CHAPTER 3

CreatingProgram
LogicModels

Generally,thesemodelshaveenoughdetailtosupportdesign,planning,
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t
,
o
r
e
v
a
l
u
a
t
i
o
n
.
T
h
i
s
c

exampleandtheactionstepstocreateamodelwithasmallgroup.

Learner Objectives

Describetherelationshipbetweentheoryofchangeandprogramlo
gic models
Identifybasicelementsforaprogramlogicmodel
Createasimplemodel
Recognizelimitationsofdisplay

From Theory of Change to Program Models

Theoryofchangelogicmodelsareliterallythefoundationforprogramlo
gic
models.Whenwelldeveloped,theycanensureintellectualrigorforpro
gramlogic
models.Figure3.1illustratestherelationshipofatheoryofchangemod
el(composedofstrategiesandresults)totheprimaryelementsofaprogramlog
icmodel.
Strategiesreflecttheresources,activities,andoutputsneededtoachie
veresults.
Resultsreflectthesequenceofoutcomesovertimethroughimpact.Out
comes(for
individuals)aregenerallyprogressinchangesinawareness,knowledg
e,skill,or
behavioramongtargetedaudiences.Therearealsooutcomesfororga
nizationsand systems.Althoughaplausibleandevidencebasedconnectioncanbeestablished,
35

36

PARTICONSTRUCTION
DoGet
StrategiesResults

ResourcesActivities

Figure 3.1

Outputs

Short-term
Outcomes

Intermediateterm
Outcomes

Long-term
Outcomes

Impa
ct

e
y
a
impactisoftenwellbeyondthescope(orfeasibility)fortheprogrambeingmod- r
eled.Together,outcomes,whichareclosertotheeffort,ofmultiplestrategiesplu e
s
d
impact(furtheraway)makeupresults.Whileprogramlogicmodelsareoftenbuil e
t
v
onatheoryofchange,itisalsopossibletoinferatheoryofchangefromaprogram el
logicmodel.
o
p
e
Assumptions Matter
d
ItisimportanttobeawarethatspecificassumptionsarenotillustratedinFigure3.
c
1.
e
Recallthatassumptionsareinformedbybeliefsandknowledge.Toooften,progr
rt
am
ai
modelsarebuiltwithoutthebenefitofexplicitlynamingtheassumptionsand
nl
underlyingtheoryofchange.Thisomissioncanhelpexplainwhytremendousco
y
ns
flict,evenchaoscaneruptduringprogramdevelopment,planning,implementa
h
o
tion,orassessment.Intheabsenceofexplicitlynamedassumptions,eitheracle
ul
ar
d
theoryofchangedoesnotexistorpeopleholdmultipleandconflictingvariations
a
thatreflecttheirdeeplyheldviewsaboutwhatshould/couldworkandwhy.This
n
canleadtodiffuseordiluteprogramsthatlackthefocusandintensityneededto
d
produceintendedresults.Becauseoftheseimplications,omittingthisfoundati
w
on
ill
foryouridea,program,orsocialchangeeffortunderminesitspotentialforsucces
r
s.
e
Asnotedpreviously,conceptualizationandlearningstylesdifferfrompersonto
fl
person.Organizationalculturecanalsoaffecthowdesign,planning,monitoring
e
,
c
andmeasuringoccur.Giventhesepracticalissues,westronglysuggestthatbot
tt
h
h
theoryofchangeandprogramlogicmodelsareeventuallycreatedtoformthefou
e
nst
dationofsharedmeaningforallaspectsoftheprogram.Thesequenceinwhichth
a

RelationshipofProgramandTheoryofChangeModels

keholde
rsprefer
ences.

