PROJECT REPORT ON

ICE CUBE MAKING MACHINE

Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
BY
SAGAR REVALE
SURESH CHOUDHARY
RISHITOSH BHANDARY
ROSHVEL BARRETTO
NIPUN BHATIA

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Prof Mrs K.H DHANAVDE

LOKMANYA TILAK COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

KOPARKHAIRANE NAVI MUMBAI 400 709
UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
2014-15

ICE CUBE MAKING MACHINE

Dissertation
Submitted by
SAGAR REVALE
SURESH CHOUDHARY
ROSHVEL BARRETTO
NIPUN BHATIA
RISHITOSH BHANDARY
In partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Under the guidance of
Prof Mrs K.H DHANAVDE
LOKMANYA TILAK COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
NAVI MUMBAI

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LOKMANYA TILAK COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
KOPARKHAIRANE, NAVI MUMBAI
MAHARASHTRA, INDIA 400709
2014-15

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report on, ........... submitted by ........,
Bachelor of Engineering student of Lokmanya Tilak College Of Engineering, Navi
Mumbai, towards partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree
of Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering

as prescribed by the

University Of Mumbai, is a bona fide record of the work carried out by him under
my supervision and guidance. The matter contained in this dissertation has not
been submitted to any other University for award of any Degree or Diploma.

Date of Submission: _________________

Prof.
Chandrababu D
Project coordinator
Engg.)

Dr.
HOD (Mechanical

Prof....
Project Guide

APPROVAL OF PROJECT REPORT

This is to certify that the thesis entitled project title, submitted by student
name in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of
Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering , as prescribed by University Of
Mumbai is approved.

Project Guide
External Examiner
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ICE CUBE MAKING MACHINE

INTRODUCTIONS:
Ice cube makers use more water than just the water contained in
the ice. This equipment can often be very inefficient in water
use. The typical icemaker uses 2 or 3 times more water than
needed to make the ice we consume. These water using
machines can be found everywhere; hospitals account for 39.4
percent of all commercial ice-maker purchases, followed by hotels
(22.3 percent), restaurants (13.8 percent), retail outlets (8.5
percent), schools (8.5 percent), offices (4.3 percent) and grocery
stores (3.2 percent).
There are two basic equipment designs: air-cooled refrigeration
units and water cooled refrigeration units. The air-cooled units
are usually more water efficient; while the water cooled units are
usually more energy efficient. Both types vary greatly in water
efficiency, even within its own design type. The water efficiency
is measured by the industry in gallons of water per 100 lbs
(45.36 kg) of ice. Perfect water efficiency would equate to 11.97
gallons (45.3 L) of water to produce 100 lbs (45.36 kg) of ice.
Most ice makers water use ranges between 18 to 200 gallons (68
L to 756.9 L) of water per 100 lbs (45.36 kg) of ice. This
represents a water efficiency range of 66% to only 5%. Thus,
34% to 95% of the water used is dumped down the drain. The
water varies for several reasons.
As the ice is formed in the freezing trays, minerals in the water
collect in the equipment. These minerals must be occasionally
rinsed off the freezing trays and the water reservoirs. Ice makers
have a variable setting to initiate a rinse cycle at desired
frequencies. The frequency of rinse is to be determined by local
water quality and site requirements. Some new model actuate
the rinse cycles based on sensor readings of minerals. Often the

ice maker is set to rinse more often than necessary, resulting in

water waste.
The quality of the ice can also affect water use. Some ice
makers are designed to produce clearer and smoother ice by
using a repeated freezing and partial thawing cycle while the ice
is produced. This results in ice cubes that are smoother, without
air bubbles and more crystalline like. Unfortunately, this aesthetic
quality wastes a lot of water and serves no useful purpose; frosty
ice cools just as well as clear ice.

Water cooled ice makers are often the most inefficient in water
use, although sometimes providing significant energy savings at
the point of use. It is important to note that there are many aircooled ice machines more energy efficient than some watercooled ice machines. Water cooled machines generally use
potable water to remove heat from the refrigeration equipment.
In years past, most of these machines used single-pass cooling
dumping the water into the sewer as it exited the
machine. Fortunately, many manufacturers are started to
abandon this wasteful design. Some newer designs re-circulate
the water after it passes through a cooling tower or heat
exchanger, but these still require large amounts of make up
water. While air-cooled machines generally have a water
efficiency of 40% to 66%, water cooled machines are usually less
than 15% water efficient.

