the Bingham, Ostwald & de Waele and
Herschel & Bulkley models, are discussed below. The expressions for the friction coefficient,
Reynolds number and pressure losses caused by friction during both laminar and turbulent flow
are all given for these models.
A universally adopted method for calculating the parameters of fluid flow in a pipe is based on
determining the friction coefficient, also known as the friction factor in Anglo-Saxon countries.
This is based on determining the flow regime by means of the Reynolds number. The
corresponding friction factor is determined, and then using the Fanning equation, the relative
pressure loss in the pipe is calculated.
By using this approach, not only the pressure loss in the pipe is calculated, but the regime of fluid
flow is also determined, which is a fundamental starting point for a flow study.
As mentioned previously, the pressure is drop determined using the general formula given by
Fanning:
P = f
or:
Q2
L
2 R5
(2.6)

P = f
V2
L
R
45
(2.7)
where, with International System measurement units (SI):

P
Q
V
f
R
L
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
pressure loss, Pa
flow rate, m3/s
friction factor, dimensionless
fluid density, kgm/m3
pipe radius, m
pipe length, m
while in British system measurement units, we have the following:

P = f
V2
L
2580
. (2 R )
(2.7a)
where:
P
V
f
R
L
=
=
=
=
=
=
pressure loss, psi

fluid density, lbm/gal
pipe radius, in
pipe length, ft
At times, the following expression in field units is given in published material:

V2
P = f
L
1.24 ( 2 R )
(2.7b)
where:
P
V
f
R
L
=
=
=
=
=
=
pressure loss, psi

fluid density, kgm/lt
pipe radius, in
pipe length, m
The friction factor is determined, for laminar flow, by equating the expression (2.5) of the
pressure losses applied to the transversal section of the pipe (defined by the equilibrium of forces
during the flow) and the Fanning expression given by (2.7). So, by equating the two expressions,
we obtain:

V2
2
L r= R = f
L
R
R
P =
46
(2.8)
and by making f explicit, we obtain the general expression of the friction factor, in laminar flow
conditions, for a fluid flowing in a circular section. This relation is valid for any type of fluid:
f lam =
V 2 r= R
(2.9)
For a general fluid we have:

dv
r= R = f
dr r = R
(2.10)
and by replacing (2.10) in (2.9) we obtain the general expression for the friction factor:
f lam =
dv
2
f
V 2 dr
(2.11)
r= R
By adding the expression which is valid for Bingham fluids in (2.10) and then replacing it in
(2.11), we obtain the relation of the friction factor which is valid for a plastic fluid (developed by
R. Maglione, 1986), as follows:
Bi 3
2
24 + Bi 1
f lam =

3 Re
Bi + 8
(2.12)
where the Reynolds number modified for this model is given by the following expression:
Re =
V ( 2 R)
f (Bi)
p
(2.13)
whereby:
Bi 3
24 + Bi 1

Bi + 8
f (Bi) =
Bi 3
24 + Bi 4

Bi + 8
whereas the Bingham number, Bi, is defined by the following equation:
(2.14)

Bi =
47
o ( 2 R)
p V
(2.15)
where, in International System measurement units (SI), we have the following:

Bi
V
R
o
p
=
=
=
=
=
Bingham number, dimensionless

pipe radius, m
yield point (plastic behaviour), Pa
plastic viscosity, Pas
Figure 2.2 shows the trend of f(Bi) in relation to the Bingham number.
Fig. 2.2
0,5
0,3
f(Bi)
0,2
0,1
0,05
0,03
0,02
0,01
1
10
30
100
300
1.000
3.000
Bingham number
The expression indicating the pressure drop for these types of fluid in a laminar flow regime is
given by the following:
16 p Q L
P =
3 ( 2 R) 4
Bi 3
24 + Bi 4

+
8
Bi
(2.16)
48
EXAMPLE 2.1
We shall consider a mud with a plastic viscosity of p = 35 cP (0.035 Pas) and a yield point of o
= 3 Pa, flowing inside a drill string with an internal diameter of di = 2R = 4.27 (0.1084 m), at a
flow rate of 480 lt/min (0.008 m3/s).
We shall determine the pressure drop for a 150 m drill pipe section, assuming that a laminar flow
regime exists.
The flow velocity inside the pipes is given by:
V=
2
d
4 i
480 / 60000
4.27 25.4
4 1000
0.008
= 0.87 m / s
0.0092
The Bingham number is given by the relation (2.15):

Bi =
o ( 2 R) 3 4.27 (25.4 / 1000)

=
= 10.7
p V
35 10 3 0.87
By applying the equation (2.16) the drop in pressure for a 150 m pipe section will be:
16 0.035 0.008 150
P =
)4
3
( 01084
.
10.7 3
24 + 10.7 4
= 33460 Pa = 0.33 bar
10.7 + 8
A second method involves determining the Reynolds number for the type of studied flow and then
determining the friction factor flam by using (2.7). In this case, however, the density of circulating
fluid must be known. It is assumed that = 1,260 kg/m3.
This procedure is used when the flow regime of the fluid is not known. In this case, the Reynolds
number must first be calculated and then compared to the critical number in order to discover the
type of flow regime.
By knowing that the Reynolds number is 10.7, the f(Bi) value can be obtained (as shown in figure
2.2):
f(Bi) = 0.5
The Reynolds number is given by (2.13):
Re =
1260 0.87 0.1084

0.5 = 1697.5
0.035
By knowing that the critical Reynolds number is Recr 2100, the flow in the conditions we have
hypothesised is laminar (Re < Recr).
From the expression (2.12), the friction factor value flam is obtained:
2
f lam =
3 1697.5
49
10.7 3
24 + 10.7 1
= 0.01284
10.7 + 8
and by applying the relation (2.7) the required pressure loss value is obtained:
0.87 2
P = 0.01284 1260
0.1084
2)
150 = 33891 Pa = 0.34 bar
As concerns pseudoplastic fluids, following the Ostwald & de Waele model, the friction factor
expression is given by:
f lam =
4 3n + 1
Re n
(2.17)
where the Reynolds number, modified for this model, is given by the following expression:
Re =
n
V (2n) (2 R)
3 n +1
k 2
(2.18)
( n 1)
whereas the expression which is valid for determining the pressure drop is:
2 Lk
P =
R
3 n + 1 Q
n R 3
(2.19)
EXAMPLE 2.2
We shall determine the pressure losses relative to pseudoplastic fluid flow, with a flow behaviour
index of n = 0.321 and a consistency index of k = 0.23 Pasn inside a pipe which is 367 m long and
has an internal diameter of 4 (0.1016 m). The flow rate is 220 lt/min (0.0037 m3/s) and the flow
regime is presumed to be laminar.
The pressure loss inside the pipe is determined using the expression (2.19):
2 367 0.23 3 0.321 + 1

0.0037
P =
0.321
01016
.
01016
.
2

2
0.321
= 12024 Pa = 012
. bar
50
A second method involves determining the Reynolds number for the studied flow and then
determining the friction factor flam by using the expression (2.7). After this value has been
obtained, the pressure loss in the pipe is determined using the relation (2.7). In this case, the
density of circulating fluid needs to be known. It is assumed that = 1050 kg/m3.
The Reynolds number is given by (2.18):
Re =
)
.
1050 0.45( 2 0.321) ( 01016
3 0.321 + 1
0.23 2
0.321
0.321
( 0.321 1) = 3139
Knowing that the critical Reynolds number is Recr 5700, the flow in the conditions we have
hypothesised is laminar (Re < Recr).
From expression (2.17) the friction factor value flam is obtained.
flam = 0.0078
and by applying the relation (2.7) the required pressure loss value is obtained:
0.45 2
P = 0.0078 1050
0.1016
2)
367 = 119815
. Pa = 0.12 bar
For yield pseudoplastic fluids, following the Herschel & Bulkley model, the friction factor
expression is similar to that used for pseudoplastic fluids. It is given by:
f lam =
4 3n + 1
Re eq n
(2.20)
while the expression of the equivalent Reynolds number is given by:
Re eq
3 n + 1
= 2
V( 2 n) R n
n
3 n + 1
R
0 + k
V
n Cc
(2.21)
and the valid relation for the pressure drop is:

2 Lk
P =
R
n
+
1
Q
+
3
k n Cc R
where Cc is the correction coefficient for the circular section and corresponds to:
(2.22)
51
0
1
Cc = 1
n
2n + 1
(3 n + 1)Q
0 + k n R 3
(2.23)
EXAMPLE 2.3
We shall presume we have a yield pseudoplastic fluid in a circular section pipe with a 6 diameter,
(0.1524 m), 1,000 ft (328 m) long. The fluid indexes are: 0 = 9.7 Pa, k = 0.14 Pasn, n = 0.51.
The flow rate is 600 lt/min (0.01 m3/s). We shall determine the pressure losses, presuming that the
flow inside the pipe is laminar.
The pressure losses are determined by using the relations (2.22) and (2.23):
2 328 0.14 9.7 3 051 + 1

0.01
P =
+
0.1524
0.14
0.51 0.545 0.1524
2
0. 51
= 93676 Pa = 0.94 bar
where:
1
9.7
= 0.545
Cc = 1
0.51
2 0.51 + 1

( 3 0.51 + 1) 0.01
9.7 + 014
.
3
.
01524
.
0
51
If, instead, we want to calculate the pressure losses, starting from the expression (2.20) and
determining the friction factor first, the equivalent Reynolds number must be calculated
beforehand (density = 1150 kg/m3).
So by applying the relations (2.23) and (2.21) the following are obtained, respectively:
Cc = 0.545
3 0.51 + 1
Re eq = 2
0.51
where:
1150 0.55( 2 0.51) 0.1524 2