Key Elements of Program Logic Models

Programlogicmodelsdisplaywhatanexistingidea,newprogram,orfocused
changeeffortmightcontainfromstarttofinish.Theelementsinaprogramlogic

CreatingProgramLogicModels
37

modelconsistoftherecipeforaboundedinvestmentoffinancialandsoc
ialcapitalforaspecifiedresult.Thelevelofdetailincreasessothattherelations
hipsshown
bythemodelillustrateessentiallinkagesneededtomakeaplanfullyop
erationalfor
eachofthestrategystrandsidentifiedinthetheoryofchange.Theprima
ry
elementsforeachstrandofaprogramlogicmodelincluderesources,ac
tivities,
outputs,outcomes,andimpact.Figure3.2isatemplateoftheelementsf
ormost programlogicmodels.
Theseprogramlogicmodelelementsaredefinedasfollows:
Resources areessentialforactivitiestooccur.Theycanincludehuman,financial,
organizational,community,orsystemsresourcesinanycombination.
Theyare
usedtoaccomplishnamedactivities.Sometimesresourcesarecalledi
nputs.
Activities arethespecificactionsthatmakeuptheprogram.Theyreflecttools,
processes,events,technology,andotherdevicesthatareintentionalin
theprogram.
Activitiesaresynonymouswithinterventionsdeployedtosecurethede
sired changesorresults.
Outputs
arewhatspecificactivitieswillproduceorcreate.Theycaninclude
descriptionsoftypes,levels,andaudiencesortargetsdeliveredbythep
rogram.
Outputsareoftenquantifiedandqualifiedinsomeway.Theysimplycha
racterize theapplicationofactivitieswithselectedaudiences.
Outcomes areaboutchanges,ofteninprogramparticipantsororganizations,as
aresultoftheprogram.Theyoftenincludespecificchangesinawarenes
s,knowledge,skill,andbehavior.Outcomesaredependentonprecedingresour
ces,activities,andoutputs.Sometimesoutcomesareparsedbytimeincrementsi
ntoshort,
intermediate,andlongterm.Timespansforoutcomesarerelativeands
houldbe
specifiedfortheideaorprojectdescribed.However,shorttermisoften1
through 3years,intermediate-termoutcomes4through6years.Longtermoutcomesmight
beachievedin7through10years.Theintervalsspecifiedforanygiven
model woulddependonthesizeandscopeoftheeffort.
Forexample,asmallscaleprojectsuchasanadulteducationtypingclassin
onelocationmightproduceknowledgeandskilloutcomesin6weeks,w
here
behaviorchangessuchasuseorchangesinemploymentmighttakeso
mewhat

longer.Alternatively,aprogramtargetingchangesinglobalwaterquali
tymight
specifychangesintheawarenessandknowledgeofinternationalpolic
ymakers
within1to3years;actualenvironmentalimprovementsmightnotoccu
rwithin
decades.Typically,dividingtheprojectdurationintothirdsworkspretty
wellasa
startingpoint.Relyingonaliteratureorotherevidencebasecanhelpinf
orm whatisfeasible.
Beingclearabouttimingandexpectedresultsisimportant.Thetimesp
anfor
outcomesisprojectspecific.Timeisoneofseveralimportantconsidera
tions.The
ResourcesActivities

Figure 3.2

Outputs

Short-term
Outcomes

Intermediateterm
Outcomes

ABasicProgramLogicModel

Long-term
Outcomes

Impa
ct

38

PARTICONSTRUCTION

logicalsequencingofanygivenoutcomechainmatterstoo.Thinkabout
whatwill
happenfirst,thenwhatislikelytohappennext.Alsokeepinmindthatthe
sequence
mayormaynotbelockstep.Undersomeconditions,theremaybediffer
entpoints
ofentryintoasequence.Theimportantthingistoexploretheinterconn
ections
anddependenciesthatdoexistamongtheoutcomesandimpactyousp
ecify.
Impact
istheultimateintendedchangeinanorganization,community,orother
system.Itcarriesanimplicationabouttime.Itvariesinitsrelativetiming
tothe
actualprogramorchangeeffort.Sometimesimpactoccursattheendof
the
program,butmorefrequently,theimpactsoughtismuchmoredistant.
Forsome
efforts,thismaymeanimpactcanbecitedin7through10yearsormore.
Thiscan
haveimportantimplicationsasitiswellbeyondthefundingcycleforma
nytypical
grantfundedprogramsorthepatienceofmanymanagersorpoliticians.Thel
ogic
modelisonewaytoshowhowtheworkyoucandowithintheseconstrain
tsmay contributetoalarger,granderimpact.
Theplannedworkofaprogramlogicmodelincludesresources,activit
ies,and
outputs.Thesearetheessentialelementsthatareusedtosecureresult
sormake
changehappen.Theintendedresultsincludewhattheprogramprod
uces:out- comesandimpact.