Problem Statement:
Nickel- or tin-plated copper is most commonly used for the ice
forming pockets in cube ice machines today. Such pockets may be
formed by fitting notched strips of copper together in an "egg
crate" relationship to form a grid of four sided pockets. The strips
are then soldered to a backing pan. At the same time a serpentine
piece of copper tubing (forming the evaporator section of the
refrigeration system) can be soldered to the back of the pan. The

entire evaporator/ice forming assembly is then nickel or tin

plated. The plating is required by National Sanitation Foundation
(NSF) codes, which prohibit the use of copper parts in contact
with food products.
While plated copper assemblies work well in cube ice machines,
they have several drawbacks. One of the primary problems is that
the plating operation itself is costly, and typically produces sludge
that is costly to dispose of in an environmentally safe manner.
Also, copper is relatively expensive. Further, though it has very
good heat conduction properties, copper is dense, so that it has a
high heat capacity per unit volume. The duration of the
production/harvest cycle is thus longer than desired because, at
each change in the cycle, the copper ice forming pockets have to
be either heated or cooled.
Another disadvantage of assemblies made from bonded parts,
including plated copper assemblies, is that structures made from
bonding different parts together usually suffer a heat transfer
impediment. Usually, two elements may not be perfectly joined
because the elements are not perfectly flat or otherwise matched
in profile, and the presence of dust particles or oxides may cause
surface irregularities decreasing thermal conduction at those
locations. Further, because air has poor conducting properties, the
presence of air pockets in two bonded elements may also reduce
thermal conduction.
In attempting to overcome these disadvantages, a cast aluminum
grid was experimented with. Cast aluminum was found to present
several drawbacks. Primarily, even though the ice cube pockets
could easily be formed in the casting, the evaporator system
tubing had to be attached after the casting operation. This proved
to be unworkable because the cast aluminum was so porous that
the tubing could not suitably be brazed to the casting

VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION

CYCLE:
Most of the modern refrigerators work on this cycle. In its
simplest form there are four fundamental operations require to
complete one cycle.

Compression
Condensation
Expansion
Vaporization

Compression: The low pressure vapors in dry state are

drawn from the evaporator during the suction stroke of the
compressor. During Compression stroke the pressure and
temperature increase until vapour temperature is greater
than the temperature of condenser cooling medium.
Condensation : When the high pressure refrigerant vapour
enters the condenser heat flows from condenser to cooling

medium thus allowing the vapourized refrigerant to return

to liquid state.
Expansion : After condenser the liquid refrigerant is stored
in the liquid receiver until needed. From the receiver it
passes through an expansion valve where the pressure is
reduced sufficiently to allow the vapourization of liquid a low
temperature of about -10C.
Vaporization : The low pressure refrigerant vapour after
expansion in the expansion valve enters the evaporator or
refrigerated space where a considerable amount of heat is
absorbed by it and refrigeration is furnished.

Vapour-compression cycle for Refrigeration system

Vapour-compression cycle with T-S Diagram & P-V Diagram

Components of Compression cycle requires four components :

The vapour compression cycle requires four components :
Compressor : To raise the pressure of low-pressure low
temperature gas to high-pressure high temperature gas.
The Condenser : To change the state of high-pressure, high
temperature gas to high-pressure, high temperature LIQUID.
This is achieved by passing ambient air (known as aircooled) or water (known as water-cooled) over the
condenser tubes.
The Expansion Device : The purpose of the device is to
change the state of the refrigerant from high-pressure, high
temperature liquid to low pressure low temperature
saturated liquid. This is achieved by passing the liquid
through an orifice.
The Evaporator : To absorb the heat from room air or
water, which in the case of a chiller is circulated around the

evaporator coil. This will change the state of low-pressure,

low temperature saturated liquid to low pressure,
low/medium temperature gas .

COMPRESSORS
Intoduction :
A refrigerator compressor is the center of the
refrigerator cycle . Compressor may be called as a heart of any
vapour compression system . It works as a pump to control the
circulation of the refrigerant, and it adds pressure to the
refrigerant, heating it up . The compressor also draws vapour
away from the evaporator to maintain a lower pressure and lower
temperature before sending it to the condenser.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSORS :
According to the method of compression :
Reciprocating compressors
Rotary compressors

 Centrifugal compressors

HERMATICALLY SEALED :
A small hermatically sealed compressor in a common consumer
refrigerator or freezer; it typically has a rounded steel outer shell

that is permanentaly welded shut, and which seals operating

gases inside the system. There is no route for gases to leak, such
as around motor shaft seals. On this model, the plastic top
section is part of an auto-defrost system which uses motor heat to
evaporate the water.
Compressers are often described as being either
open , hermatic, or semi-hermatic, to describe how the
compressor and motor drive is situated in relation to the gas or
vapour being compressed. The industry name for hermatic is
hermatically sealed compressor, while a semi- is commonly
called a semi-hermatic compressor.
In hermatic and most semi-hermatic compressors,
the compressor and motor driving the compressor are integrated,
and operate within the pressurized gas envelope of the system.
The motor is designed to operate and be cooled by the gas or
vapour being compressed.
The difference between the hermatic and semi-hermatic, is
that the hermatic uses a one-piece welded steel casing that
cannot be opened for repair; if the hermatic fails it is simply
replaced with an entire new unit . A semi-hermatic uses a large
cast metal shell with gasketed covers that can be opened to
replace motor and pump components.
The primary advantage of a hermatic and semi-hermatic is
that there is no route for the gas to leak out of the system. Open
compresser rely on either natural leather or synthetic rubber seals
to retain the internal pressure, and these seals require a lubricant
such as oil to retain their sealing properties.
An open pressurized system such as an automobile air
conditioner can leak its operating gases, if it is not operated
frequently enough. Open systems rely on lubricant in the system
to splash on pump components and seals. If it is not operated
frequently enough, the lubricant on the seals slowly evaporates,