.
01524
9.7
.
0
55
0.51
0.51
3 0.51 + 1
+ 0.14
0.51 0.545
= 317
0.51

V=
2
d
4 i
52
600 / 60000
0.01
=
= 0.55 m / s
0.01824
2
( 0.1524 )
4
By knowing that the critical Reynolds number is Reeq,cr 2700, the flow in the conditions we have
hypothesised is laminar (Re < Reeq,cr). By applying (2.20) the friction factor is obtained:
f lam =
4 3 0.51 + 1
= 0.06259
317 0.51
finally, by using the relation (2.7) the required pressure loss value is obtained:
0.552
P = 0.06259 1150
01524
.
2)
328 = 93723.2 Pa = 0.94 bar
2.3 - TURBULENT FLOW IN CIRCULAR SECTION

Pressure losses for fluids in a turbulent flow regime are determined using the Fanning equation,
mentioned previously in relation to laminar flow conditions. This equation is as follows:
p = f
V2
L
R
(2.24)
Once the friction factor is known, the pressure losses can easily be determined. Published
material contains various expressions for calculating the friction factor for different fluids, yet
there is very little information about explicit expressions of the friction factor which are valid for
plastic fluids that are of the Bingham model type.
Based on the studies of Blasius (who developed a valid equation for water flow), Schuh defined
an equation for pseudoplastic fluids with a behaviour which is coherent with the Ostwald & de
Waele model. This equation is:
f turb = y( Re)
(2.25)
in which:
y=
log(n) + 3.93
50
(2.26)
z=
175
. log(n)
7
(2.27)
where:

n
53
flow behaviour index
Figure 2.3 represents the trend for the friction factor of pseudoplastic fluids, using the Blasius
correlation developed by Schuh.
Fig. 2.3
laminar flow f = 16/Re

1
10-1
friction
factor
10-2
n = 1.0
n = 0.5
10-3
102
10
103
104
105
Reynolds Number
EXAMPLE 2.4
We shall consider a mud with the following rheological parameters: k = 0.038 Pasn, n = 0.88 and
a density of =1720 kg/m3. Presuming that the flow rate is 3560 lt/min inside a drill pipe section
with a diameter of 4.27, the pressure loss is calculated for a length of 2,500 m, supposing that
the flow regime is turbulent.
The flow velocity is given by:
V=
2
di
4
3560 / 60000
4.27 25.4
4 1000
0.0593
= 6.45 m / s
0.0092
while the modified Reynolds number is given by (2.18):

(
Re =
54
1720 6.45 2 0.88 0.1084 0.88
( 0.88 1) = 66588
3 0.88 + 1
0.038 2
0.88
The friction factor is determined applying the expression (2.25):

f turb = 0.077 ( 66588)
0.2579
= 0.00439
whereby:
y=
z=
log( 0.88) + 3.93

= 0.077
50
175
. log( 0.88)
= 0.2579
7
Finally, the pressure losses are calculated by using (2.24):

P = 0.00439 1720
6.452
2500 = 144.89 10 5 Pa = 144.89 bar
0.0542
The expression (2.25) is often used for yield pseudoplastic fluids (according to the Herschel &
Bulkley model), by simply replacing the modified Reynolds number with the equivalent number
for the pseudoplastic yield model, i.e.
f turb = y( C c Re)
(2.28)
or:
f turb = y Re eq
(2.29)
A very complex yet more accurate relation for yield pseudoplastic fluids was conceived by
Torrance, in line with the rheological model of Herschel & Bulkley. The relation is:
1
4.53
2.69
4.53
log(1 x ) +
log Re eq
=
2.95 +
n
n
f turb n
where:
x=
0
=
r=R
0
dv
0 + k
dr r = R
n
0.68
2n
f turb
+
( 5n 8 )
(2.30)
55
where, in International System measurement units (SI):

fturb
Reeq
n
k
o
r=R
(dv/dr)r=R
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

equivalent Reynolds number, dimensionless
fluid flow behaviour index, dimensionless
fluid consistency index, Pasn
yield point, Pa
shear stress at the wall, Pa
shear rate at the wall, s-1
The expression (2.30) is certainly more valid than (2.29), as the equation takes account of the
effects of the yield point, o, on the friction factor calculation.
Generally speaking, this expression may be used to define the friction factor for plastic and
pseudoplastic fluids, by simply modifying the rheological parameters in a suitable way.
EXAMPLE 2.5
We shall determine the pressure losses of a pseudoplastic yield fluid (with n = 0.79, o = 6.72 Pa,
k = 0.98 Pasn and = 1430 kg/m3) inside drill pipes with a diameter of (2R) = 4.27 (0.1084 m),
3852 m long, with a flow rate of 4500 lt/min (0.075 m3/s), presuming that a turbulent flow regime
exists.
By using a modified version of Schuhs equation (2.29), we obtain:
f turb = 0.0765 ( 4731.4)
0.2646
= 0.00815
as:
Reeq = CcRe = 4731.4
y=
log( 0.79) + 3.93

= 0.0765
50
z=
1.75 log( 0.79)

= 0.2646
7
By using Torrances equation (2.30) instead, purposely devised for yield pseudoplastic fluids, we
obtain:
1
f turb
2.69
4.53
0.68
4.53
2 0.79
+
2.95 +
( 5 0.79 8) =
log( 1 0.039) +
log 4731.4 f turb
=
0.79
0.79
0.79
0.79
1
f turb
where:
1.21
= 5.734 log 4731.4 f turb
313
.

x=
56
0
6.72
6.72
=
= 0.039
.79 =
r = R 6.72 + 0.98 ( 649.02)
167.99
solving this equation with subsequent approximations, we obtain:

fturb = 0.00861
Table 2.1 shows the data calculated according to the two different equations considered.
model
Schuh mod. (2.29)
Torrance (2.30)
friction
factor
0.00815
0.00861
pressure loss
[bar]
67.2
71.0
Tab. 2.1
As can be seen from the data shown in the table above, in both cases the pressure loss values are
very similar to each other. However, the most accurate value is clearly the one calculated using
Torrances equation which accounts for the effects of the yield point on the pressure loss
calculation. Schuhs equation, on the other hand, does not consider the yield point. This
difference has an increasing effect as the yield point increases, causing a fluid behaviour which
tends more and more to non-Newtonian characteristics.
2.4 - CRITICAL FLOW CONDITIONS: TRANSITION FROM LAMINAR TO

TURBULENT FLOW
The critical conditions which lead to the transition from laminar to turbulent flow are obtained
using the following relation:
flam = fturb
(2.31)
A simple and practical expression for pseudoplastic fluids which follow Ostwald & de Waeles
law exists to determine the start of the flow regime with turbulence characteristics:
Recr,lam-turb = 3250 - 1150n
(2.32)
This equation gives approximate values which must, in any case, be confirmed with more accurate
procedures, if required.
EXAMPLE 2.6
We shall determine the critical Reynolds number for the transition from laminar to turbulent flow
for a pseudoplastic fluid (power law) with a flow behaviour index of n = 0.63.
57
Recr,lam-turb = 3250 - 11500.63 = 2525.5

As, generally speaking, the friction factor for non-Newtonian fluids (with yield pseudoplastic
behaviour) with laminar flow is given by the following expression:
f lam =
4 3n + 1
Re eq n
(2.33)
and the turbulent flow is defined by Torrances equation:

1
4.53
2.69
4.53
=
log(1 x ) +
log Re eq
2.95 +
n
n
f turb n
0.68
2n
f turb
( 5n 8 )
+
(2.34)
The two expressions, valid for critical flow conditions, can be put together to obtain the equation
for the Reynolds critical number relevant to this state of transition, defined by the formula (2.31):
4 3n + 1
f lam =
n
Re
eq
1
4.53
2.69
4.53
log(1 x ) +
log Re eq
=
2.95 +
n
n
f turb n
0.68
2n
f turb
+
(5n 8)
where the expression Reeq is given by (2.21).

