Professional Documents
Culture Documents
For Grade X
By:
Widy Alif Putra Said
4301412095
Basic Competency
3.2
3.3
Analyzing the atomic particles based on Bohr atomic theory and Mechanical Quantum
theory.
3.4
Analyzing the relationship electron configuration and orbital diagram to determine the
position of element in periodic table and element periodic prroperties.
4.2
4.3
Processing and analyzing the atomic particles based on Bohr atomic theory and
Mechanical Quantum theory.
4.4
Providing the result of analyzing the relationship electron configuration and orbital
diagram to determine the position of element in periodic table and element periodic
properties.
Indicators
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Comparing the development of element periodic table to identify its majority and minority.
Explaining basic of grouping elements.
Determining basic particles (proton, electron and netron).
Determining electron configuration and valence electron.
Determining atomic relative mass based on periodic table.
Grouping the element into isotop, isobar and isoton.
Grouping the element into metal, non metal and metaloid.
Analyzing table, graphik to determine regularity of atomic radius, ionization energy, electron
affinity and electronegativity.
1. Democritus
He pounded materials until he made them into smaller and smaller parts
Are made of a single material formed into different shapes and sizes
Are always moving, and they form different materials by joining together
2. John Dalton
Dalton's atomic theory contains five basic assumptions:
All matter consists of tiny particles called atoms. Dalton and others imagined the atoms
that composed all matter as tiny, solid spheres in various stages of motion.
Elements are characterized by the weight of their atoms. Dalton suggested that all atoms
of the same element have identical weights. Therefore, every single atom of an element
such as oxygen is identical to every other oxygen atom. However, atoms of different
elements, such as oxygen and mercury, are different from each other.
When elements react, their atoms may combine in more than one whole-number ratio.
Dalton used this assumption to explain why the ratios of two elements in various
compounds, such as oxygen and nitrogen in nitrogen oxides, differed by multiples of each
other.
John Dalton's atomic theory was generally accepted because it explained the laws of
conservation of mass, definite proportions, multiple proportions, and other observations.
Although exceptions to Dalton's theory are now known, his theory has endured reasonably well,
with modifications, throughout the years.
3. J J. Thomson
1897 - English chemist and physicist; discovered 1st subatomic particles
4. Ernest Rutherford
Nuclear Model
Proposed by Ernest
Rutherford
His Theory:
Electrons travel around the nucleus, but their exact places cannot be described.
the magnitude corresponding to the energy difference between the two orbits is
concerned.
5. Atoms in a molecule is said in the state of the ground level (ground state) when the
electrons occupy orbits so as to give the lowest total energy. And when the electrons
occupy orbits which gives a higher energy than the energy levels of atoms in
essentially said the excited level (excited state). Atoms in the ground state is more
stable than in the excited state.
Model Hidrogen Bohr
The simplest example of the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom (Z = 1) or a hydrogen-like
ions (Z> 1), which has negatively charged electrons surround the positively charged nucleus.
Electromagnetic energy is absorbed or released when an electron moves from one track to
another track. The radius of the track increases as n2, where n is the principal quantum number.
Transition from 3 to 2 produces the first line of the Balmer series. For hydrogen (Z = 1) will
produce a photon with a wavelength of 656 nm (red light).
Weakness Bohr Atomic Theory
Although considered to be a revolutionary, but still found weaknesses Bohr atomic theory
are:
Breaking the Heisenberg uncertainty principle because the electron has a radius and a
known trajectory.
Bohr atomic model has a value of the angular momentum of the ground state trajectory is
wrong.
Bohr atomic model can not explain the structure of the spectral lines are well.
To get a complete and general description of the structure of the atom, the wave-particle
duality principle used. Here the electron motion is described as a wave phenomenon. Newton's
equation of dynamics that was originally used to describe the motion of electrons is replaced by
the Schrodinger equation for the wave function of the electron states. Atomic model which is
based on this principle is called the atomic model of quantum mechanics.