Nonlinear Program Logic Models

Justasintheoryofchangemodels,veryfewideas,programs,orprojects
actually
occurinalinearprogression.Purposely,toaidlearning,wesimplifiedth
edisplay
ofelementsasastraightsequence.Realitysuggestscycles,iterations(
additional
attempts),andinteractionsareverycommon.Thismoreorganicdevel
opmentis showninFigure3.3.
Inthiscirculardisplay,thereisnospecificstartingpoint.Althoughthelo
gic
modelelementsareconstant,theworkofdesign,planning,managing,
orevaluatingmightbeginwithanyelement.Inaddition,thisviewshowshowcycle
softhe

sameactivitymightoccurovertime.Keepinmind,theillustrationgroup
sactivitiestogether.Amoredetailedviewcouldbestaggeringtoportray.Some
times, capturingrealityinadisplayimpedescommunication.

Hidden Assumptions and Dose

Aprogramlogicmodeldisplaystheelementsthataremostcriticaltoest
ablishingandoperatingaprogramorsocialchangeeffort.Itspecifiestheactivi
tiesand
theirofteninterdependentrelationshipaswellaswhattheyareexpecte
dtogenerate.Programlogicmodelsdonotnecessarilyincludeassumptions,butt
heyrelyon
them.Theyofferaviewofthemapthatcaninformactionplanningand,la
ter,
implementation.Programlogicmodelscanalsodefinethedose(e.g.,
number,
type,anddurationofactivities),quantifyanddescribetheeffectsandb
enefitsof
theprogramforagivendoseandtheultimatechangeexpected.Doseis
animportant
conceptineffectiveness.Adilutedosecanhavethesameimpactasnon
eatall.For
example,ifyourintendedresultisalargevoterturnoutinanelection,acl
assifiedad

CreatingProgramLogicModels
39

Activities

Activities
Activities
Resources

Resources Resources

Outputs

Output
s

Impact

Impact

Impact

Outcomes

Short-term
Outcomes

Figure 3.3

Short-term
Outcomes

Intermediate
-term
Outcomes

Short-term
Outcomes

Intermediate
-term
Outcomes

NonlinearLogicModel

isnotanadequatecommunicationstrategy.Acomprehensivemediapl
ancoupled
withfreetransportationtothevotingboothshasgreaterchancesofsuc
cess.So,it
isimportanttodesignaprogramwithenoughoftherightactivitiestosec
urethe outcomeyouintend.

Building a Program Logic Model

Program Logic Model Example
Anexampleofasimpleprogramlogicmodelforsecuringimprovedhea
lthis
displayedinFigure3.4.Readfromlefttoright,thisprogrammodelsugge
ststhatif
werecruitandretainparticipantsandprovideexercise,nutrition,andst
ressreduction,thenwewillsecureimprovedhealth.Notethedevelopmentofdeta
ilconnecting
strategiestoresultsinthismodelcomparedtothetheoryofchange(see
Figure2.3).
Theprogramlogicmodelprovidesdetailforthetheoryofchangebyexpl
icatingthe
elementsfromabasiclogicmodelforeachstrategystrand.Inaprogram
model,the
detailsrelativetoresources,activities,andotherelementsarenamed.

