Professional Documents
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There are big billboards in almost all the communities in the district and all the border towns with
the inscription STOP COCOA SMUGGLING, IT IS PUNISHABLE BY LAW. But all these
have not really worked because it seems the local farmers could not even read these bills and are
not bordered what message at all it is trying to put across
This study seeks to assess the main motivators and the reasons why farmers still smuggle despite
the efforts put in by the government by using a historical approach that has not being explored in
the literature reviewed.
To identify the motivations behind the smuggling of cocoa in and out of that
LITERATURE REVIEW
This section focuses on the review of relevant literature on cocoa smuggling and other core
aspects of the topic under study. The chapter thus presents the conceptual and theoretical basis for
the study.
According to the annual cocoa report 2012, prepared by Elmasoeur Ashitey (GAIN Repot
Number 1202), the improved cocoa bean yield obtained in Main Year (MY) 2010/2011 season is
due to the concerted effort of the Government of Ghana (GoG) support to the cocoa sector,
farmers, major stakeholders and favorable weather conditions over several years, according to
GoG sources.
The Ghana government had introduced certain interventions for cocoa farmers such as the mass
spraying of cocoa, subsidized fertilizer and the consistent increases in the price of cocoa. In fact,
roads linking cocoa producing centres, usually called Cocoa Roads have been receiving
attention under all governments of the country. The government however, stepped in with a new
price that was expected to stem the smuggling. The 33.3 per cent improvement in prices of cocoa
for the 2010/2011 crop season, took effect from October 1. Farmers now receive GH3,200 or
GH200 per 64 kilogram bag of cocoa from the previous GH2,400 per ton or GH150 per a 54
kilogram bag of cocoa. This intervention somewhat reduced cocoa smuggling to Ivory Coast but
rather smuggling was reversed in 2011 when situations seemed better in Ghana than in Ivory
Coast.
The political instability in the Ivory Coast and the higher cocoa bean price offered in Ghana has
encouraged the movement of cocoa into Ghana.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Figure 3.0: Conceptual framework
Price differentials between Ghana and cote
d Ivoire
Convenience (proximity)
Lack
of
adequate
security supervision
EFFECTS
Hinders
economic
(Source: Author)
Inefficient security personnel, convenience, pay as u go and price differentials are the main
causes of cocoa smuggling in the area. The proximity (convenience) of the smugglers makes it
easy for them to smuggle the cocoa to either countries in the first place. This is to say that,
individuals in the interior would not want to smuggle to either countries where their cost of
transportation would be high, in relation to their profit margin. The security force sent there are
also not loyal enough to the state. They take bribe from victims and allow them.This brings about
the three effects in figure 2.0, hinders economic growth, posses security threat and then put some
sort of security threat on the people living on the border towns. Where after the cocoa season
some of the partakers vomit blood due to over working during the season.
Survey
The primary data were collected using structured questionnaires. The questionnaires contained
both closed and open-ended questions, and they were self-administered. In all, 50 questionnaires
were administered to farmers and non-farmers. Fifteen (15) females and thirty five (35) males
were selected. This distribution was used because it was observed that the females, mostly
mothers (food crop farmers), are not the heads of the households and would like you to talk to
their husbands as a sign of respect. In this setting, the males generally engage in the smuggling of
cocoa. The study themes included methods employed in smuggling the cocoa, the motivations
behind smuggling, their average income levels, and level of education, awareness of punishment
available, how cocoa smuggling is carried out, why the governments interventions had failed and
the way forward..
Interviews
The authorities of the security personnel and purchasing clerks were also interviewed. Some
security personnel interviewed were the Immigration Service of Ghana, Ghana Police Service,
Ghana Revenue Authority and the Customs Preventive Service. The main themes these people
were interviewed on were; how culprits are caught, rules, regulations and punishment concerning
the act of smuggling and their recommendations they could suggest to help stem the situation.
Purchasing clerks from the Produce buying Company, Diaby Ghana Limited and Trans Royal
Buying Company were also interviewed on themes such as, how often farmers smuggle cocoa in
or out of the country, how it affect their business, whether something could be done about it and
their general comment about cocoa smuggling in the district. Some experiences by the security
personnel were shared verbally and I made some personal observations.