Shells
(n=1)
2(1)2 = 2
(n=2)
2(2)2 = 8
(n=3)
2(3)2 = 18
(n=4)
2(4)2 = 32
Shell number
Shell
Value subshell
Subshell
(n=1)
(n=2)
0, 1
(n=3)
0, 1 ,2
(n=4)
0, 1, 2, 3
subshell
Number of Orbital
value (m)
-1,0,+1
-2,-1, 0, +1, +2
of electrons. Spin angular momentum also has two different orientations, namely spin up and
spin down. Each electron spin orientations have different energies thin so it looks as separate
spectral lines of atoms in the magnetic field derived from the electron spin.
Electron spin quantum number is represented by a separate so-called magnetic spin quantum
number (or so-called spin only). Value of the spin quantum number should only be one of two
values + or - . ifmsadalah spin quantum number, angular momentum components of the zaxis direction is written as
Chemists have always looked for ways of arranging the elements to reflect the
similarities between their properties. The modern periodic table lists the elements in order of
increasing atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom). Historically,
however, relative atomic masses were used by scientists trying to organise the elements. This was
mainly because the idea of atoms being made up of smaller sub-atomic particles (protons,
neutrons and electrons) had not been developed. Nevertheless, the basis of the modern periodic
table was well established and even used to predict the properties of undiscovered elements long
before the concept of the atomic number was developed.
Table formation
Ask most chemists who discovered the periodic table and you will almost certainly get
the answer Dmitri Mendeleev. Certainly Mendeleev was the first to publish a version of the table
that we would recognise today, but does he deserve all the credit?
A number of other chemists before Mendeleev were investigating patterns in the properties of the
elements that were known at the time. The earliest attempt to classify the elements was in 1789,
when Antoine Lavoisier grouped the elements based on their properties into gases, non-metals,
metals and earths. Several other attempts were made to group elements together over the coming
decades. In 1829, Johann Dbereiner recognised triads of elements with chemically similar
properties, such as lithium, sodium and potassium, and showed that the properties of the middle
element could be predicted from the properties of the other two
It was not until a more accurate list of the atomic mass of the elements became available at a
conference in Karlsruhe, Germany in 1860 that real progress was made towards the discovery of
the modern periodic table.
This area of the website celebrates the work of many famous scientists whose quest to learn more
about the world we live in and the atoms that make up the things around us led to the periodic
table as we know it today.
The vis tellurique from De Chancourtoiss original publication (right) and a copy drawn out with modern symbols (left).
John Newlands
John Newlands. Reproduced courtesy of the Library and Information Centre, Royal Society of
Chemistry.
John Newlands was British; his father was a Scottish Presbyterian minister. He was
educated by his father at home, and then studied for a year (1856) at the Royal College of
Chemistry, which is now part of Imperial College London. Later he worked at an agricultural
college trying to find patterns of behaviour in organic chemistry. However, he is remembered for
his search for a pattern in inorganic chemistry.
Just four years before Mendeleev announced his periodic table, Newlands noticed that
there were similarities between elements with atomic weights that differed by seven. He called
this The Law of Octaves, drawing a comparison with the octaves of music. The noble gases
(Helium, Neon, Argon etc.) were not discovered until much later, which explains why there was
a periodicity of 7 and not 8 in Newlands table. Newlands did not leave any gaps for
undiscovered elements in his table, and sometimes had to cram two elements into one box in
order to keep the pattern. Because of this, the Chemical Society refused to publish his paper,
with one Professor Foster saying he might have equally well listed the elements alphabetically.
Even when Mendeleev had published his table, and Newlands claimed to have discovered
it first, the Chemical Society would not back him up. In 1884 he was asked to give a lecture of
the Periodic Law by the Society, which went some way towards making amends. Finally, in
1998 the Royal Society of Chemistry oversaw the placing a blue commemorative plaque on the
wall of his birthplace, recognising his discovery at last.
Julius Lothar Meyer . Reproduced courtesy of the Library and Information Centre, Royal Society
of Chemistry.
Meyer trained at Heidelberg University under Bunsen and Kirchhoff, as did Mendeleev.