and the seals begin to leak until the system is no longer

functional and must be recharged. By comparison, a hermatic
system can sit unused for years, and can usually be started up
again at any time without requiring maintenance or experiencing
any loss of system pressure.
The disadvantage of hermatic compressors is that the motor drive
cannot be repair or maintained, and the entire compressor must
be removed if a motor fails. A further disadvantage is that burnt
out windings can contaminate whole systems requiring the
system to be entirely pumped down and the gas replaced.
Typically hermatic compressors are used in low-cost factoryassembled consumer goods where the cost of repair is high
compared to the value of the device , and it would be more
economical to just purchase a new device.
An advantage of open compressors is that they can be driven by
non-electric power sources, such as an internal combustion
engine or turbine. However, open compressors that drive
refrigeration systems are generally not totally maintenance free
throughout the life of the system, since some gas leakage will
occur over time.

Compressor Lubrication
In order to lubricate the moving parts
of the compressor, an oil is added to the refrigerant during
installation or commissioning. The type of oil may be mineral or
synthetic to suit the compressor type, and also chosen so as not
to react with the refrigerant type and other components in the
system. In small refrigeration systems the oil is allowed to

circulate throughout the whole circuit, but care must be taken to

design the pipework and components such that oil can drain back
under gravity to the compressor. In larger more distributed
systems, especially in retail refrigeration, the oil is normally
captured at an oil separator immediately after the compressor,
and is in turn redelivered, by an oil level management system,
back to the compressor(s). Oil separators are not 100% efficient
so system pipework must still be designed so that oil can drain
back by gravity to oil separator or compressor.
Some newer compressor technologies use magnetic bearings and
require no lubrication, for example the Danfoss Turbocor range of
centrifugal compressors. Avoiding the need for oil lubrication and
the design requirements and ancillaries associated with it,
simplifies the design of the refrigerant system and reduces
maintenance requirements.

APPLICATION:

Refrigerators
Deep freezer
Water cooler
Bottle coolers
Room air conditioners

CONDENSOR
Introductions :

Condensors and evaporators are basically heat exchangers in

which the refrigerant undergoes a phase change. Next to
compressors, proper design and selection of condensers and
evaporators is very important for satisfactory performance of any
refrigeration system. Since both condensers and evaporators are
essentially heat exchangers, they have many things in common
as far as the design of these components is concerned. In
condensers the refrigerant vapour condenses by rejecting heat to
an external fluid, which acts as a heat sink. Normally, the external
fluid does not undergo any phase change, except in some special
cases such as in cascade condensers, where the external fluid
(another refrigerant) evaporates. In evaporators, the liquid
refrigerant evaporates by extracting heat from an external fluid
(low temperature heat source). The external fluid may not
undergo phase change, for example if the system is used
forsensibly cooling water, air or some other fluid. There are many
refrigeration and air conditioning applications, where the external
fluid also undergoes phase change. For example, in typical
summer air conditioning system, the moist air is dehimidised by
condensing water vapour and then, removing the condensed
liquid water. In many low temperature refrigeration applications
freezing or frosting of evaporators takes place. These aspects
have to be considered while designing condensers and
evaporators.

Classification of condensers:
Condensers may be classified on the following basis:
On the basis of cooling medium used:
(a) Air cooled condenser
(b) Water cooled condenser
(c) Evaporative condenser
On the basis of construction:
(a) Shell type condenser
(b) Shell and coil condenser
(c) Double pipe condenser
(d) Finned condenser

Purpose of a Condenser:
The purpose of a condenser in the cycle of compression
refrigeration is to change the hot gas being discharged from the
compressor to a liquid prepared for use in the evaporator. The
condenser accomplishes this action by the removal of sufficient
heat from the hot gas, to ensure its condensation at the pressure
available in the condenser. The heat is shifted to another medium,
like water or air, to cool the condenser.

AIR COOLED FIN TYPE CONDENSER

Air-cooled finned condenser is widely used in refrigeration and air

conditioning application. For same amount of heat transfer, the
operation of air cooled condenser is more economic as compared
with water cooled condenser typically air cooled condenser are of
the round tube and fin type. To improve the performance of air
cooled condensers multiple techniques can be achieved such as
enhancement on inner pipe surface, changing the tube geometry
from round to flat shape and external fins. A micro-channel flat
tubes that heat exchanger is one of the potential alternatives for
replacing the conventional finned tube heat exchanger. This kind
of heat exchanger is made of a flat tube with several independent
passages in the cross section and formed into a serpentine or a
parallel flow arrangement. In these heat exchangers, a multitude
of corogated fins with louvers are inserted into the gaps between
the flat tubes. The flat tube design offers higher thermal
performance and lower pressure drop then the finned round heat
exchangers.