Analysis
The data gathered from various sources were processed and analyzed using SPSS. Simple
descriptive statistical and analytical tools such as frequencies, percentages, and pie charts were
also employed in the analysis of the data. Relationships were established by cross tabulations.
EXAMPLE 2
THE SHEA TREE: THE GOLD OF NORTHERN WOMEN A CASE STUDY IN CENTRAL
GONJA DISTRICT.
of employment. Or does the Shea business contribute indirectly in providing employment to those
women.
The dominance of women in the Shea business in northern Ghana was due to the fact that, women
in the area are the most economically disadvantage group due to their limited access to assets.
Women in this area have no ownership and access to land and even those who has access to land
are food crop farmers operating only for family consumption living little for sale. This makes it
difficult for them to get a startup capital to engage in other business such as petty trading as a
source of livelihood. Most of them are not educated and are therefore lack the requisite skills that
will enable them to be employed in other job opportunities to earn a living. The neglect of
subsequent government in providing basic amenities in the northern part of the country which are
importance to human livelihood makes women in this area to be in abject poverty. However, the
presence of the Shea tree and its product in the area provide an opportunity for the women to use
it as alternative source of livelihood as income generated from it is specifically for women.
The potential of the Shea tree and its product in sustaining life especially among women in
northern Ghana cannot be underestimated, but the problem: is do women in northern Ghana really
consider the Shea tree as their golden egg producer?. As golden egg producer, it should provide
an opportunity for those women who engage in the business to empower themselves and also
equip them with the needed capital to invest in other income generating activities. However, most
studies carried out by earlier researches focus much attention on the potentials of the Shea tree in
serving domestic purposes (cooking oil, creams, medicinal purpose etc.) as well as its
contribution in providing income to the women. They however, failed to provide information with
regards to other income generating activities as associated with the Shea business, the
employment potential of the business in empowering women and also possible innovation
adopted by the women in enhancing the business. I therefore identify these as a missing link
which I will research into in other to build up to a state of knowledge of the potentials Shea tree.
The research seeks to answer the following questions:
1. What other income generating activities are associated with the Shea business?
2. Does the Shea business possess much potential in empowering women?
3. What innovations do women employ in enhancing the business?
1.2 Research objectives
The main objective of the study is to access the contributions of the Shea tree and its products to
different aspects of womens livelihoods.
If women are economically empowered and can invest in their lives, family and
communities by engaging in the Shea business, then the Shea tree is a Golden egg
Does the Shea business
What
women
associated
Research
in empowering women?
enhancing
What
other
income
producer.
with
the
Design
innovations
employ
the
business?
Shea business?
Research methods
products
Quantitative
Qualitative
(Questionnaire)
(In-depth interview)
niinterinterviintervie
Test of hypothesis
ws)
(Chi-square test)
References
do
in
Shea
In Africa, Shea nut is primary use as a source of cook fat, within its range in Southern Sahellan
and Sudan; it is probably the most affordable, available and extensively use oil (Lauvien et al
1996). According to Dogbevi, (2009), the matured kernel contains about 61% of edible fat can be
use for medicinal purpose as well as industrial purpose; it is also an important source of fat for
make soup and may be use as skin moisturizer.
Apart from the local use, Shea nut and Shea products provide valuable income especially for
women, according to Elias and Carney (2007), the uniqueness of the Shea tree is that in generate
income specifically for women as it is traditionally seen as women business. Most women in
North Ghana depend on income generated from the sales of Shea nut and Shea product as a
means of dearly sustenance, namely, supplementing the family food budget, medicinal and
education expenses. A report by Kwodi (2010) for feature article, in his personal interview with
one woman, AbduliaZuwera of Tungteiya Shea butter extraction women association of Gushiegu.
Show that it through the sales of Shea nut and Shea products that they were able to make the
living and supported their school going children.