So the two scientists would certainly have known each other although neither was aware of all
the work done by the other. Meyer's roots, however, were firmly in Germany. Meyer was just
four years older than Mendeleev, and produced several Periodic Tables between 1864-1870.
His first table contained just 28 elements, organised by their valency (how many other
atoms they can combine with). These elements were almost entirely main group elements, but in
1868 he incorporated the transition metals in a much more developed table. This 1868 table
listed the elements in order of atomic weight, with elements with the same valency arranged in
vertical lines, strikingly similar to Mendeleevs table. Unfortunately for Meyer, his work wasnt
published until 1870, a year after Mendeleevs periodic table had been published. Even after
1870, Meyer and Mendeleev were still unaware of each others work, although Meyer later
admitted that Mendeleev had published his version first.
Meyer did contribute to the development of the periodic table in another way though. He
was the first person to recognise the periodic trends in the properties of elements, and the graph
shows the pattern he saw in the atomic volume of an element plotted against its atomic weight.
Dmitri Mendeleev
Dmitri Mendeleev. Reproduced courtesy of the Library and Information Centre, Royal Society of
Chemistry.
As we have seen, Mendeleev was not the first to attempt to find order within the
elements, but it is his attempt that was so successful that it now forms the basis of the modern
periodic table.
Mendeleev did not have the easiest of starts in life. He was born at Tobolsk in 1834, the
youngest child of a large Siberian family. His father died while he was young, and so his mother
moved the family 1500 km to St. Petersburg, where she managed to get Dmitri into a good
school, recognising his potential. In his adult life he was a brilliant scientist, rising quickly in
academic circles. He wrote a textbook, Chemical Principles, because he couldnt find an
adequate Russian book.
Mendeleev discovered the periodic table (or Periodic System, as he called it) while
attempting to organise the elements in February of 1869. He did so by writing the properties of
the elements on pieces of card and arranging and rearranging them until he realised that, by
putting them in order of increasing atomic weight, certain types of element regularly occurred.
For example, a reactive non-metal was directly followed by a very reactive light metal and then a
less reactive light metal. Initially, the table had similar elements in horizontal rows, but he soon
changed them to fit in vertical columns, as we see today.
Not only did Mendeleev arrange the elements in the correct way, but if an element
appeared to be in the wrong place due to its atomic weight, he moved it to where it fitted with the
pattern he had discovered. For example, iodine and tellurium should be the other way around,
based on atomic weights, but Mendeleev saw that iodine was very similar to the rest of the
halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine), and tellurium similar to the group 6 elements (oxygen,
sulphur, selenium), so he swapped them over.
The real genius of Mendeleevs achievement was to leave gaps for undiscovered
elements. He even predicted the properties of five of these elements and their compounds. And
over the next 15 years, three of these elements were discovered and Mendeleevs predictions
shown to be incredibly accurate. The table below shows the example of Gallium, which
Mendeleev called eka-aluminium, because it was the element after aluminium. Scandium and
Germanium were the other two elements discovered by 1886, and helped to cement the
reputation of Mendeleevs periodic table.
The final triumph of Mendeleevs work was slightly unexpected. The discovery of the
noble gases during the 1890s by William Ramsay initially seemed to contradict Mendeleevs
work, until he realised that actually they were further proof of his system, fitting in as the final
group on his table. This gave the table the periodicity of 8 which we know, rather than 7 as it had
previously been. Mendeleev never received a Nobel Prize for his work, but element 101 was
named Mendelevium after him, an even rarer distinction.
Eka-aluminium (Ea)
Gallium (Ga)
Atomic weight
About 68
69.72
Density of solid
6.0 g/cm
5.9 g/cm
Melting point
Low
29.78C
Valency
Method of discovery
Spectroscopically
alkalis
Henry Moseley
Henry Moseley. Reproduced courtesy of the Library and Information Centre, The Royal Society
of Chemistry.
It wasnt until 1913, six years after Mendeleevs death that the final piece of the puzzle
fell into place. The periodic table was arranged by atomic mass, and this nearly always gives the
same order as the atomic number. However, there were some exceptions (like iodine and
tellurium, see above), which didnt work. Mendeleev had seen that they needed to be swapped
around, but it was Moseley that finally determined why.