Intermedia
te
-term
Outcome

40

CreatingProgramLogicModels
41

Althoughstillanoverviewandincomplete,thisillustrationprovidesam
ore
detailedviewofwhatthishealthimprovementprogramwantstodo,pla
nstomeasure,andhopestoachieve.Beginningontheleftwithresources,thismo
del
includesfunds,facility,faculty,coaches,aswellaseligibleandwillingp
articipants
amongitsrequisiteinputs.Tokeepitsimple,thestrategiescontainimpli
edclusters
ofactivitiesinthisillustration.Thespecificactivitiesthatcontributetoo
utputsare
notnamed.Outputsfromtheinterventionstrategiesandassociatedac
tivities(exercise,nutrition,stressreduction)couldbenumerous.Forthisillustration
,weshow
onlytheoverarchingcategoriesofinformationthatcouldbeconsidered
.Eachcategorywouldberepeatedforeachofthestrands.Thesewouldincludede
tailsabout
thescope,sequence,andqualityofthecurriculum;staffingqualificatio
ns;and
informationaboutparticipantsandtheirparticipation.Activitiesinsid
ethese
strategystrandscontributetochangesinknowledge,skill,andadheren
ce.
Eventually,theycancontributetoincreasesinstrength,endurance,nu
trients,flexibility,andrelaxation.Concurrently,overtime,thesesamestrategiesa
lsoyield
reducedfat/calories.Theretentionandrecruitmentstrategystrandals
ogenerates
someoutputsandoutcomes.Aggregated,activitieswithinthisstrateg
ysecureand
keepparticipantsintheprogram.Notethatthismodelusesarrowstosh
owrelationships.Sometimestheyreflectacluster(indicatingsynergies)rathe
rthanjust one:onerelationships.
Asistypicalofmanyprograms,severalstrategiesmaybeshownascont
ributing
collectivelytooutcomes,ratherthaneachstrategymakingitsindividu
alcontribu- tiontodistinctoutcomesinisolation.Collectively,thelongtermoutcomesgenerateimprovedhealth,whichcouldbemeasuredinavarietyofways(e.g.,
blood pressure,bloodlipidandsugarprofiles,weight).
Incontrasttothebigpictureviewthattheoryofchangemodelsoffer,pro
gram
logicmodelsprovideacloser,moredetailedpictureofoperations.Thisv

iewofthe
programprovidesadequatedetailtothencreateworkplans.Program
modelscan
provideareliableoutlineforworkplansthatareusedtoimplementand
managea
programorlargerchangeeffort.Justliketheoryofchangemodels,progr
ammod- elsareoftenlogical
buthere,feasibility,givenlimitedtimeandresources,isthe
appropriatestandardforassessingtheirvalue.Acommonquestionabo
utprogram
logicmodelsfocusesontheirlevelofdetail.Essentially,thelevelofdetai
lin
programlogicmodelsshouldbedeterminedbytheirintendeduseandu
sers.
Althoughsomewhatsituational,programlogicmodelsbuildoutstrate
giestoactivities.Sometimestheycanevengettothefinedetailoftasks,althoughm
oreoften thatisdescribedinanoperationsoractionplan.

From Strategy to Activities

Someprogramlogicmodelscanbeextremelycomplex,butthestepsto
create
themaregenerallythesameasformoresimpleefforts(seeFigure3.2).L
arge-scale programsormultiyearchangeefforts(sometimescalledinitiatives)oftenare
composedofmanystrategiesaimedattargetaudiencesacrossmanysi
tesovercon- siderabletime.

42

PARTICONSTRUCTION

Programlogicmodelsusuallydonotdisplayunderlyingbeliefsorassum
ptions.
Theyareneverthelessimportantelementsintheconsciousexploratio
nofmultiple
targetaudiences.Sometimesprogramsorchangeeffortsareimpleme
ntedinacascadewithsomeoverlapintime,whichrequiresaparticularsequenceof
strategies
andassociatedactivities.Whenthisisthecircumstance,itcanbehelpfu
ltofocus
onafunction,agivenstrategy,oronepartnersdesignatedwork.Theta
skisoften
simplifiedbythinkingaboutasingleaspectandthenconnectingitbackt
othe
wholewithsomeoftheinherentcomplexityreduced.Ultimately,progr
amexecu- tionreliesonintegratedaction
buttheworkthatprecedesitmayrequirefocused
developmentalattentiononsmallerparts.
Usingthehealthimprovementprogramexample,Figure3.5providesa
norientationtohowtheexercisestrategystrandmightbereducedtoactivities
.Itbreaks
thestrategyintogreaterdetailforthepurposesofselectionanddesign.
InFigure3.5,itbecomesevidentthatexerciseasastrategyismadeupof
severalkeyactivities.Theyincludephysicalexercise(strengthandend
urance),
education,andassessment.Together,alloftheseactivitiesrepresenta
comprehensivestrategy,exercise,thatisjustonemeanstoimprovedhealth.Re
callthat
thewholetheoryofchangeforthisexamplealsoincludesstressreducti
on,nutrition,andretention.Itisthecombinationofstrategiesreflectedinthewh
ole
programthatismostlikelytosecureresults.Eachstrandofacomprehen
sive
programlogicmodelneedstoillustratethecontributionofeachstrateg
yaswell astheinterdependence.
Asyouspecifytheactivitiescontentofyourstrategyyouarenamingmor
eprecisely
whatmakesupthegivenstrategy.Later,thewholemodelistestedforfe
asibilityboth
practicallybeforeimplementationandliterallywhentheprogramisev
aluated.
InFigure3.6,weprovideaviewwithgreaterdetailfor
only
theexercisestrategy.
DoGet