This procedure is valid for plastic and pseudoplastic fluids as well as for pseudoplastic yield fluids.
In this case, the system equations simply need to be modified appropriately according to the
rheological model considered, i.e.
for fluids which follow the Bingham model: n = 1
for fluids which follow the Ostwald & de Waele model: o = 0 and Cc = 1
2.5 - LAMINAR FLOW IN ANNULAR SECTION
In this case too, the study of fluid flows is based on the hypotheses already considered for flow in
circular section pipes, i.e. stationary motion, fluid incompressibility and temperature invariability
with reference to the movement between two different pipe sections. The flow of fluid inside the
annulus take place inside an annular section with an internal radius R1 (determined by the external
diameter of the drill string), and an external radius R2 (determined by the hole diameter or internal
casing diameter), Ro is defined as the radius of the flow axis.
58
Fig. 2.4
1
Ro
R1
R2
Figure 2.4. shows a

general profile of
fluid flow velocity in
an annular section.
Like
the
considerations made
for flow in a circular
section, we shall now
analyse laminar and
turbulent flow for
annular
sections,
leaving aside both
plug flow (included
in the laminar flow
regime)
and
transitional flow.
As discussed in previous paragraphs, with this type of section the fundamental criteria for the
transition of fluid flow from a laminar to a turbulent regime is represented by the critical value of
the dimensionless Reynolds number.
The equation for the equilibrium of the forces acting on the sections 1 and 2, placed at the
distance L, is written as follows:
( R2 2 R12 ) ( P2 P1 ) = ( R2 2 R12 ) P = 2 ( R2 + R1 ) L
(2.35)
simplifying the above, we obtain:

P( R 2 R 1 ) = 2 L
(2.36)
or:
P =
2L
( R2 R1 )
(2.37)
For annular section, the pressure drop for both laminar flow and turbulent flow fluids, can be
identified using the following equation, suggested by Fanning:
P = f
or:
Q2
2 ( R2 R1 ) R22 R12
(2.38)

P = f
(R
V2
2
R1 )
59
(2.38a)
where, using International System measurement units (SI), we have the following:
P
Q
f
R2
R1
L
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
pressure loss, Pa
flow rate, m3/s
external radius of the annular section, m
internal radius of the annular section, m
pipe length, m
whereas, using British system measurement units, we obtain:

P = f
V2
2580
. 2 (R2 R1 )
(2.38b)
where:
P
V
f
R2
R1
L
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
pressure loss, psi

external radius of the annular section, in
internal radius of the annular section, in
pipe length, ft
At times, the following expressions using field units is adopted:

P = f
V2
1.24 2 ( R 2 R 1 )
(2.38c)
where:
P
V
f
R2
R1
L
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
pressure loss, psi

fluid density, kgm/lt
external radius of the annular section, in
internal radius of the annular section, in
pipe length, m
As already noted for the circular section, the friction factor for a laminar flow regime, in an
annular section, is also obtained by equating the expression (2.37) (applied to the pipe wall, for
r=R) with the Fanning expression given by (2.38a). The following is therefore obtained:
P =
(R
2
2
R1 )
L r=R = f
(R
V2
2
R1 )
60
(2.39)
and so by making the friction factor f explicit, we obtain the general expression for laminar flow
conditions, for an annular section:
2
V2 r=R
f lam =
(2.40)
and given that for a general fluid:

dv
r= R = f
dr r = R
(2.41)
by replacing this in the formula (2.40) the following general expression for the friction factor is
obtained:
f lam =
dv
2
2 f
V
dr r = R
(2.42)
By adding the expression which is valid for Bingham fluids to the equation (2.42) we obtain the
formula of the friction factor for a plastic fluid (developed by R. Maglione, 1986). This is:
Bi 2
1
24 + Bi 1
f lam =

Bi + 12
Re
(2.43)
where the Reynolds number modified for this model is given by the following expression:
Re =
V 2 (R 2 R1 )
p
f ( Bi)
(2.44)
where:
f (Bi) =
Bi 2
24 + Bi 1

Bi + 12
Bi 2
24 + Bi 3

Bi + 12
The Bingham number is given by the following expression:

Bi =
61
o 2 ( R 2 R1 )
p V
(2.45)
where, using International system measurement units (SI), we have the following:
Bi
V
R2
R1
o
p
=
=
=
=
=
=
Bingham number, dimensionless

external radius of the annular section, m
internal radius of the annular section, m
yield point (plastic behaviour), Pa
plastic viscosity, Pas
Figure 2.5 shows the trend of f(Bi) in relation to the Bingham number:
Fig. 2.5
0,5
0,3
f(Bi)
0,2
0,1
0,05
0,03
0,02
0,01
1
10
30
100
300
1.000
3.000
Bingham number
The expression used to obtain the pressure drop value for laminar flow is given by:
Bi 2
24 + Bi 3
P = 8

3
[ 2 ( R 2 R 1 )] [ 2 ( R 2 + R 1 )]
Bi + 12
p Q L
(2.46)
EXAMPLE 2.7
We shall determine the pressure losses induced by the flow of a plastic drilling mud, following the
Bingham model, and with the rheological parameters o = 12 Pa, p = 27 cP and a density of =
62
1550 kg/m3, in an annulus with an external diameter of 12 1/4 and an internal diameter of 5 at a
flow rate of 600 lt/min.
The length of the annulus is 1680 m and it is presumed the a laminar flow regime exists.
The velocity of the flowing mud in the annulus is given by:
V=
D2 d e 2 )
(
4
600 / 60000
0.01
= 0.159 m / s
2
2
5 25.4 0.063
12.25 25.4

1000
4 1000
=
The modified Reynolds number is given by the expression (2.44):

Re =
1550 0159
.
2 ( 0.156 0.0635)
0.027
0.044 = 74.3
where:
Bi =
12 2 ( 0.156 0.0635)
0.027 0.159
= 517.1
517.1 2
24 + 517.11

517.1 + 12
f ( Bi) =
= 0.044
517.1 2
24 + 517.1 3

517.1 + 12
The value of the Bingham function, f(Bi), may, in any case, be obtained with a good degree of
approximation, from the graph shown in figure 2.5. The friction factor is given by (2.43):
517.1 2
1
24 + 517.11
f lam =
= 0.635
74.3
517.1 + 12
finally the pressure loss is given by (2.38a):

P = 0.635 1550
0.159 2
( 0156
. 0.0635)
1680 = 451925.9 Pa = 4.52 bar
In cases where the Reynolds number does not need to be calculated, the pressure losses may be
directly determined using the relation (2.46). We therefore obtain:
517.1 2
24 + 517.1 3
P = 8

3
517.1 + 12
[ 2 (0156
0.0635)] [ 2 (0.156 + 0.0635)]
.
0.027 600 60000 1680
63
P = 449399 Pa = 4.49 bar

For pseudoplastic fluids, following the Ostwald & de Waele model, the expression of the friction
factor is obtained by replacing the expression of the corresponding rheological model in (2.42).
We therefore have:
f lam =
8 2n + 1
Re n
(2.47)
where the Reynolds number modified for this model is the following:
Re =
V ( 2 n ) [ 2 ( R 2 R 1 )]
2 n + 1
k 4
(2.48)
( n 1)
the relation for the pressure drop is:
P = 2
(R
kL
2
R1 )
( 2 n + 1)
Q
2
n ( R 2 R 1 ) ( R 22 R 12 )
(2.49)
EXAMPLE 2.8
We shall determine the pressure losses induced by the flow of a pseudoplastic fluid, following the
Ostwald & de Waele model, with the rheological parameters n = 0.73 e k = 0.21 Pasn and a
density of = 1420 kg/m3, inside an annulus with an external diameter 17 1/2 and an internal
diameter 6 1/2. The flow rate is 550 lt/min while the pipe length is 800 m and it is presumed that
a laminar flow regime exists.
The average flow velocity is given by:
V=
(
D2 d e 2 )
4
550 / 60000
0.0092
= 0.069 m / s
6.5 25.4 0.134
17.5 25.4

1000
4 1000
2
The modified Reynolds number is given by the relation (2.48):

Re =
1420 0.069
( 2 0.73 )
[ 2 (0.222 0.082)]
2 0.73 + 1
0.214
0.73
The friction factor is given by the relation (2.47):
( 0.73 1)
0.73
= 180.6

f lam =
64
8 2 0.73 + 1
= 0.149
180.6 0.73
finally the pressure loss is given by (2.38a):

0.069 2
P = 0149
.
1420
( 0.222 0.082)
800 = 5756.2 Pa
For yield pseudoplastic fluids, following the Herschel & Bulkley model, the expression of the
friction factor is obtained, considering the expression of the rheological model given by (2.41) and
replacing it in the expression (2.42). We therefore obtain:
f lam =
8 2 n + 1
Re eq n
2 n + 1
Re eq = 4
(2.50
Va (2 n ) (R 2 R1 )
n
R R1
2 n + 1
0 2
+ k 2
nCa
Va
(2.51)
By replacing the expression of the friction, flam and the expression of the equivalent Reynolds
number in the Fanning equation, given by (2.38), we obtain the relation which is valid for the
pressure drop:
P = 2
(R
kL
2
R1)

0 2 ( 2 n + 1)
Q
+

2
2
k n C a ( R 2 R 1 ) ( R 2 R 1 )
(2.52)
where Ca is the correction coefficient for the annular section and corresponds to:
1
0
Ca = 1
n +1
2 (2 n + 1)
Q

0 + k
2
2
n ( R2 R1 ) R2 R1
(2.53)
EXAMPLE 2.9
We shall consider a yield pseudoplastic mud, following the Herschel & Bulkley model, with the
rheological parameters o = 17.35 lb/100ft2, k = 0.38 lbsn/100ft2 and n = 0.756. We shall
determine the pressure losses induced by flow in an annulus with an external diameter of D =
2R2 = 17 1/2 and an internal diameter of de = 2R1 = 9 1/2, 105 m long and with a flow rate
1800 lt/min (presuming that a laminar flow regime exists).
65
The rheological parameters, using International System measurement units, are:

o = 17.35 lb /100ft2 = 8.31 Pa
k = 0.38 lbsn/100ft2 = 0.18 Pas
n = 0.756
V=
2
( D d e2 )
4
1800 / 60000
0.03
= 0.275 m / s
2
2
9.5 25.4 0.109
17.5 25.4

1000
4 1000
=
The pressure losses are determined using (2.52):