He fired the newly-developed X-ray gun at samples of the elements, and measured the
wavelength of X-rays given. He used this to calculate the frequency and found that when the
square root of this frequency was plotted against atomic number, the graph showed a perfect
straight line. Hed found a way to actually measure atomic number. When the First World War
broke out, Moseley turned down a position as a professor at Oxford and became an officer in the
Royal Engineers. He was killed by a sniper in Turkey in August 15, and many people think that
Britain lost a future Nobel prize winner.
Within 10 years of his work, the structure of the atom had been determined through the
work of many prominent scientists of the day, and this explained further why Moseleys X-rays
corresponded so well with atomic number. The idea behind the explanation is that when an
electron falls from a higher energy level to a lower one, the energy is released as electromagnetic
waves, in this case X-rays. The amount of energy that is given out depends on how strongly the
electrons are attracted to the nucleus. The more protons an atom has in its nucleus, the more
strongly the electrons will be attracted and the more energy will be given out. As we know,
atomic number is also known as proton number, and it is the amount of protons that determine
the energy of the X-rays.
After years of searching, at last we had a periodic table that really worked, and the fact
that we still use it today is testament to the huge achievement of these and many other great
minds of the last two centuries of scientific discovery.
The d orbitals are placed one row below their energy level.
e.g. The 3d orbitals are in the fourth row
8 9
II
III
IV
VI
VII
VIIIB
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
II
III
IV
VI
VII
VIII
Li Be
Ca Sc Ti
Cr
Sr
Zr
Nb
Mo Tc
Ru
Rh
Cs Ba La Hf
Ta
Re
Os
Ir
R
b
Fr Ra
N O F
Al Si P
Mn Fe
Co
Un
Un
Un
Un Un
Un
N C
Zn
Pt
C
l
A S
In Sn
S
b
Tl Pb Bi
Te I
N
e
Ar
Kr
X
e
A R
move
down
the
column
[He] 2s1
Rb:
[Kr] 5s1
Na:
[Ne] 3s1
Cs:
[Xe] 6s1
K:
[Ar] 4s1
Fr:
[Rn] 7s1
5. All lose one electron to form cations with a charge of +1 e.g. Li+, Na+, and K+
move
down
the
column
Ca, Sr, and Ba react violently when they come into contact with water
3. All have two valence electrons
Be:
[He] 2s2
Sr:
[Kr] 5s2
Mg:
[Ne] 3s2
Ba:
[Xe] 6s2
Ca:
[Ar] 4s2
Ra:
[Rn] 7s2
4. Tend to lose two electrons to form cations with a charge of +2 e.g. Be2+, Mg2+, and Ca2+
Alkaline earth metals are less active than their adjacent alkali metals e.g. Be is less active
than Li; Mg is less active than Na
1. All
have
valence
electrons
in
the
orbitals
state)
Group 13 (IIIA)
1. B (boron) - only element in the group that is not a metal; has semimetal and nonmetal
characteristics.
Al (aluminum) - fairly active metal, third most abundant in the earth's crust.
2. Loses three electrons to form Al3+
3. Forms compounds in which it has an oxidation state of +3
4. Other metals - Ga (gallium), In (indium), and Tl (thallium) - very scarce active metals
Group 14 (IVA)
1. C (carbon) - nonmetal
2. Elemental forms of carbon include:
Graphite (crystalline) - Strong bonds between atoms within planes resulting in extremely
high melting and boiling points. Weaker bonds connecting the planes which account for
the soft texture of graphite.
Diamond (crystalline) - Hardest naturally occurring substance with extremely high
melting and boiling points. Atoms arranged in a tetrahedral array with strong C-C bonds.
Charcoal - Results from heating wood without oxygen present
Coke (amorphous) - More structured than other amorphous forms of carbon; made from
coal.
Carbon Black (amorphous) - Formed by burning natural gas or other carbon compounds
in a limited amount of air
3. Has strong C-C single bonds, C=C double bonds, and C C triple bonds.
Forms
4.