Strength
Activities

Enduranc
e Activities
Results
Exercise
Educatio

n Fitness
Assessment
Exercise Strategy

Figure 3.5

OneStrategyWithMultipleActivities

43

44

PARTICONSTRUCTION

Inthisillustration,weshowthedetailofactivitieswithintheexercisestra
tegy.It
alsosuggeststhemanydecisionshiddeninprogramdesignandplannin
g.Inchoosingactivities,itiscriticalthattherelationshipamongstrategiesandacti
vitiesis
intentional.Thestrategiesandtheclusterofappropriateactivitiesshou
ldalsobe
chosenwithreferencetoatargetaudience.Remember,logicmodelsus
eifthen
sequencesfromlefttorightinthecolumnsandamongthefeaturesasyo
uread fromlefttoright.

Action Steps for a Program Logic Model

Thepracticalconstructionofaprogramlogicmodeloftenbeginswithon
eor
moreinformationsources(e.g.,research,interviews,documents).Wer
ecommend
thatpeoplebeginboththeoryofchangeandprogramlogicmodelswitht
henamed
ends.Peoplearemostclearabouttheirintendedresults(outcomesandi
mpact).
Ourexperienceisthatyoudo know whatyouwanttoaccomplish.Theresults
soughtreflectboththeimpactintendedandtheoutcomesovertime.Ne
xt,name
thechangesoroutcomesthatwillbepartofyourprogresstowardimpact
.
Unpackingthissequenceisimportantbecauseitmakesiteasiertoseet
hestrength
oftheconnectionbetweenwhatyoudoandwhatyoucanget.Wesugges
ttackling
theactivitiesrequiredtoachievetheoutcomesyouhavespecifiedinyo
urthirdstep.
Activitiesareabout how
intendedchangeswilloccur.Fourth,resources/inputs
becometheessentialingredientsofactivities.Andfinally,outputsrefle
cttheinformationneededtoverifythatactivitiesnamedearlierintheprocessreac
htheright
audiencesandareofthequalityandquantityneededtoproduceresults.
So,the stepstodraftaprogramlogicmodelareorderedinthisway:
1.Identifytheresultsthatoneormorestrategieswillultimatelygenerate.
2.Describethestepwiseseriesofoutcomes(orchanges)thatwillsho
wprogress towardimpact.
3.Namealltheactivitiesneededtogeneratetheoutcomes(foreachstrategy).
4.Definetheresources/inputsthatlinkdirectlytoandwillsupplytheactivities

.
5.Identifytheoutputsthatreflecttheaccomplishmentofac
tivities.
Figure3.7illustratestheseactionstepsandtheirsequence.

Creating Your Program Logic Model

Theformatofalogicmodelformathelpsorganizeinformationinauseful
way.
Thinkofanidea,project,orprogramyoumanagenoworwanttocreatea
ndits
results.Foreachstrategy,brainstormelementsthatmightbecitedinsh
ort-term
outcomesfirstbutareclearlylinkedtoyourintendedresults.Dothesam
efor
resources,activities,andoutputs.Itisimportanttomakechoicesabout
theoutcomesthatarefeasiblewithyourlimitedresources.Thisisdiscusseding
reater detailinthenextchapter.

CreatingProgramLogicModels
45
DoGet
StrategiesResults

Step1
ResourcesActivities

Outputs

Short-term
Outcomes

Step4

Intermediateterm
Outcomes

Long-term
Outcomes

Step5

Step3

Figure 3.7

Step2

StepsinCreatingaProgramLogicModel

Withsomeexperience,youwillbegintorecognizecommonlyusedstrat
egies
thatreflectknowledgefromyourfieldordiscipline.Forexample,market
ing/
communication,recruitment,retention,professionaldevelopmentor
education,
advocacy,andpolicyarestrategiesoftenfoundinprogrammodels.Exa
mples
ofactivitiesunderamarketing/communicationstrategycouldinclude
prepare
databaseoftargetmarkets,generatenewsreleases,createandsenda
newsletter,
generateaWebsite,andpreparepublicserviceannouncements.Wesu
ggestyou
tackleonestrategyatatime.Aimtodefinethesamelevelofdetailforeac
hstrategy.
Selectedexamplesofarchetypes,ortestedrecipes,aredescribedinCh
apter7.