0.756
2 ( 2 0.756 + 1)
0.18 105 8.31
0.03
= 22742.3 Pa
P = 2
+
( 0.222 0121
. ) 0.18 0.756 0.5229 ( 0.222 0.121) ( 0.222 2 0.1212 )
where the following is obtained from the expression (2.53):
1
8.31
Ca = 1
0.756
0.756 + 1
2 ( 2 0.756 + 1)
0.03
8.31 + 0.18
2
2
0.756 ( 0.222 0.121) ( 0.222 0.121 )
= 0.5229
2.6 - TURBULENT FLOW IN ANNULAR SECTION

Pressure losses, during flow in annular section, are determined using the same Fanning equation,
already considered for laminar flow, which is given by (2.38a):
P = f
(R
V2
2
R1 )
For annular sections as well, there is little information available about the friction factor for plastic
fluids; however, based on Blasiuss studies on water flow, it is possible to define an equation for
pseudoplastic fluids of the Ostwald & de Waele model type. This equation is:

2
f turb = y Re
3
66
(2.54)
where:
y = 0.0893 + 0.0246 log( n)
z = 0.263 + 0138
.
log( n)
with:
n = flow behaviour index
The expression (2.54) is however only valid for Reynolds number values below 105. A second,
more accurate relation for determining the friction factor for pseudoplastic fluids with turbulent
flow is the equation developed by Dodge and Metzner, modified for flow in annular sections. This
equation is as follows:
1
f turb
4
n
0.75
2
0.4
n
log Re f turb (1 2 ) 1.2
3
n
(2.55)
EXAMPLE 2.10
We shall determine the pressure losses induced by the flow of a pseudoplastic drilling mud,
following the Ostwald & de Waele model, with the rheological parameters , n = 0.66 e k = 0.024
Pasn and a density of = 1250 kg/m3, in an annular section with an internal diameter of 6 1/2
and an external diameter of 8 1/2, 800 m long, and with a flow rate of 1,600 lt/min (presuming
that a turbulent flow regime exists).
V=
D2 d e 2 )
(
4
1600 / 60000
0.027
= 18
. m/ s
6.5 25.4 0.015
8.5 25.4

1000
4 1000
2
The modified Reynolds number is given by the relation: (2.48):

Re =
(
)
1250 167
. 2 0.66 [ 2 (0.108 0.082)]
2 0.66 + 1
0.024 4
0.66
( 0.66 1)
0.66
= 36142
Presuming that the flow is turbulent, the friction factor is determined by modifying Blasiuss
expression, given by (2.54):

f turb
= 0.08486 36142
67
0.2879
= 0.00465
where:
y = 0.0893 + 0.0246 log( 0.66) = 0.08486
z = 0.263 + 0138
.
log( 0.66) = 0.2879
while the pressure losses are determined using the relation (2.38a):
P = 0.00465 1250
18
. 2
( 0.108 0.082)
800 = 5794615
. Pa = 5.79 bar
The friction factor may therefore be determined as well by modifying Dodge & Metzners
expression given by (2.55):
1
f turb
2
4
0.4
0 .66
36142 f turb ( 1 2 )
= 5.46 log [ 24094.7 f turb 0.67 ] 0.658
0 .75 log
3
0.66 1.2
0.66
by solving the previous expression for subsequent approximations, we obtain:

fturb = 0.004614
from which the pressure losses are:
18
. 2
P = 0.004614 1250
( 0.108 0.082)
800 = 577975.4 Pa = 5.78 bar
this value coincides with that calculated using Blasiuss modified equation, with an error rate of 0.2 %.
The expression (2.54) is often used, with a good degree of approximation, for yield
pseudoplastic fluids as well (following the Herschel & Bulkley model), replacing the modified
Reynolds number with the equivalent Reynolds number:
2
= y C a Re = y Re eq
3
f turb
(2.56)
Likewise, the same is obtained for the relation (2.55) developed by Dodge and Metzner. In fact, it
should be noted that Dodge and Metzner, when determining their equation, function of the
Reynolds number, where the fluid is only represented by the fluid behaviour index n, considered
power law fluids (which coincide with the Herschel & Bulkley model, with the flow threshold
0=0). Likewise, their equation modified using f(CaRe) determined according to the Herschel &
Bulkley equation, below, can also be considered as valid:
1
f turb
4
n
0.75
68
0.395
2
n
log C a Re f turb ( 1 2 ) 1.2
3
n
(2.57)
where the expression of Ca is given by the equation (2.53).

EXAMPLE 2.11
We shall determine the pressure losses induced by the flow of a yield pseudoplastic drilling mud,
following the Herschel & Bulkley model, with the rheological parameters o = 1.4, k = 0.01 Pasn
and n = 0.84, with a density of = 1470 kg/m3, in an annular section with an internal diameter of
6 1/2 and external diameter of 8 1/2, 350 m long, at a flow rate of 1500 lt/min (presuming that a
turbulent flow regime exists).
V=
D2 d e 2 )
(
4
1500 / 60000
0.025
= 1.67 m / s
2
2
8.5 254
6.5 254
.
. 0.015

1000
4 1000
=
The equivalent Reynolds number is given by the relation (2.51):
Re eq
2 0.84 + 1
= 4
0.84
(
)
1470 167
. 2 0.84 ( 0.108 0.082)
0.082
.
0108
14
.
1.67
0.84
0.84
2 0.84 + 1
+ 0.01 2
0.84 0.7393
0.84
= 15310
where the correction coefficient for the annular section is given by the relation (2.53):
.
1
14
= 0.7393
Ca = 1
0.84
0.84 + 1
2 ( 2 0.84 + 1)
0.025
1.4 + 0.01
. 2 0.082 2 )
0.84 ( 0.108 0.082) ( 0108

The friction factor is determined using Blasiuss modified expression, given by (2.56):
f turb
= 0.08744 15310
3
0.2734
= 0.007
where:
y = 0.0893 + 0.0246 log( 0.84) = 0.08744
z = 0.263 + 0138
.
log( 0.84) = 0.2734
69

1.67 2
P = 0.007 1470
( 0108
.
0.082)
350 = 386316.3 Pa = 386

. bar
The friction factor may, in any case, be determined using the Dodge & Metzners modified
expression, given by (2.57):
1
f turb
4
0.395
2
0.84
15310 f turb ( 1 2 )
= 4.56 log[10207 f turb 0.58 ] 0.487
0. 75 log
3
0.84 1.2
0.84
by solving the previous expression, for subsequent approximations, we obtain:

fturb = 0.006862
P = 0.006862 1470
1.67 2
( 0108
.
0.082)
350 = 378700.3 Pa = 3.79 bar
this value corresponds fairly well to the one calculated with Blasiuss modified equation, with an
error rate of -1.8 %.
2.7 - CRITICAL FLOW CONDITIONS: TRANSITION FROM LAMINAR TO

TURBULENT FLOW
The critical conditions which lead to the transition from laminar to turbulent flow are determined
by the following relation:
flam = fturb
Generally speaking, for non Newtonian fluids, the friction factor for laminar flow is given by:
f lam =
8 2n + 1
Reeq
n
(2.58)
whereas, for turbulent flow, the friction factor is given by the modified Dodge e Metzners
equation, which corresponds to:
1
4
2
0.395
n
= 0 .75 log (Ca Re ) fturb( 1 2 ) 1.2
fturb n
3
n
(2.59)
70
the critical Reynolds number for the transition is obtained by combining the two expressions
(2.58) and (2.59) which are valid for critical flow conditions.
A second method, which is more simple and immediate, involves combining the equations (2.58)
and (2.56), to then obtain the resulting relation of the critical Reynolds number for determining
the transition from laminar to turbulent flow:
1
Reeq ,cr , lam turb
8 3 z 2 n + 1 z + 1
=
n
y 2
(2.60)
This procedure is valid for yield pseudoplastic fluids and also for plastic and pseudoplastic fluids,
by making the suitable changes defined by the studied rheological model. In other words:
for Bingham model fluids (plastic behaviour): n = 1
for Ostwald & de Waele model fluids (pseudoplastic behaviour): o = 0 e Ca = 1
where the equivalent Reynolds number (valid for yield pseudoplastic fluids), for both models, is
replaced by the modified Reynolds number.
2.8 - BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 Bobok E.: Fluid Mechanics For Petroleum Engineers, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1993
2 De Nevers N.: Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers, McGraw Hill Editions, New York,
1991
3 Dodge D. W., Metzner A. B.: Turbulent Flow of Non Newtonian System, A.I.Ch.E.J., 5, No. 2
4 Ghiringhelli L.: Reologia dei Fluidi, Agip, San Donato Milanese, 1981
5 Govier G. W., Aziz K.: The Flow of Complex Mixtures in Pipes, Robert E. Krieger Publishing
Company Malabar, Florida, 1987

6 Kleinstreuer C.: Engineering Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, 1997
7 Landahl M. T., Mollo Christensen E.: Turbulence and Random Processes in Fluid Mechanics,
Cambridge University Press

8 Merlo A., Maglione R., Piatti C.: An Innovative Model For Drilling Fluid Hydraulic, SPE
29259, March 1995

9 Munson B. R., Young D. F., Okiishi T. H.: Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley &
Sons, New York

10 Nelson E.: Well Cementing, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1990
71
11 Reed T. D., Pilehvari A.: A New Model for Laminar, Transitional and Turbulent Flow of
Drilling Muds, SPE/IADC 25456, February 1993