The writers came out with uses of Shea nut as food, medicinal purposes, protection of the skin
and more importantly as a major source of income to women. My personal opinion of the above
is that they have done a lot and an extensive work on Shea nut, they have gone more into all the
above as well as many more. However, they did not provide information with regards to other
income generating activities that are associated with the Shea business, employment potentials of
the business in empowering women and other innovative measures adopted by the women to
enhance the business. This phenomenon is what I intends to research.
2.2 DESCRIPTION OF METHODS
Population and sampling
The study was undertaken in three communities in the district, including Buipe, Yapei and
Mpahe. These are larger settlements where a lot of women are engaging in the Shea business.
Stratified and sample random sampling technique was used to select the sample size of
respondent in each community engaging in the Shea business.
The questionnaires were close and open ended. There were administered to women engaging in
the Shea business. In all Fifty (50) questionnaires were administered, twenty (20) in Buipe,
Fifteen (15) in Yapie, and Mpaha respectively. In other to get a general view of woman in the
area, only one woman is selected in each house. Answers of respondents were ticked or recorded
the space provided on the question sheet.
In-depth interviews were also carried out to acquire general information about the shea tree and
its products. Interviews were conducted with some women group leaders, NGOs and other
women who engage actively in the Shea business.
information was not available and is not also captured in the questionnaires. Responses of
despondence were recorded on the field note book during interview.
SAMPLE 3
OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this study was to investigate the impact of pollution of the Owabi River on
the lives of people in the surrounding areas.
The sub-objectives included,
Assessing the level of pollution of the Owabi River.
Identifying the sources of pollutants of the river and the driving forces of the pollution.
Examining the effects of water pollution on the residents especially those along the
riverbank.
JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY
The Owabi River is a very important river in the Ashanti region because it houses the Owabi
Wildlife Sanctuary and Ghana Water Companys Owabi Head works which produces about four
million, two hundred thousand liters (4200000 liters) of treated water for the Kumasi Metropolis
and its environs. The increasing pollution of the river is affecting the potency of the river for
fishing and for water supply among its other functions. Also the lack of adequate research on the
pollution of the river and the impact of this pollution, on the lives of residents, justifies this study.
This study sought to help in educating people on the importance of protecting the Owabi River
for the general good of all.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definitions and Origin of Pollution
The European Commission Directive on Integrated Pollution and Control defines environmental
pollution as the direct or indirect result of human activity, of presence of substances, vibration,
heat or noise into the air, water or land which may be harmful to human health or quality of the
environment and which may result in damage to material, property, or interfere with amenities
and other legitimate use of the environment. (Ganguly Prabir, Environmental Regulations and
Standard Setting, 2000).T.J McLaughlin (1999) defines pollution as, the introduction by man of
waste matter or surplus energy into the environment which directly or indirectly causes damage to
man and his environment other than himself, his household, those in his environment, and those
with whom he has a direct trading relationship.
Pollution is the introduction by man into the environment of substances or energy liable to cause
hazards to human health, harm to living resources and ecological systems, damage to structures
or amenity, or interference with legitimate uses of the environment. (Holdgate M.W., 1999)
(Alloway, 1993)Dix (1981) also defines pollution as, the deliberate or accidental contamination of
the environment with mans waste. He stipulated that, pollution started at a time when mankind
began to use the natural resources of the environment for his own benefit. His activities of
clearing trees, building shelters and cultivating crops altered the natural environment. Later, as
the human population increased there were increasing quantities of human and animal waste to be
disposed, this led to pollution.
Causes and impact of water pollution in Africa and Ghana
Causes of water pollution can be grouped into two thus; Anthropogenic factors and natural
factors. Letterman (1999) argued that, natural factors such as climate, watershed characteristics,
nutrients and wild fires could have significant impacts on water quality. Anthropogenic factors
such as agricultural development, population growth, urbanization, industrialization as well as
market policy failures have been identified as the root causes of water pollution (UNEP, 2006).
In less developed countries, many rivers and streams are heavily polluted due to anthropogenic
activities (Jonnalagadda and Mhere).