Creating a Program Logic Model Together

Wethinkthebestmethodforgeneratingaprogramlogicmodelengages
asmall
group,especiallyifthemembersarestakeholdersintheideaorprogram
itrepresents.Stakeholdersaresituational,butgenerallyarethosewithaninter
estinor
peoplelikelytobenefitfromtheprogram.Logicmodelingoftenincludes
funders,
programstaff,andprogramparticipants.Intentionallyincludingstake
holders
supportsbestcontributionsaswellassomesubsequentbenefitsrelativ
etoimplementation.Thefacilitationofmodelingrequiressomeadvanceplannin
ganda
commitmenttobothdisciplineandqualityduringtheprocess.Adeterm

Impa
ct

ination
aboutthestatusofasharedunderstandingandmeaningforspecifiedre
sultsgets
youreffortstarted.Itisimportanttonotethatmodelsmayneedtobeupd
atedto
respondtothedynamicsofanexternalenvironment(context).Theyals
oreflect
livingsystemsthatarenotmechanisticbutchanging.Forthesetworeas
ons(and
others),itisnecessarytoexpectmodelswillberevised.Withlimitsonti
me,
impactandoutcomescanbeidentifiedandselected.Thiscanbeaccom
plisheda numberofways.
Wehavehadsuccessinusingtheactionstepsnoted,particularlywhene
ach
participantcontributedtothemodelelementsviasmallstickynotes.Th
isquickly

46

PARTICONSTRUCTION

generatesalargenumberofpossibilitiesforeachelement.Redundanci
esshouldbe
notedandcelebratedascommonlyheld.Then,thegroupcansortthem:
thosethat
must
bekept,that could bekept,andthosethatare
notrelevant.
Oncetheresultsare
named,thenitisrelativelyeasytospecifytheotherelements.Inthisdisc
iplined
processeachstakeholdercontributestothewholeandeachcontributio
nhasthe benefitofaninternaltestrelativetodesign.
WeoftenuseMicrosoftVisiotoconstructourmodels,butmanyotherapp
licationssuchasWordandPowerPointhavedrawingoptions.Theseaswella
s
Inspirationsoftwareareallreadilyavailable.TheSupplementalReadin
gslistatthe
endofthechapteridentifiessomeexamplesofotherfreeandcommerci
alsoftware
applications.Takecareinusingtechnologyformodelcreationbecausei
tcan excludevaluableparticipation.

In Summary
Highqualityprogramlogicmodelsdependontheevidencebasefoundinthei
r
parallelbutsimplertheoryofchangemodels.Programlogicmodelsdis
playseveral
importantelements:resources;activities;outputs;short-,intermedia
te-,andlongtermoutcomes;andimpact.Tocreateaprogramlogicmodelstartwitht
he
intendedresults:outcomesandimpact.Then,activities(whicharecon
sistentwith
strategiesinthetheoryofchangemodel)areselected.Next,resources
andoutputs
arecited.Webelievecreatingmodelswithdeepparticipationofstakeho
lders improvestheirqualityandencouragestheiruse.

Learning Resources
Reflection
1.Whataretheimplicationsofaprogramlogicmodelbuiltwithoutasp
ecific theoryofchange?
2.Thinkofasuccessfulbusinessanditsproductorservice.Whatistheunder-

lyingprogramlogicthatshowstheexplanationsforprofitability?
3.Feasibilityreliesonseveralaspects.Canyounamesome?
4.Whatarestrengthsandlimitationsofalinearoranonlineardisplay?
Would
individualsfromdifferentfields(andtheirrelevantcultures)answers
imi- larlyordifferently?Why?
5.Whyisbeingspecificaboutresultsimportant?