12 Zaho S.: Idraulica dei Fluidi di Perforazione, Agip, San Donato Milanese, 1986
72
3 - SECONDARY FLOWS IN THE HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT
3.1 - INTRODUCTION
It is fundamentally important to know the types of flow that occur in the surface circuit or in the
nozzles of the bit, in order to accurately determine the performance, efficiency and pressure losses of
the entire hydraulic circuit.
In fact, these types of flow produce further pressure losses in addition to those induced by simple
axial flow inside the drill string and in the annulus. These pressure losses are often extremely high,
for example in the case of the bit, while at other times values are low, such as those relative to the
surface circuit.
3.2 - SURFACE CIRCUIT

The external well circuit consists of the lines which link the discharge pumps to the well pressure: (in
order) the stand pipe, rotary hose, swivel and kelly; these all have internal circular sections but
different characteristics and internal diameters.
Depending on the type of rig, these lines are classified into four categories where they always have
the same characteristics:
I
stand pipe
rotary hose
swivel
kelly
length 40 ft
length 40 ft
length 4 ft
length 40 ft
internal diameter 3
internal diameter 2
internal diameter 2
internal diameter 2 1/4
II
stand pipe
rotary hose
swivel
kelly
length 40 ft
length 55 ft
length 5 ft
length 40 ft

III
stand pipe
rotary hose
swivel
kelly
length 45 ft
length 55 ft
length 5 ft
length 40 ft
internal diameter 4
internal diameter 3
IV
stand pipe
rotary hose
swivel
kelly
length 45 ft
length 55 ft
length 6 ft
length 40 ft
internal diameter 4
internal diameter 3
internal diameter 3
internal diameter 4
73
The function of this lines system is to deliver the mud conveyed by the pumps to the well and
facilities; the system therefore consists of high pressure lines, a group of gate valves (drilling
manifold) and isolated gate valves. These valves have to withstand pressures in the range of 250300 kg/cm2.
There is one discharge line for each pump, usually a rig has two working pumps and a third back-up
pump, if one of the other two breaks down. These lines are rigid apart from the section which runs
from the derrick floor to the injection head (Swivel) or top drive (rotary hose) and is made of flexible
rubber, suitable for absorbing any abnormal rig vibrations and easy to install.
The pressure losses through the lines of the surface circuit can be estimated using the following
relation, which is valid for plastic fluids:
Pce = E 0.8 Q 1.8 p 0.2
(3.1)
where, using Technical System measurement units (SI), we have:

pce
Q
p
=
=
=
=
pressure loss in the surface circuit, bar

fluid density, kg/lt
flow rate, lt/min
plastic viscosity, centiPoise
while the value of E depends on the type of surface circuit considered. Table 3.12. summaries the E
values for various types of surface circuits.
If British system measurement units are used in equation (3.1), we have:
pce
Q
p
=
=
=
=
pressure loss in the surface circuit, psi

flow rate, gpm
plastic viscosity, centiPoise
while the E value is summarised in table 3.1.

type of surface
circuit
I
II
III
IV
Technical System
8.79010-6
3.29810-6
1.82910-6
1.42710-6
E value
British system
2.52510-4
9.61910-5
5.33510-5
4.16310-5
Tab. 3.1
The following relation is instead valid for pseudoplastic fluids:
74
1.4 log n
Q 3 n + 1
b k

n
c

2
Pce = a ( log n + 2.5) Q
(3.2)
where, using field units, we have:

pce
Q
k
n
=
=
=
=
=
pressure loss in the surface circuit, bar

fluid density, kg/lt
flow rate, lt/min
fluid consistency index, lbfsn/100ft2
while the values of the constants a, b and c are shown in table 3.2.
type of surface
circuit
I
II
III
IV
a
1.159710-5
4.159010-6
2.242410-6
1.734710-6
field units
b
1.846
4.483
7.071
9.112
c
5.359
10.425
14.673
17.748
Tab. 3.2
If British system measurement units are used in equation (3.2), we have:
pce
Q
k
n
=
=
=
=
=
pressure loss in the surface circuit, psi

flow rate, gpm
fluid consistency index, lbfsn/100ft2
while the values of the constants a, b and c are listed in table 3.3.
type of surface
circuit
I
II
III
IV
Anglo-Saxon
a
2.888010-4
1.036010-4
5.584010-5
4.319710-5
Tab. 3.3
System
b
1.075
2.610
4.118
5.307
Units
c
1.416
2.755
3.878
4.691
75
EXAMPLE 3.1
We shall consider a rig designed for deep wells, drilling during the 17 1/2 stage at a depth of 1863
m and flow rate of 2700 lt/min. The mud has plastic properties with a plastic viscosity value of p =
17 cP and a density of = 1420 kg/m3.
We shall determine the pressure losses in the surface circuit.
As the rig is for drilling deep wells, the type of surface circuit is category IV. By applying the
relation (3.1) we obtain:
Pce = 1.427 10 6 1.42 0.8 2700 1.8 17 0 . 2 = 5.00 bar
The pumps used at rigsites, for pumping mud in the well hydraulic circuit, are piston pumps where
the fluid is displaced by the axial movement of the actual piston. At present, triplex type pumps are
mainly used, with three cylinders which displace the fluid only during the forward stroke; duplex
pumps, with two cylinders which displace the fluid as the piston moves forward and backwards, have
practically gone out of use. Figure 3.1. shows the diagram of a single acting triplex pump cycle.
Fig. 3.1 - Operating Diagram of a Triplex Pump
discharge valve
piston rod
discharge valve
piston rod
intake valve
intake valve
In a single acting pump, the piston moves forward displacing a mud volume equal to:
Vmud ,s = L
2
D
4
(3.3)
while for double acting pumps, the piston also displaces fluid during the backward stroke and so the
displaced volume is given by:

Vmud , d = L
2
(D d2 )
4
76
(3.4)
where:
Vmud,s
Vmud,d
L
D
d
=
=
=
=
=
volumetric flow rate for a single acting pump

volumetric flow rate for a double acting pump
length
internal diameter of the liner
external diameter of the piston
The total volumetric output of a single acting pump is as follows:

q mud ,s = L C
2
D
4
(3.5)
while the total volumetric output of a double acting pump is the following:
q mud ,d = L C
2
(D d 2 )
4
(3.6)
where:
qmud,s
qmud,d
C
=
=
=
=
total volumetric flow rate for a single acting pump

total volumetric flow rate for a double acting pump
number of cylinders
pump efficiency
Each pump has a set of liners with different internal diameters. Obviously small diameter liners
provide lower volumetric output, but can operate at higher discharge pressures. When designing a
hydraulic programme, it is important to select the largest liner diameters which are compatible with
the discharge pressure to be used.
In fact using small diameter liners requires high pump speeds, inducing wear and tear of mechanical
parts and a loss of power; as a result, mechanical efficiency is reduced.
Single acting pumps usually operate at a volumetric efficiency coefficient of 0.95, though this value
may sometimes reach 0.98. The volumetric efficiency for double acting pumps is 0.90. Generally
speaking, the volumetric efficiency value is not constant, but varies depending on the discharge
pressure, pump speed, type of suction line, fluid aeration and mechanical wear and tear of the pump
components. High discharge pressure values may cause fluid compression which in turn reduces
volumetric efficiency.
As mentioned previously, high piston speeds, combined with unsuitable suction lines, may cause
difficulties, as the fluid cannot enter the pump fast enough to maintain a full cylinder, leading to the
mechanical wear and tear of the pump components. Moreover, suction line efficiency may be greatly
reduced by the accumulation of solid particles in the lines. The suction lines should therefore have
the widest flow sections possible, and also be short and straight. Aerated fluids cause an increase in
compressibility, with a corresponding decrease in volumetric efficiency.
77
Moreover, decreased volumetric efficiency can also be attributed to worn valves or seals, so their
maintenance is important.
The volumetric mud output from the pump is given by:
Q = q mud SPM
(3.7)
where:
Q = flow rate, lt/min
qmud = volumetric output, lt/stroke
SPM= number of pump strokes per minute, strokes per minute
3.3 - THE BIT

Roller cone bits are normally used while drilling. These consist of three roller cones placed
symmetrically vis--vis a vertical axis and inside they have a given number of nozzles, from 3 to 6;
the mud passes through these nozzles at high flow rates. These types of bits can be used to drill any
type of formation. However they do not provide good results when drilling very hard and abrasive
formations.
The mud flow velocity through the nozzles can be calculated using the following expression:
Vdusi =
Q
A n
(3.8)
where:
Vnozzle = fluid velocity at the nozzles, m/s
Q
= flow rate, m3/s
An
= total area of the nozzles, m2
The flow velocity is a function of: total pressure loss through the hole, fluid density and a correction
coefficient which accounts for the geometrical reduction of the diameter during fluid flow through
the nozzles. The formula for determining friction pressure losses through a nozzle is the following:
Pfrict
Vduse 2 1
=
2 1
2 cv
where:
Pfrict = friction pressure loss through the nozzle, Pa
Vnozzle = flow velocity, m/s
(3.9)
cv
78
= fluid density, kgm/m3

= velocity coefficient in the nozzle
while the pressure loss induced by mud turbulence at the nozzle outlet can be determined, using the
following expression:
Vduse 2
Pturb =
co
2
(3.10)
where:
Pturb
Vnozzle
co
=
=
=
=
pressure loss at the nozzle, caused by turbulence, Pa

flow velocity, m/s
nozzle outlet coefficient
The values of the coefficients cv e co are determined empirically and depend on the shape of the
nozzle. The value co for the nozzles normally used for drilling is equal to 1. So, the total pressure
loss due to drilling mud flow through the bit is given by the sum of the two previous expressions
(3.9) and (3.10). We therefore have:
Pbit = Pfrict
Vduse 2 1
+ Pturb =
2 cv2
(3.11)
where:
Pbit = total pressure loss through the bit, Pa
= fluid density, kgm/m3