EXPANSION DEVICES
Introduction:
An expansion device is another basic component of a
refrigeration system. The basic functions of an expansion device
used in refrigeration system are to:
1. Reduce pressure from condenser pressure to evaporator
pressure, and
2. Regulate the refrigerant flow from the high-pressure liquid
line into the evaporator at a rate equal to the evaporation
rate In the evaporator.
The expansion devices used in rerfrigeration system
can be divided into fixed opening type or variable opening
type. As the name implies, in fixed opening type in the flow
area changes with changing mass flow rates. There are
basically seven types of refrigerant expansion devices.
These are:
1. Hand (manual) expansion valves
2. Capillary Tubes
3. Orifice
4. Constant pressure or Automatic Expansion Valve (AEV)
5. Thermostatic Expansion Valve
6. Float type Expansion Valve
a) High Side Float Valve
b) Low Side Float Valve
7. Electronic Expansion Valve

Capillary Tube:
A capillry tube is long narrow tube of constant diameter. The word
capillry is a misnomer since surface tension is not important in
refrigeration application of capillary tubes. Typical tube diameters
of refrigerab=nt capillary tubes range from 0.5mm to 3 mm and
the length ranges from 1.0m to 6m. The pressure reduction in
capillary tube occurs due to the following two factors:
1. The refrigerant has to overcome the frictinal resistance
offered by the walls. This leads to some pressure drop, and
2. The liquid refrigerant flashes (evaporates) into mixture of
liquid and vapours its pressure reduces. The density of
vapour is less than that of the liquid. Hence, the average
density of refrigerant decreases as it flows in the tube. The
mass flow rate and the tube diameter (hence area) being
constant, the velocity of refrigerant increases since. The
increse in velocity or acceleration of the refrigerant also
requires pressure drop. Several combinations of length and
bore are available for the same mass flow rate and pressure
drop. However, once a capillary tube of some diameter and
length has been installed in a refrigeratin system, the mass
flow rate through it will vary in such a manner that the total
pressure drop through it matches with the pressure
difference between condenser and the evaporator. Its mass
flow rate is totally dependent upon the pressure difference
across it; it cannot adjust itself to variation of load
effectively.

Selection of Capillary Tube:

For any new system, the diameter and the lenghth of

capillary tube have to be selected by the designer such that the
compressor and the capillary tube achieve the balanced point at
the desired evaporator temperature. There are analytical and
graphical methods to select the capillary tube. The fine-tuning of
the length is finally done by cut-andtry method. Atube longer than
the design (calculated) vaue is installed with the expected result
that evaporating temperature will be lower than expected. The
tube is shortened until the desired balance point is achieved. This
is done for mass production. If a single system is to be designed
then tube of slightly shorter length than the design length is
chosen. The tube will usually result in higher temperature than
the design value. The tube is pinched at a few apots to obtain the
required pressure and temperature.

Advantages and disadvantages of

capillary tube:
Some of the advantages of a capillary tube are:
1. It is Inexpensive.
2. It does not have any moving parts hence it does not require
maintenance.
3. Capillary tube provides an open connection between
condenser and the evaporator hence during off-cycle,
pressure equalization occurs between condenser ans
evaporator. This reduces the starting torque requirement of
the motor starts with same pressure on the two sides of the
compressor. Hence, a motor with low starting torque (squirrel
cage Induction motor) can be used.
4. Ideal for hermatic compressor based systems, which are
critically charged and factory assembled.

Some of the disadvantages of the capillary tube are:

1. It cannot adjust itself to changing flow conditions in response
to daily and seasonal variation in ambient temperature and
load. Hence , COP is usually low under off design conditions.
2. It is susceptible to clogging because of narrow bore of the
tube, hence, utmost care is required at the time of asembly.
A filter-drier should be used ahead of the capillary to prevent
entry of moisture or any solid particles.
3. During off-cycle liquid refrigerant flows to evaporator
because of pressure difference between condenser and
evaporator. The evaporator may get flooded and refrigerant
may flow to compressor and damage it when
starts.Therefore critical charge is used in capillary tube
based compressor systems. Further, it is used only with
hermatically sealed compressors where refrigerant does not
leak so that critical charge can be used. Normally an
accumulator is provided after the evaporator to prevant
slugging of compressor.

EVAPORATORS
Introductions:
An evaporators, like condenser is also a heat exchanger. In an
evaporator, the refrigerant boils or evaporates and in doing so
absorb heat from the substance being refrigerated. The name
evaporator refers to the evaporation process occuring in the heat
exchanger.