CreatingProgramLogicModels
47

Application
Specifytheresultofasharedprogram,project,oridea.Drawatheoryofc
hange
modelfortheprogram,project,oridea.Then,attemptaprogramlogicm
odel.
Usingstickynotesorpiecesofpaper,brainstormtheoutcomesthatnee
dtohappen
tosecuretheresult.Organizethemintoshort,intermediate,andlongte
rm.Pick
oneshorttermoutcome.Brainstormwhatactivitiesarecriticaltothatoutcome.
Organizetheactivitiesrelativetoasingleormultiplestrategies.Forgive
nstrategies
andtheiractivities,nametheresourcesneeded.Fromtheactivities,cit
ewhatout- putsarepossible.Organizetheseelementsasonemodel.

References and Supplemental Readings

Texts
Frechtling,J.(2007). Logicmodelingmethodsinprogramevaluation.
SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.
Green,E.L.(2005).
Reinventing logic models: A stakeholder-driven group approach.
Unpublisheddoctoraldissertation,UniversityofCincinnati,OH.
Mayeske,G.W.(1994).
Lifecycleprogrammanagementandevaluation:Anheuristicapproach.
Washington,DC:UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture.
UnitedWayofAmerica.(1996).
Measuring program outcomes: A practical approach.
Alexandria,VA:Author.
Westley,F.,Zimmerman,B.,&Patton,M.Q.(2007).
Getting to maybe: How the world is
changed.Toronto:VintageCanada.
Wong-Rieger,D.,&David,L.(1996).
Ahands-on guide to planning and evaluation.
Ottawa:
CanadianHemophiliaSociety.

Journal Articles
Cooksy,L.J.,Gill,P.,&Kelly,P.A.(2001).Theprogramlogicmodelasanintegrativeframeworkforamultimethodevaluation.
EvaluationandProgramPlanning,24 (2),119128.
McLaughlin,J.A.(1999).Logicmodels:Atoolfortellingyourprogramsperformancestory.
Evaluation and Program Planning,22 (1),6572.
Millar,A.,Simeone,R.S.,&Carnevale,J.T.(2001).Logicmodels:Asystemstoolforperformancemanagement.
Evaluation and Program Planning,24 (1),7381.
Rush,B.,&Ogborne,A.(1991).Programlogicmodels:Expandingtheirroleandstructuresfor
programplanningandevaluation. Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation, 6,
95106.

Internet Resources
Forcomprehensivebibliographiesandlinkstoadditionalresources,see:
Logicmodelresources.
(n.d.).Atlanta,GA:TheEvaluationWorkingGroupoftheCentersfor
DiseaseControlandPrevention.RetrievedOctober25,2007,fromhttp://w
ww.cdc .gov/eval/resources.htm#logic%20model

48

PARTICONSTRUCTION
Jung,B.C.(2007).
Evaluation resources on the Internet.
RetrievedOctober25,2007,from
http://www.bettycjung.net/Evaluation.htm

Forlogicmodeldevelopmenttoolkits,see:
Enhancing program performance with logic models.
(n.d.).
Madison:UniversityofWisconsin
CooperativeExtensionService.RetrievedOctober25,2007,fromhttp://w
ww.uwex.edu/ ces/lmcourse/
Graig,E.(n.d.). Logicmodels:Atutorial.
UseableKnowledge,LLC.RetrievedOctober25,2007,
fromhttp://www.usablellc.net/Logic%20Model
%20(Online)/Presentation_Files/index .html
Point K: Practical tools for planning, evaluation and actionLogic model builder.
(n.d.).
Washington,DC:InnovationNetwork.RetrievedOctober25,2007,from
http://www.innonet.org/index.php?section_id=64&content_id=185
Communitytoolbox:Developingatheoryofchangeorlogicmodel.
(n.d.). Lawrence:University
ofKansas.RetrievedOctober2007,fromhttp://ctb.ku.edu/tools/en/section_1877.ht
m

Forlogicmodeldevelopmentsoftware,see:
Logic model.
(n.d.).Toronto:Performancesoft,Inc.RetrievedOctober25,2007,from
http://www.performancesoft.com/solutions/logic-model/software.asp?
Solution=plm
Outcome tracking software and outcomes-based applications.
(n.d.).Durham,NC:Results
TechnologiesSolutions,Inc.RetrievedOctober25,2007,fromhttp://result
stechnologies .net/resources/primary_attributes.php