Vnozzle = fluid velocity at the nozzles, m/s
In general terms, the value of cv for nozzles used in tricone bits is 0.95. In British system fps
measurement units, the pressure loss at the bit is given by the following relation:
Pbit = 8.311 10 5
Q2
2
2
cv An
where:
Pbit
Q
An
=
=
=
=
total pressure loss through the bit, psi

flow rate, gpm
total area of the nozzles, in2
(3.12)
79
Around 90% of the total pressure loss at the bit is due to fluid turbulence at the nozzle outlet, while
only 10% is due to fluid pressure losses through the nozzle. In fact nozzles are designed to maximise
pressure losses at the bit, which may be used as mechanical energy for drilling the formation.
The determination of pressure loss values through the bit is useful for many practical applications. In
fact, when these values are known it is possible to select the nozzle sizes to put in the bit, in order to
optimise its hydraulic power and/or impact strength. This measure undoubtedly improves bottomhole cleaning of the debris produced by the bits fracturing action.
EXAMPLE 3.2
We shall determine the pressure loss of a drilling mud with a density of = 1500 kg/m3 through
three 12/32 nozzles of a 8 1/2 bit. The flow rate is 1400 lt/min.
The mud flow velocity through the nozzle is determined using the relation (3.7):
1400
Vdusi =
0.023
60000
= 109.5 m / s
2 =
0.00021
12 24.5
3
4 32 1000
The pressure loss through the bit is given by (3.11):

Pbit
109.52 1
= 1500
= 9964196.7 Pa = 99.6 bar
2
0.952
A second type of bit used in rotary drilling is the diamond bit. This is characterised by fine diamonds
set in a matrix of carbon and tungsten, amalgamated with copper and nickel.
The diamond bits can be used to drill even the hardest type of formation and have a far longer
working life than tricone bits. The mud which goes through the bit, comes out of a large central
nozzle and is conveyed to the bottom hole and side walls, through particular shaped channels, which
enable the mud to flow back to the surface through the annular section.
The pressure losses, caused by the mud flowing through the bit, are experimentally determined as the
difference between the stand pipe pressures recorded with the bit raised (off bottom) and with the bit
placed at the bottom hole (on bottom) at the same circulation flow rate.
Often, the loss of pressure which occurs at the bit while drilling exerts a force on the formation and
also tends to raise the bit from the bottom hole. This force is called hydraulic pump off, and is so
high in many cases that a compressional force, i.e. additional weight on the bit, is needed to balance
it. The hydraulic pump off force is given by the following expressions:
for radial flow type systems:
HPOF = 1.29P
(3.13)
80
where the pressure loss at the bit is given by the following expression:
0.22 MW 0.61 Q
P =
TFA
for feeder collector type systems:
HPOF = 0.32P
(3.14)
where the pressure loss at the bit is determined by the following expression:
P =
0.023 MW 0.34 Q 1.47

TFA 1.76
where:
HPOF
P
Q
TFA
=
=
=
=
=
hydraulic pump off force, lbs

bit diameter, in
pressure loss at the bit, psi
flow rate, gpm
total flow rate area, in2
The HPOF tends to be exerted on both the bit and the formation, so the pressure at the bottom hole
can lead to the formation rock fracturing and may even increase the force needed for the bit to break
up the formation, as rock generally becomes stronger when subjected to greater pressure.
EXAMPLE 3.3
We shall determine the additional weight at the bit, required to offset the effect created by the
hydraulic pump off force while drilling a 12 1/4 section, with a mud density of MW = 10.8 ppg and
a flow rate of Q = 660.4 gpm. The bit has a total flow area of TFA = 0.5 in2 and a feeder collector
type flow system is used.
The hydraulic pump off force is given by the relation (3.14):
HPOF = 0.3212.252443.5 = 9578.5 lbs = 4348.6 kg
where the pressure loss at the bit is:
0.023 10.8 0.34 660.4 1.47
P =
0.51.76
= 2443.5 psi
So the additional weight to add at the bit to balance this force is given by:
WOB = HPOF = 4348.6 kg 4.3 ton
81
3.4 - DETERMINATION OF THE DISCHARGE PRESSURE AT THE MUD PUMPS (SPP)

The discharge pressure at the pipes (stand pipe pressure) is given by the following expression:
SPP = Pce + Pc + Pbit + Pa
(3.15)
and is considered as the sum of the contributions made by the various flow phenomena discussed in
previous chapters and paragraphs, i.e.:
SPP
pce
pc
pbit
pa
=
=
=
=
=
stand pipe pressure, Pa

pressure loss in the surface circuit, Pa
pressure loss inside the drill string (circular section), Pa
pressure loss at the bit, Pa
pressure loss in the annulus (annular section), Pa
3.5 -DETERMINATION OF THE EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY

The equivalent circulating density is given by the following relation:
ECD =
Ph Pa
Pa
+
= g mud +
h
h
h
(3.16)
where:
ECD = equivalent circulating density, Pa/m
= mud hydrostatic pressure, Pa
Ph
mud = mud density
The EDC value is highly important as it must be compared with the formation fracturing gradient
value. In order to prevent problems while drilling, this value must be:
ECD < Gfract
(3.17)
otherwise the drilled formation may fracture, resulting in formation fluid losses which may damage
the actual formation and lead to hazardous situations caused by the absence of enough circulating
fluid in the well.
82
3.6 - POWER REQUIRED BY THE MUD PUMP

In order to offset the mud pressure loss through the hydraulic circuit while drilling, the mud pump
must continually supply the circulation fluid with mechanical energy, per unit mass, for the amount
W. This energy is as follows:
W=
SPP
(3.18)
Moreover, at a flow rate of Q, the pump provides an amount of fluid equal to:
w= Q
(3.19)
So the energy supplied by the pump, considered as the power supplied to the circulation fluid, is
given by:
HP = w W = Q
SPP
= Q SPP
(3.20)
where, using International System measurement units (SI), we have the following:
HP =
Q
=
SPP =
hydraulic power, Watt

flow rate, m3/s
pressure loss in the entire hydraulic circuit (SPP), Pa
using British system measurement units, we have:

HP =
Q SPP
1715
with:
HP
Q
SPP
=
=
=
hydraulic power, horsepower (HP)

flow rate, gal/min
pressure loss in the entire hydraulic circuit (SPP), psi
while, in field units, we have:

HP =
Q SPP
442
HP
Q
SPP
(3.21)
=
=
=
hydraulic power, cheval-vapeur

flow rate, lt/min
pressure loss in the entire hydraulic circuit (SPP), bar
The conversion units from one measurement unit to another are the following:
1W
1 kgm/s
1 CV
1 HP
1 lbfft/s
=
=
=
=
=
1 J/s
9.81 W
75 kgm/s =
76 kgm/s =
1.36 W
83
735.5 W
745.7 W
Obviously, the power supplied by the pump must be greater than that calculated using the expression
(3.21), as a part of the power is dispersed through mechanical friction. When calculating the power
needed at the pump inlet, a mechanical efficiency m, equal to 0.85 is used. So the power which the
mud pump must supply is equal to:
HPeff =
HP
Q SPP
=
m
0.85
(3.22)
3.7 - BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Chugh C. P.: High Technology in Drilling and Exploration, Balkema, Rotterdam, 1992
2. Nelson E. R.: Well Cementing, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1991
3. Rabia H.: Oilwell Drilling Engineering, Graham & Trotman, London, 1985
4. Several Authors: Drilling Mud and Cement Slurry Rheology Manual, Editions Technip, Parigi,
1982
The Dynmics of Drilling Fluids
84
A1. A BRIEF OUTLINE OF DRILLING OIL WELLS
A1.1 - INTRODUCTION
Drilling wells is an ancient art, dating back to 2,000 years. Originating from the mining industry,
drilling was used to discover mineral reservoirs, drill wells to connect levels being produced, develop
chutes and preferential routes needed for ventilating the mine and for transporting material or
workers underground. At the same time, the technique was also used to sink freshwater wells for
domestic and agricultural purposes.
As far as we know, the first well in history was drilled by the Chinese, a few centuries before the
birth of Christ, with the purpose of discovering salt water to produce table salt. The technique used
was percussion drilling.
Later on, other wells were drilled, in various parts of the world, using the same technique and with
the aim of discovering fresh or salt water.
In the late 19th century, the first recorded oil well was drilled by Colonel E. L. Drake. Drake drilled
his well down to a depth of about 20 m, at Titutsville, in Pennsylvania, in 1859. Oil and natural gas
had, however, been known long before this date: bitumen was used in Mesopotamia; in Persia
religious beliefs grew up around the release of natural gas from the ground; at Byzantium, under the
reign of Septimius Severus, spas were heated using hydrocarbons.
However, it was only after Drakes discovery of oil, along with the previous invention of the oil lamp
(A. Gessler, 1846), that attention turned to the business potential of hydrocarbons, gradually leading
up to its expansion and world-wide commercial importance of today.
A1.2 - DRILLING TECHNIQUES