Copper Condenser Coils

The most common use of copper alloy tube bundles are for
condensers and auxiliary heat exchangers. If you need to turn
steam into water minimal back flow and high efficiency, then
copper tubing is one of your best bets.
Reaching your particular fluids dew point is not hard with copper
and a moderate amount of air moving over the coil. Coppers high
thermal transfer rate makes it ideal for condensing operations.

Copper Evaporator Coils

When intense heat is required for your application or pressurized
fittings are needed. CTCG has you covered! Our end tube
manipulation services allows you to customize your any way you
want. Cannot find the end fixture you need? We can buil it in
house for you.

When pressurized gas is depressurized at the expansion valve, it

becomes far cooler than it was before. In other words, as
pressurized gas is able to expand in an evaporator coil, its
temperature decreases and it becomes a colling agent. Usually,
this process is used either to cool the air outside the coil or to turn
a pressurized or liquid medium into gas.
Refrigeration technician choose copper because of its thermal
conductivity, which is eight times greater than aluminium tube.
The lightweight and durable properties of copper make it easy to
work with during and after installation. Coppers long life span
and resistance to corrosion make it a maintenance free choice
that will likely last the lifetime of the building.
Removing heat is a process greately helped by coppers highly
heat sensitive nature. Using tubing with fluid is a very efficient
way to transfer haet, and can be utilized in diverse ways to
accommodate your projects needs.
Unlike other industries, copper tubes used for air conditioning and
refrigeration purposes are designated by their outside diameter.
Other industries use the inside diameter of the tube.

REFRIGERANTS
A refrigerants is a substance used in heat cycle usually including,
for enhanced efficiency, a reversible phase change from a liquid
to a gas.Traditionally, fluorocarbons, especially
chlorofluorocarbons, were used as refrigerants, but they are being
phased out because of their ozone depletion effects. Other
common refrigerants used in various applications are ammonia,
sulphur dioxide, and non- halogenated hydrocarbons such as
methane.

Introductions:
The thermodynamic efficiency of a refrigeration system depends
mainly on its operating temperatures. However, important
practical issues such as the system design, size, initial and
operating costs, safety, reliability, and servicebility etc. depend
very much on the type of refrigerant selected for a given
application. Due to several envirnment issues such as ozone layer
depletion and global warming and their relation to the various
refrigerants used, the selection of suitable refrigerant by a
completely new refrigerant, for whatever reason, is an expensive
proposition as it may call for several changes in the design and
manufacturing of refrigeration system. Hence it is very important

to understand the issues related to the selection and use of

refrigerants. In principle, any fluid can be used as a refrigerant.
Air used in an air cycle refrigeration system can also be
considered as a refrigerant. However, in this lecture the attention
is mainly focused on those fluids that can be used as refrigerants
in vapour compression refrigeration systems only.

Physical properties:
The ideal refrigerant has a favorable thermodynamic properties, is
unrective chemically, and is safe. The desired thermodynamic
properties are boiling point somewhat below the target
temperature, a high heat of vaporization, a moderate density in
liquid form, a relatively high density in gaseous form, and a high
critical temperature. Since boiling point and gas density are
affected by pressure, refrigerants may be made more suitable for
a particular application by choice of operating pressure. These
properties are ideally met by the chlorofluorocarbons, but
environmental science regards stability as being an undesirable
property of a refrigerant, leading to recommendations such as
Supercritical carbon dioxide as a possible future cooling agent for
use in vehicles.
Corrosion properties are a matter of materials compatibility with
the mechanical components: compressor, piping, evaporator, and
condenser. Safety considerations include toxicity and
flammability.

Primary and Secondary refrigerants:

Fluids suitable for refrigeration purposes can be classified into
primary and secondary refrigerants. Primary refrigerants are
those fluids, which are used directly as working fluids, for

example in vapour compression and vapour absorption

refrigeration systems. When used in compresson or absorption
systems, these fluids provide refrigeration by undergoing a phase
change process in the evaporator. As the name implies,
secondary refrigerants are those liquids, which are used for
transporting thermal energy from one location to other.
Secondary refrigerants are also known under the name brines or
antifreezes. Of course, if the oprating temperatures are above 0 oc,
then pure water can also be used as secondary refrigerant, for
example in large air conditioning systems. Antifreezes or brines
are used when refrigerantion is required at sub-zero
temperatuers. Unlike primary refrigerants, the secondary
refrigerants do not undergo phase change as they transport
energy from one location to other.

Refrigerant selection criteria:

Selection of refrigerant for a particular application is based on the
following requirements:
i.
ii.
iii.

Thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties

Enviromental and safety properties, and
Economics

Refrigerant R-134a:

Refrigerant R134a is a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) that has zero

potential to cause the depletion of the ozone layer and very little
greenhouse effect. Let us see the various properties of this
refrigerant and how it replaces R12.
Refrigerant R134a
The refrigerant R134a is the chemical compound
tetrafluoroethane comprising of two atoms of carbon, two atoms
of hydrogen and four atoms of fluorine. Its chemical formula is
CF3CH2F. The molecular weight of refrigerant R134a is 133.4 and
its boiling point is -15.1 degree F.
Refrigerant R134a is a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) that has zero
potential to cause the depletion of the ozone layer and very little
greenhouse effect. R134a is the nonflammable and non-explosive,
has toxicity within limits and good chemical stability. It has
somewhat high affinity for the moisture. The overall physical and
thermodynamic properties of refrigerant R134a closely resemble
with that of refrigerant R12. Due to all the above factors, R134a is
considered to be an excellent replacement for R12 refrigeran

INSULATION

Insulation is the reduction of heat transfer between objects in

thermal contact or in range of radiative influence. Heat transfer
is the transfer of thermal energy between objects of differing
temperature. The means to stem heat flow may be especially
engineered methods or processes, as well as suitable static
objects and materials.

Purpose of Insulation:
A thermal insulator is a poor conductor of heat and has a low
conductivity. Insulation is used in buildings and in manufacturing
processes to prevent heat loss or heat gain. Although its primary
purpose is an economic one, it also provides more accurate
control of process temperatures and protection of personnel. It
prevents condensation on cold surfaces and the resulting
corrosion. Such materials are porous, containing large number of
dormant air cells. Thermal insulation delivers the following
benefits:
Reduces over-all energy consumption.
Offers better process control by maintaining process
temperature.

 Prevents corrosion by keeping the exposed surface of a

refrigerated system above dew point.
Provides fire protection to equipment.
Absorbs vibration.

Insulation material:
Insulation materials can also be classified into organic and
inorganic types.
Inorganic insulation is based on Siliceous/Aluminous/Calcium
materials in fiberous, granular or powder forms. Example: Mineral
wool, Calcium silicate etc.
Organic insulations are based on the hyocarbon polymers, which
can be expanded to obtain hogh void structures. Example
Thermocol (Expanded Polystyrene) and Poly Urethane Foam (PUF).
Puf stands for poly Urethene Foam. Polyurethane (PUF) is used
extensively in applications of lower temperatures.

BRAZING

Brazing is metal-joining process whereby a filler metal is heated

above melting point and distributed between two or more closefitting parts by capillary action. The filler metal is brought slightly
above its melting (liquids) temperature while protected bya
suitable atmosphere, usually a flux. It then flows over the base
metal (known as wetting) and is then cooled to join the work
pieces together. It is similar to soldering, except the temperatures
used to melt the filler metal are higher.

Fundamentals:
In order to obtain high-quality brazed joints, parts must be closely
fitted, and the base metals must be exceptionally clean and free
of oxides. In most cases, joint clearances of 0.03 to 0.08 mm
(0.0012 to 0.0031 in) are recommended for the best capillary
action and joint strength. However, in some brazing operations it
is not uncommon to have joint clearances around 0.6 mm
(0.024 in). Cleanliness of the brazing surfaces is also important,
as any contamination can cause poor wetting (flow). The two
main methods for cleaning parts, prior to brazing, are chemical
cleaning and abrasive or mechanical cleaning. In the case of
mechanical cleaning, it is important to maintain the proper
surface roughness as wetting on a rough surface occurs much
more readily than on a smooth surface of the same geometry.
Another consideration that cannot be overlooked is the effect of
temperature and time on the quality of brazed joints. As the

temperature of the braze alloy is increased, the alloying and

wetting action of the filler metal increases as well. In general, the
brazing temperature selected must be above the melting point of
the filler metal. However, there are several factors that influence
the joint designer's temperature selection. The best temperature
is usually selected so as to:
(1) be the lowest possible braze temperature,
(2) minimize any heat effects on the assembly,
(3) keep filler metal/base metal interactions to a minimum, and
(4) maximize the life of any fixtures or jigs used. In some cases, a
higher temperature may be selected to allow for other factors in
the design (e.g. to allow use of a different filler metal, or to
control metallurgical effects, or to sufficiently remove surface
contamination). The effect of time on the brazed joint primarily
affects the extent to which the aforementioned effects are
present; however, in general most production processes are
selected to minimize brazing time and the associated costs. This
is not always the case, however, since in some non-production
settings, time and cost are secondary to other joint attributes
(e.g. strength, appearance).