Sewage disposal from urban areas contribute significantly to nitrogen loadings in river systems
leading to eutrophication (Hayakawa et al., 2006). A recent study of the Nworie and Otamiri
rivers in Nigeria showed a strong relationship between nitrate concentration in rivers and
urbanization (Bichi and Anyata, 1999). The main impact of river pollution is the reduction in the
quality of water of the river. In Ghana most domestic waste dis-charged directly into drainage
systems that empty into water bodies such as rivers, lagoon and streams. About 80% of sewage
treatment facilities in Accra were not functioning thus placing a lot of pressure on the receiving
streams and rivers in the city (EPA, 2002). In Kumasi Nsiah-Gyabaah (2001), maintains that
inhabitants of the city pollute the rivers and streams used by inhabitants in the peri-urban
interface by dumping night soil and waste tips close to sources of water supply.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
A simple but dynamic conceptual framework describing the links between population and the
environment, including mediating factors that ultimately shape the association between the two,
adopted from United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) is outlined in the figure below.
FIGURE 1: SHOWING A MODEL EXPLAINING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POPULATION AND
ENVIRONMENT.
This framework shows how the composition, growth and distribution of population influences
environment. Environmental factors like the quality and quantity of land, air and water resources.
Mediating factors are institutions, policy contexts, science and technology and cultural factors.
Population size and its distribution affect the distribution of environmental pressures. Rapid
urbanization poses environmental challenges such as generation of wastes which leads to land air
and water pollution. The mediating factors regulate the rate at which the environment is degraded.
The mediating factor also influences the size, distribution and composition of the population. For
instance, road construction policies can lead to degradation of forested areas. Also the
environment can be degraded as a result of the excessive application of science and technology.
Use sophisticated technology and heavy machineries which emit huge volumes of sulphur and
carbon dioxide into the air polluting it which eventually ends up in the water bodies. (UNFPA,
2001:10)
A mutual relation amongst the population, mediating factors and the environment illustrated by
the UNFPA (2001) framework has been adapted to explain the causes and impact of the pollution
of the Owabi River on the residents in the surrounding area. Rapid population growth coupled
with failure of the mediating factors like Institutional failures has led to the establishment of
illegal industrial activity and indiscriminate behavioural pattern and lack of regular inspection of
permits as well as poor enforcement of environmental laws affords individuals the opportunity to
use the river as a source of water for industrial purposes, refuse dump and as means of disposing
industrial waste. The interplay of rapid population growth and institutional failure has led to the
pollution of the Owabi River.
METHODS OF RESEARCH
Research Approach
Both the qualitative and quantitative methods were used in the collection of data for this research.
These approaches helped in the acquisition of the primary data for this research. While the
qualitative approach helped in the detailed understanding of the situation of the water pollution,
the quantitative approach also helped in the acquisition of data showing general trends.
Sources of Data
Data for the research were from primary and secondary sources. Primary data was gotten through
the administration of questionnaires to respondents sampled within the river basin also through
interviews of the Owabi water works official and opinion leaders whose inputs were relevant to
the research. Secondary data was also sourced from published journals articles, researched
articles and books. Also personal observation was used to gather some of the information.
Types of Data Collected
Data for the research included background information of residents such as age, sex, income and
occupation. Data was collected on the driving forces of the pollution, thus; on availability of
drainage system, toilet facilities and mode of liquid and solid waste disposal as well as where
refuse and human excreta were deposited was investigated. Also data was collected on the
physical features of the river such as colour of water from the river.
Mode of Data Collection
Structured questionnaire survey of fifty respondents along the Owabi river basin was conducted
for the acquisition of the primary data. Then an in depth interview of five residents along the
Owabi basin was conducted and three personnels from the Owabi water works were also
interviewed for the secondary data collection.
Sampling Techniques
In order to achieve the objectives of this research the sample frame was chosen from residents
living in villages through which the Owabi River flows. The technique adopted for sampling is
described as follows: To aid in easier analysis and identification of the sections of the Owabi
River basin that was being polluted, communities on the river course were divided into two
sections- Upstream and Downstream communities. Two major communities that lay in the river
basin were chosen. Where twenty five people from each community was chosen by simple
random method.
Data handling
Data collected on the field was inputted into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
software and analysed through the use of correlation and chi test. To support data analysis, output
data were presented in bar graphs, tables, line graphs and in addition relevant pictures were used
to support the analysis.