When a well is drilled, like any excavation operation and irrespective of the technique adopted, two
concurrent actions need to be taken: breaking down the mechanical resistance of the material, so
that parts of it can be detached from the formation; removing these parts to continue drilling new
material, so that the actual drilling continues.
A rock is broken up either by force, using suitable tools (drilling bits, the teeth of rotation bits), or by
abrasive action, using appropriate materials (generally diamond base mixes in particular bits or core
bits) Different techniques were used in the past, but starting from the end of the last century, rotary
systems (rotary table - the Baker brothers were the first to drill using the rotary technique, in Dakota,
in 1882, and in the early eighties, with top drive), proved to be capable of quickly and efficiently
drilling down to major depths.
Percussion drilling was the first technique to be adopted, and is still used today, especially for civil
purposes, when drilling to shallow depths, in non-homogeneous, soft formations.
The technique involves running in a particular tool, from a suitable height, to the bottom hole which
has been drilled. This tool is connected to the rig draw-work by a steel wire; the tool is raised, in
preparation for the shots, using the draw-work or rocker, which is connected by a cable or rigid pipe.
85
Drilling, using this method, depends on the weight of the tool, the free fall height as well as the
frequency of the shots and the borehole diameter.
Depending on the circumstances, drilling may be performed in dry conditions or with a fluid filled
borehole (water or mud). In any case, operations must be stopped at regular intervals in order to run
a bailer downhole to retrieve the drill cuttings and as a result the process is not continuous. The
purpose of the mud, as mentioned before, is to promote stability of the sidewalls and offset the flow
of fluids from the drilled formation into the well.
This drilling system, which is fairly simple and cheap, has application limits related to the reachable
depth and the type of formation drilled; moreover only vertical drilling can be performed. The use of
mud in the well, and the consequent buoyancy on the bit, also reduce the efficiency of the beat run
for drilling.
Rotary drilling, instead, uses a rotating bit in constant contact with the bottomhole, with suitable
pressure being applied.
The bit is linked to the surface by a series of hollow pipes, known as drill pipes and drill collars; these
are high resistance steel pipes which can be screwed onto each other. The first of these, known as
the key pipe or kelly, is partly out of the bore hold and on the rig floor; it may have a square or
hexagonal section and passes through a plate with the same size hole. This plate, called the rotary
table, rotates to move all the pipes in the well and the bit joined to them.
The drill string (including the kelly) is suspended form a hook which is connected up, via a system of
mobile and fixed pulleys, to the derrick. One end of the steel cable, connecting the pulleys, is fixed
to the base of the derrick, while the other end is fixed to a rotating sand-reel which, by winding and
unwinding the steel cable, enables the entire set of drill pipes to be raised or lowered. Suitably sized
motors, connected to the rotary table and the sand-reel, ensure the rotation of the bit and vertical
movement of the set of pipes.
A pressurised fluid (mud), with characteristics which are controlled to comply with specific density
and viscosity parameters, is injected from the upper end of the kelly though a circulation head The
pressurised mud comes out of nozzles assembled in the drill bit and flows up the annulus between the
pipes and the borehole sidewall or the cemented casing, to the surface, where it is collected,
analysed, re-treated and pumped back into the pipes.
With the top drive drilling system, a particular hydraulic or electrical motor, assembled below the
mud injection head, provides the power to rotate the drill bits replacing the rotary tables function.
The bit usually consists of a steel body with three roller cones attached by pins. These cones have
teeth made of a resistant material which, when subject to pressure, penetrate the rock and fracture it;
the cuttings are transported by the mud current and are collected at the surface on a screen.
Figure A1.1 shows a tricone bit for
rotary drilling.
Fig. A1.1 - Tricone Bit for Rotary Drilling
The fracturing action of the bit is
controlled by the drill string rotation
speed (which is the same as the value
set for the rotary table) and by the
bottomhole bit weight. The lower
part of the drill string has heavier and
more rigid pipes (drill collar) and the
tension of the cable which supports it
is adjusted so that only some of the
weight of the heaviest pipes rests at
86
the bottomhole; the upper part of the
string is therefore kept under tension.
In more fragile formations, the
pressurised mud jet from the nozzles
of the bit helps to break up the rock.
Besides removing cuttings and lubricating/cooling the bit, the mud has the very important function of
offsetting the pressure of fluids inside permeable rocks which are drilled. The pressure applied by
the mud column is in fact greater than hydrostatic pressure so any overpressures can be contained by
putting additives in the mud (for example barite or galena).
The difference between the higher pressure of the mud pumped into the well and the pressure of
formation fluids means that the liquid part of the mud, the filtrate, penetrates the permeable layers of
the rock, while the solid shale particles suspended in the mud adhere to the borehole side wall,
forming mud cake which plasters the rock and helps to support it.
A second drilling technique, used in the past above all in Russia and East European countries, and
currently on the increase, is drilling with bottomhole or turbine motors, with the pipes stationary.
With this approach, the bit, which is joined to the bottomhole motor, is rotated by the rotational
movement of the mud flowing through the turbine. The rotation only affects the end section of the
string, including the bit, while the entire upper part of the drill string is stationary.
Drilling cannot though continue indefinitely; in sections where the drilled formations are not very
compact, or are fractured or unstable, the well side walls may collapse, creating problems for drilling,
such as the drill string getting stuck. In any case, it is advisable to permanently seal the permeable
levels, to ensure that the fluids they contain cannot flow into the well. The borehole is therefore
lined with steel casings, which are cemented to the rock. Accordingly, the effective borehole
diameter is reduced and drilling must continue with a smaller diameter bit.
The casing operation is repeated several
times and as a result the borehole, which Fig. A1.2 - Drilling Rig for Slim Hole Wells (SaiTre
may have an initial diameter of 70 cm, may
G125)
be reduced to 20 cm in diameter during
standard drilling operations, while borehole
sections of 10-12 cm may be reached for
slim hole drilling; these values are further

reduced during micro-drilling (where
extremely small diameters are adopted, 5-6
cm.
Figure A1.2 shows a typical rig used for
drilling slim hole wells (SaiTre G 125).
87
Rig G-125
A1.3 - THE RIG SITE

Drilling activities may take place on-shore and off-shore. Despite the main, general characteristics
being the same, the drilling rigs used vary according to their field of use; likewise operational
difficulties vary depending on whether the working environment is onshore or offshore.
The onshore rigsite is based around a central unit consisting of the well head and drilling rig. Several
separate zones are located in the immediate vicinity: the first houses the motors and generator units
for producing electricity, as well as the cooling system and transformer unit with power lines for
various facilities.
The second area is used to store accessory components, such as equipment for preparing and
circulating mud, (storage silos for components, drilling mud pits, pump unit, vibrating screen for
separating cuttings, pits for waste and a unit for collecting drilling data and analysing geological
samples).
The drilling techniques used with offshore rigs are basically the same as those used onshore. The
layout of the rig and its accessory components do, however, radically change; particular problems
can occur, especially when drilling in deep waters.
With fixed platforms (jackets), the drilling rig and all related equipment are located on a work
platform above wave height level, which is supported by a metal framework secured to the seabed.
This solution is commonly adopted for drilling clusters of development wells in an already discovered
reservoir, but is not appropriate for exploration wells, which are isolated and located far from each
other meaning the platform is used just once. Consequently, solutions have been found where
platforms and the installed rig can be quickly moved from one location to another, for unlimited
distances; the cost of the rig is therefore divided among a large number of wells with obvious
financial advantages.
Generally speaking, conventional jackets are suitable for water depths of around 120-150; beyond
this, the cost of the particular jacket (no longer conventional) can affect the economics of a project
to a great extent, especially for extreme jackets used for water depths down to 400 metres.
Mobile jack up platforms can, in general terms, be used for water depths of 80-100 metres, however
their availability is limited with all the inherent economic market implications. The jack-up is a
mobile platform with lattice framework legs which rest on the seabed, supporting the hull which the
rig rests on; these installations may be raised or lowered by rack mechanisms. During offshore
transfer from one area to another, the hull floats, the legs are raised and the entire unit can be towed.
88
When the rig has reached its operational site, the legs are lowered to rest on the sea bed and sink
down into the terrain if it is not hard; the leg lowering manoeuvre continues and the hull rises above
sea level to reach a height above wave action. For water depths beyond 130 metres, floating rigs
have to be used, with no fixed connection to the seabed.
The most widely used type of floating rig is the semisub, which operates, depending on its
classification, down to depths of 600 - 1,500 metres. The semisub consists of a platform resting on
hollow, large sized legs, which are suitably ballasted and submerged. The level of immersion is kept
under control by the ballasting of the legs, which contain salt waster, fresh water and fuel. This
large, submerged mass makes the rig highly stable, even in rough weather conditions.
The absence of any fixed connection with the seabed and therefore with the subsea well head poses
the problem of keeping the plant in line with the vertical path of the well and having a connection
between the rig and well head which can withstand the inevitable, slight horizontal and vertical
movements of the platform. Many semisubs are kept in position by mooring cables which are
anchored to the seabed, other installations use a dynamic positioning system, consisting of a set of
propulsors with directional propellers which can offset movements caused by waves and currents;
these propulsors are operated from an automated control unit, which is stimulated by the impulses of
transmitters located on the seabed. In order to have sealed mud circulation in the well, the seabed is
connected to the surface by a long pipe (riser), consisting of flexible sections (fixed length) and
telescopic sections (variable length).
It should be noted that at times, the choice between positioning the semisub with anchoring cables or
a dynamic positioning system is related to cost only, as fuel consumption for the process is high.
Semisub systems can be towed from one location to another; those equipped with propulsors can
also navigate using their own equipment, if the laws of the country where the rig is operating permit
this. These type of platforms are big: around one hundred metres in diameter and one metres high
(from the top of the derrick to the base of the submerged structure) with a displacement ranging
from 8,000 to 20,000 tonnes.
Dinamica dei Fluidi di Perforazione
89
In water depths where semisubs cannot be used, drilling ships have to be employed and depending on
their category, these operate down to depths ranging from 1,500 to 3,000 metres. All these ships
have a dynamic positioning system and anchoring cable positioning is only used when the vessels
operate in shallow water depths. The drilling ships can quickly navigate from one operating location
to another.
A characteristic of these ships
is the opening (moon pool)
through the underbody which
enables the riser to pass
through. Figure A1.3 shows a
Fig. A1.3 - Drilling Ship rig
drilling ship rig. Drilling wells
in open waters, far from the
coast, poses technical problems
related
to
drilling
and
navigation as well as complex
logistical problems to ensure
that the crews, made up of
about 10 people, can live safely
and comfortably for long
periods of time, even when
weather
conditions
make
transport by sea or air difficult
or impossible. Compared to
other types of rigs mentioned,
drilling ships have large storage
capacities (to store materials
for more than one well).
All the drilling rigs must therefore be equipped with living quarters, canteens, stores, meeting and
recreation rooms; they must also have a helipad (personnel are usually transported by helicopter) and
be assisted by supply vessels for the transport of materials.
One other problem of these vessels is the need to locate the drilling rig exactly at the chosen site.
When operating in areas visible from the coast, known co-ordinate points on the mainland can be
sighted; in zones far from the shore, geodetic satellites and positioning systems are used, with the
signals making it possible to define the well site with a 15 metre error of margin. It should be noted
that the significant progress made in using GPS satellites and the availability of real time positioning
equipment at low cost have simplified this type of operation.
A1.4 - DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