Torch brazing

Torch brazing is by far the most common method of mechanized

brazing in use. It is best used in small production volumes or in
specialized operations, and in some countries, it accounts for a
majority of the brazing taking place. There are three main
categories of torch brazing in use: manual, machine, and
automatic torch brazing.
Manual torch brazing is a procedure where the heat is applied
using a gas flame placed on or near the joint being brazed. The
torch can either be hand held or held in a fixed position
depending on whether the operation is completely manual or has
some level of automation. Manual brazing is most commonly used
on small production volumes or in applications where the part size
or configuration makes other brazing methods impossible. The
main drawback is the high labor cost associated with the method
as well as the operator skill required to obtain quality brazed
joints. The use of flux or self-fluxing material is required to
prevent oxidation. Torch brazing of copper can be done without
the use of flux if it is brazed with a torch using oxygen and
hydrogen gas, rather than oxygen and other flammable gases.
Machine torch brazing is commonly used where a repetitive braze
operation is being carried out. This method is a mix of both
automated and manual operations with an operator often placing

brazes material, flux and jigging parts while the machine

mechanism carries out the actual braze. The advantage of this
method is that it reduces the high labor and skill requirement of
manual brazing. The use of flux is also required for this method as
there is no protective atmosphere, and it is best suited to small to
medium production volumes.
Automatic torch brazing is a method that almost eliminates the
need for manual labor in the brazing operation, except for loading
and unloading of the machine. The main advantages of this
method are: a high production rate, uniform braze quality, and
reduced operating cost. The equipment used is essentially the
same as that used for Machine torch brazing, with the main
difference being that the machinery replaces the operator in the
part preparation.

ELECTRIC MOTOR
An electric motor is an electromechanical device that converts
electrical energy to mechanical energy.

In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through

the interaction between an electric motor's magnetic
field and winding currents to generate force within the motor. In
certain applications, such as in the transportation industry
with traction motors, electric motors can operate in both motoring
and generating or braking modes to also produce electrical
energy from mechanical energy.
Found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and
pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and
disk drives, electric motors can be powered by direct current
(DC) sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers,
or byalternating current (AC) sources, such as from the power
grid, inverters or generators. Small motors may be found in
electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly
standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient
mechanical power for industrial use. The largest of electric motors
are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumpedstorage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts.
Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type,
internal construction, application, type of motion output, and so
on.
Electric motors are used to produce linear or rotary force (torque),
and should be distinguished from devices such as magnetic

solenoids and loudspeakers that convert electricity into motion

but do not generate usable mechanical powers, which are
respectively referred to as actuators and transducers.

Parts of an Electric Motor:

Rotor
In an electric motor the moving part is the rotor which turns the
shaft to deliver the mechanical power. The rotor usually has
conductors laid into it which carry currents that interact with the
magnetic field of the stator to generate the forces that turn the
shaft. However, some rotors carry permanent magnets, and the
stator holds the conductors.

Stator
The stationary part is the stator, usually has either windings or
permanent magnets. The stator is the stationary part of the
motors electromagnetic circuit. The stator core is made up of
many thin metal sheets, called laminations. Laminations are used

to reduce energy losses that would result if a solid core were

used.

Air gap
In between the rotor and stator is the air gap. The air gap has
important effects, and is generally as small as possible, as a large
gap has a strong negative effect on the performance of an electric
motor.

Windings
Windings are wires that are laid in coils, usually wrapped around a
laminated soft iron magnetic core so as to form magnetic poles
when energized with current.
Electric machines come in two basic magnet field pole
configurations: salient-pole machine and nonsalient-pole machine.
In the salient-pole machine the pole's magnetic field is produced
by a winding wound around the pole below the pole face. In
the nonsalient-pole, or distributed field, or round-rotor, machine,
the winding is distributed in pole face slots. A shaded-pole
motor has a winding around part of the pole that delays the phase
of the magnetic field for that pole.
Some motors have conductors which consist of thicker metal,
such as bars or sheets of metal, usually copper, although
sometimes aluminum is used. These are usually powered
by electromagnetic induction.

Commutator
A commutator is a mechanism used to switch the input of most
DC machines and certain AC machines consisting of slip ring
segments insulated from each other and from the electric motor's
shaft. The motor's armature current is supplied through the
stationary brushes in contact with the revolving commutator,

which causes required current reversal and applies power to the

machine in an optimal manner as the rotor rotates from pole to
pole. In absence of such current reversal, the motor would brake
to a stop. In light of significant advances in the past few decades
due to improved technologies in electronic controller, sensorless
control, induction motor, and permanent magnet motor fields,
electromechanically commutated motors are increasingly being
displaced by externally commutated induction and permanentmagnet motors.

WELDING

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials,

usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is
often done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material
to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to
become a strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in
conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld. This is in
contrast with soldering andbrazing, which involve melting a lowermelting-point material between the workpieces to form a bond
between them, without melting the work pieces. It is often used in
construction engineering.

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including

a gas flame, an electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction,
and ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding may be
performed in many different environments, including in open
air, under water, and in outer space. Welding is a hazardous
undertaking and precautions are required to avoid burns, electric
shock, vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes,
and exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation.
Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process
was forge welding, which blacksmiths had used for centuries to
join iron and steel by heating and hammering. Arc
welding and oxyfuel welding were among the first processes to
develop late in the century, and electric resistance
welding followed soon after. Welding technology advanced quickly
during the early 20th century as World War I and World War II
drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining methods.
Following the wars, several modern welding techniques were
developed, including manual methods like SMAW, now one of the
most popular welding methods, as well as semi-automatic and
automatic processes such as GMAW, SAW, FCAW and ESW.
Developments continued with the invention of laser beam
welding, electron beam welding, magnetic pulse welding (MPW),
and friction stir welding in the latter half of the century. Today, the
science continues to advance. Robot welding is commonplace in
industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new
welding methods and gain greater understanding of weld quality.