5.
6.
7.
covalent
bonds
with
other
elements
are
+2
or
+4
Group 15 (VA)
1. N (nitrogen) and P (phosphorus) - nonmetals
2. Nitrogen is found in its elemental form at room temperature as a diatomic gas (N 2).
Nitrogen makes up approximately 80% of earth's atmosphere by volume.
In
compounds,
the
oxidation
of
nitrogen
can
range
from
-3
to
+5.
Haber process - mixing N2 and H2 gases at 200 to 300 atm and 400 C to 600 C over a
finely
divided
iron
catalyst
to
produce
NH3
Pure elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus (P 4). It is highly reactive and combusts
with
air
at
room
temperature
but
is
unreactive
with
water.
Red phosphorus is formed when white phosphorus is heated and is much less reactive
than
white
phosphorus.
Phosphorus can expand its valence (outermost) shell to hold more than eight electrons
(can
store
N N
extra
triple
electrons
bonds
are
in
much
the
3d
stronger
orbitals).
than
P P.
semimetals
Bi (bismuth) - metal
Group 16 (VIA)
1. (oxygen), S (sulfur), and Se (selenium) - nonmetals
2. Oxygen is the most abundant element on earth, making up approximately 45% of the
earth's crust (by weight), 85% of the oceans (by weight) and 20% of the atmosphere (by
volume).
Oxygen is generally diatomic (O2) in its elemental form, but ozone (O3) is an allotrope of
O2.
3. At
concentrations
above
ppm,
ozone
is
toxic.
Ozone can absorb ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, and serves as a filter in the
atmosphere.
4. Oxygen is
very
strong
oxidizing
agent,
weaker
only
to
fluorine.
5. In peroxide (O22-), oxygen has a -1 oxidation number, e.g. H2O2, hydrogen peroxide.
6. Elemental sulfur is a yellow solid at room temperature with a cyclical molecular structure
(S8).
O=O
double
S-S
bonds
single
are
bonds
much
stronger
are
stronger
than
S=S
than
double
O-O
bonds.
bonds.
Sulfur can expand its valence (outermost) shell, to hold more than eight electrons (can
store
extra
electrons
in
the
3d
orbitals).
(fluorine),
All
are
All
Cl
(chlorine),
nonmetals
are
Br
(bromine),
except
diatomic
for
in
At
their
(iodine),
which
and At
is
semimetal
elemental
from
(astatine)
form
-1
to
+7.
None are found in nature in their elemental forms; instead they are found as salts of the
halide
ions.
in
manufacturing
Teflon,
(C2F4)n
for gasoline
10. I - deep purple solid with a metallic-like luster
11. Sublimes directly into a violet gas (I2) from the solid phase when heated without passing
through
the
liquid
phase
Used
as
AgI
(silver
disinfectant,
iodide)
catalysts,
is
drugs,
used
and
in
dyes
photography
Iodine deficiency in the human body can lead to a goiter, a swelling of the thyroid gland.
one"),
Xe
(xenon
"stranger"),
and
Rn
(radon)
Mistakenly labeled as "inert gases" until about 30 years ago because it was thought that
these gases did not react with anything.
In 1962, Neil Barlett isolated the first compound containing a noble gas: [Xe+][PtF6-]
2. Since then, compounds containing Kr, Xe, and Rn have been isolated, but none
containing He, Ne, or Ar.
3. The oxidation numbers of the rare gases in compounds include +1, +2, +4, +6, and +8.
4. Noble gases have filled valence (outermost) shells.
Electron Configuration
Example : 16S = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
11
Periodic Properties:
1. Atomic Radius : amount that when to be summed it will give inter nucleus distace among the
relevance atom
2. Electron Affinity: the energy where atom in the gaseous state is release when it captures an
electron so that became ion -1 charge unit.
3. Ionization energi: the minimum energy where atom in the gaseous state is to release electron.
4. Electronegativity: the ability of an atom to attract electron toward itself in a chemical bond.