Directional drilling involves drilling a well which deviates from the vertical path of the derrick.
With this technique, the well is usually drilled vertically down to a certain depth, after which the path
is deviated at a pre-set angle (which may have a major angular increase value), and in a planned
direction. After having drilled the deviated section, the well path can return to the vertical, if
89
90
necessary (by gradually reducing the deviation angle), or drilling can continue until the path becomes
horizontal (by gradually increasing the deviation angle). Drilling a horizontal well makes it possible
to increase the pay zone area in contact with the well, thus enhancing reservoir production.
Directional drilling has evolved above all to meet the following requirements:
reaching targets which are not present along the vertical path of the well, generally when surface
constraints mean that the rig cannot be directly located above the drilling area (for example, when
drilling a reservoir located below a mountain or in densely populated areas).
when the reservoir is located below a salt dome. The salt dome is not actually drilled, because if a
casing column were run into the dome, it would be subject to major mechanical stress due to the
slow sliding of the salt levels.
drilling several wells, with targets which are far from each other, without having to move the rig
above the vertical path of each well. This enables off-shore operations in vast exploration areas
without moving the drilling rig, or a reservoir to be put into production, by drilling several wells
in different areas, using just one platform which groups all the well heads of the individual wells.
drilling a relief well. This involves drilling a directional well to intersect with a well already drilled
where a blow out has occurred; this operation makes is possible to restore safe well conditions.
perform a sidetrack. This involves drilling a deviated hole from the vertical path which changes
the scheduled path of a well already drilled. This operation is performed when problems with the
drill string getting stuck or breaking occur and part of the string has to be left down hole. In this
case, the hole is closed off, the part lost down the well is cemented and a sidetrack is drilled to
continue the same well.
Special techniques obviously have to be
adopted to drill a deviated well; these exploit
the elasticity of the drill string or use special
Fig. A1.4 - Coil Tubing Drilling Rig
tools which are fitted to the end of the string.
In the last few years, conceptually and
technologically innovative rigs have been
increasingly used for these techniques. One
example is the coil tubing rig, as shown in
figure A.4, where the drill string consists of
a continual steel tube wound on a coil
(Coiled tubing). This system replaces the
tubular pipes which are screwed onto each
other (conventional drill pipes); the string is
run into the hole, being unwound by a
winder several meters in diameter.
A1.5 - THE HYDRAULIC DRILLING CIRCUIT
The drilling mud circuit is a very important part of the rotary drilling rig. The main components of
the mud circuit, as it flows through the well are: the delivery pumps, surface lines (rigid and flexible),
injection head, drill string, annulus between the well sidewalls and pipes, vibrating screen, mud pits
and waste pit
Figure A1.5 shows the main components of the mud circuit.
90
91
Fig. A1.5 - Drilling Mud Hydraulic Circuit
The mud, which is put into surface pits, is sucked up by the pumps and conveyed through the surface
distribution circuit to the injection head; from here, it flows through the drill pipes to the bottom hole
and comes out of the bit nozzles, to flow back up through the annulus between the pipes and the
hole. At the surface, the mud is treated by equipment to remove contaminants and is then conveyed
back to the surface pits.
The pumps provide the mud with the energy required to offset head losses in the circuit and to
circulate at a suitable flow rate; the mud also helps to remove the cuttings left by the bit.
Alternative, double acting pumps are normally used, with two (duplex) or three (triplex) pistons.
The flow rate and pressure pulsate due to the alternative functioning of the pump. These oscillations
have a negative effect on the mud lines and on pump efficiency.
An oscillation damper is therefore
installed on the delivery line, consisting
of a suitably sized tank with pressurised
Fig. A1.6 - Triplex Mud Delivery
gas which absorbs output energy and
91
Pump
92
returns it during the static phase, thus

levelling out the pressure - time curve.
Figure A1.6 shows a mud delivery pump
(triplex) of an onshore drilling rig.
The surface lines, along with a set of
valves placed upstream of the pumps
(drilling manifold), distribute the mud to
the pipes, the filler or other equipment
(injector, mixers, etc), or send the mud
to the closed circuit, without conveying
it down hole, as required by ongoing
operations.
The circuit also has various pits; some contain spare mud with a volume equal to half that downhole,
in case of sudden need due to circulation losses caused by well absorption; others have heavy mud,
which can be used to offset any sudden well shows.
The vibrating screen, placed at outlet of mud from the well, separates the mud from drill cuttings:
these cuttings are then collected in the waste pit. In onshore operations, this pit is often excavated
and covered by an impermeable sheet
Besides the above components, the circuit also has some accessory equipment, including the feeder
for adding solid additives to the mud and mud mixers. When sand or silt formations are drilled, a
desander and desilter are also needed to remove the drill cuttings from the mud, as the vibrating
screen is not effective in these cases.
Any gas in the drilled formations, which could flow up with the mud is instead removed by a
degasser. This piece of equipment is necessary because the recirculation of any gas could gradually
lighten the mud, ultimately causing a well blow out.
As concerns the last point, it has become increasingly necessary to improve and optimise the
performance of muds used in wells. Drilling fluid rheology and hydraulics are becoming increasingly
important and have developed to such an extent that they are now considered as a fundamental
subject in their own right, in the science of drilling engineering.
A1.6 - BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Yergin D., Il Premio, Sperling & Kupfer Editori, Milano, 1996
2. Gerwick B. C., Construction of Offshore Structures, Wiley & Sons, New York, 1986
3. Rabia H., Oil well Drilling Engineering, Graham & Trotman, London, 1985
4. Darley H. C., Gray G., Composition and Properties of Drilling and Completion Fluids, Gulf
Publishing Co, Houston, 1988
92

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Agip E&P Division

Corporate Technical Services

Quaderno Tecnico no. 7

1 - The Rheology of drilling muds

Yield pseudoplastic fluids

2 - The hydraulics of drilling muds

3 - Secondary flows in the hydraulic circuit

Appendix - A brief outline of drilling oil wells

Circulation of this document is limited to Eni and affiliate Companies

THE DYNAMICS OF DRILLING FLUIDS

Vincitore del Premio :

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

1. THE RHEOLOGY OF DRILLING MUDS

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

1.2 - FLUID DEFORMATION

Fig. 1.1 - Characteristic Deformation of an Element of Fluid Subject to Tangential Force

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

1.3 - FLOW REGIMES

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

Fig. 1.2 - Velocity Profile of a Fluid with Laminar Flow

For a Newtonian fluid, the ratio

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

Figure 1.3 shows the velocity

1.4 - DETERMINATION OF THE FLOW REGIME

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

likewise, for the annular section:

diameter of the circular section, m

and for the annular section:

diameter of the circular section, in

for the annular section:

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

diameter of the circular section, in

where = 1000 kgm/m3 e = 110-3 Pas (1 centiPoise).

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

The velocity inside the pipes is given by:

while the velocity of the annular section is given by:

So the Reynolds number inside the pipes is the following:

Vc d i 1200 4.42 01084

while in the annular section it is as follows:

Va ( D d e ) 1200 1.68 (0.217 0127

1.5 - VISCOSITIES FOR NEWTONIAN AND NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

stress , the viscosity and the shear rate .

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

Figure 1.4 shows the action of

The measurement unit of in the

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

where, using Technical System units:

fluid (yield pseudoplastic) in the diagram (, ).

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

1.6 - THIXOTROPY, RHEOPECTICITY AND GEL STRENGTH

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

while for the annulus:

pressure gradient, Pa/m

in sas system units, the following is obtained:

pressure gradient, psi/ft

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

while the equivalent density at the shoe is given by:

1.7 - RHEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS DURING FLOW

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

The Dynamics of Drilling Fluids

in relation to , which tends to p for high shear rate values.