CORE WIRE
A wire is a single, usually cylindrical, flexible strand or rod of
metal. Wires are used to bear mechanical loads or electricity and
telecommunications signals. Wire is commonly formed
by drawing the metal through a hole in a die or draw plate. Wire
gauges come in various standard sizes, as expressed in terms of
a gauge number. The term wire is also used more loosely to refer
to a bundle of such strands, as in 'multistranded wire', which is
more correctly termed a wire rope in mechanics, or a cable in
electricity.
Wire comes in solid core, stranded, or braided forms. Although
usually circular in cross-section, wire can be made in square,
hexagonal, flattened rectangular, or other cross-sections, either
for decorative purposes, or for technical purposes such as high-

efficiency voice coils in loudspeakers. Edge-wound coil springs,

such as the Slinky toy, are made of special flattened wire.

Uses:
Wire has many uses. It forms the raw material of many
important manufacturers, such as the wire netting industry,
engineered springs, wire-cloth making and wire rope spinning, in
which it occupies a place analogous to a textile fiber. Wire-cloth of
all degrees of strength and fineness of mesh is used for sifting
and screening machinery, for draining paper pulp, for window
screens, and for many other purposes. Vast quantities
of aluminium, copper, nickel and steel wire are employed for
telephone and data cables, and as conductors in electric power
transmission, and heating. It is in no less demand for fencing, and
much is consumed in the construction of suspension bridges, and
cages, etc. In the manufacture of stringed musical instruments
and scientific instruments wire is again largely used. Carbon and
stainless spring steel wire have significant applications for
engineered springs for critical automotive or industrial
manufactured parts/components. Among its other sources of
consumption it is sufficient to mention pin and hairpin making,
the needle and fish-hook industries, nail, peg and rivet making,
and carding machinery; indeed there are few industries into which
it does not enter.
Not all metals and metallic alloys possess the physical properties
necessary to make useful wire. The metals must in the first place
be ductile and strong in tension, the quality on which the utility of
wire principally depends. The metals suitable for wire, possessing
almost equal ductility, are platinum, silver, iron, copper,
aluminium and gold; and it is only from these and certain of
their alloys with other metals, principally brass and bronze, that
wire is prepared (For a detailed discussion on copper wire, see
main article: Copper wire and cable.).

By careful treatment extremely thin wire can be produced. Special

purpose wire is however made from other metals
(e.g. tungsten wire for light bulb and vacuum tube filaments,
because of its high melting temperature). Copper wires are also
plated with other metals, such as tin, nickel, and silver to handle
different temperatures, provide lubrication, provide easier
stripping of rubber from copper.

INNOVATIONS:

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

In this system, the metal ice tray is connected to a set of coiled heat-exchanging pipes like the ones on
the back of your refrigerator. If you've read How Refrigerators Work, then you know how these pipes
work. A compressor drives a stream of refrigerant fluid in a continuous cycle of condensation and
expansion. Basically, the compressor forces refrigerant through a narrow tube (called the condenser) to
condense it, and then releases it into a wider tube (called the evaporator), where it can expand.

Compressing the refrigerant raises its pressure, which increases its temperature. As the refrigerant
passes through the narrow condenser coils, it loses heat to the cooler air outside, and it condenses into
a liquid. When the compressed fluid passes through the expansion valve, it evaporates -- it expands to
become a gas. This evaporation process draws in heat energy from the metal pipes and the air around
the refrigerant. This cools the pipes and the attached metal ice tray.
The icemaker has a water pump, which draws water from a collection sump and pours it over the chilled
ice tray. As the water flows over the tray, it gradually freezes, building up ice cubes in the well of the tray.
When you freeze water layer by layer this way, it forms clear ice. When you freeze it all at once, as in the
home icemaker, you get cloudy ice .
After a set amount of time, the icemaker triggers a solenoid valve connected to the heat-exchanging
coils. Switching this valve changes the path of the refrigerant. The compressor stops forcing the heated
gas from the compressor into the narrow condenser; instead, it forces the gas into a wide bypass tube.
The hot gas is cycled back to the evaporator without condensing. When you force this hot gas through the
evaporator pipes, the pipes and the ice tray heat up rapidly, which loosens the ice cubes.
Typically, the individual cube cavities are slanted so the loosened ice will slide out on their own, into a
collection bin below. Some systems have a cylinder piston that gives the tray a little shove, knocking the
cubes loose.
This sort of system is popular in restaurants and hotels because it makes ice cubes with a standard
shape and size. Other businesses, such as grocery stores and scientific research firms, need smaller ice
flakesfor packing perishable items