HundredYears'War

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TheHundredYears'Warwasaseriesofconflictswagedfrom1337to1453
betweentheHouseofPlantagenet,rulersoftheKingdomofEngland,againstthe
HouseofValois,rulersoftheKingdomofFrance,forcontrolofthelatterkingdom.
Eachsidedrewmanyalliesintothewar.

HundredYears'War

FortheirFrenchpossessions,theEnglishkingssincetheNormanConquestwere
vassalsofthekingsofFrance.TheFrenchkingshadendeavored,overthecenturies,
toreducethepossessionsoftheirovermightyvassals,totheeffectthatonlyGascony
waslefttotheEnglish.Theconfiscationorthreatofconfiscatingthisduchyhadbeen
partofFrenchpolicytocheckthegrowthofEnglishpower,particularlywheneverthe
EnglishwereatwarwiththeKingdomofScotland,anallyofFrance.
Throughhismother,IsabellaofFrance,EdwardIIIwasthegrandsonofPhilipIVof
France,andnephewofCharlesIVofFrance,thelastkingoftheseniorlineofthe
HouseofCapet.In1316,aprinciplewasestablisheddenyingwomensuccessionto
theFrenchthrone.WhenCharlesIVdiedin1328,Isabella,unabletoclaimtheFrench
throneforherself,claimeditforherson.TheFrenchrejectedtheclaim,maintaining
thatIsabellacouldnottransmitarightwhichshedidnotpossess.Foraboutnineyears
(13281337),theEnglishhadacceptedtheValoissuccessiontotheFrenchthrone.But
theinterferenceoftheFrenchking,PhilipVI,inEdwardIII'swaragainstScotland,
ledEdwardIIItoreasserthisclaimtotheFrenchthrone.Severaloverwhelming
EnglishvictoriesinthewarespeciallyatCrecy,Poitiers,andAgincourtraisedthe
prospectsofanultimateEnglishtriumph.However,thegreaterresourcesofthe
Frenchmonarchyprecludedacompleteconquest.Startingin1429,decisiveFrench
victoriesatPatay,Formigny,andCastillonconcludedthewarinfavorofFrance,with
Englandpermanentlylosingmostofitsmajorpossessionsonthecontinent.
Historianscommonlydividethewarintothreephasesseparatedbytruces:the
EdwardianEraWar(13371360)theCarolineWar(13691389)andtheLancastrian
War(14151453).Contemporaryconflictsinneighbouringareas,whichweredirectly
relatedtothisconflict,includedtheWaroftheBretonSuccession(13411364),the
CastilianCivilWar(13661369),theWaroftheTwoPeters(13561375)inAragon,

Clockwise,fromtopleft:JohnofBohemiaattheBattleofCrcy,
EnglishandFrancoCastilianfleetsattheBattleofLaRochelle,
HenryVandtheEnglisharmyattheBattleofAgincourt,
JoanofArcralliesFrenchforcesattheSiegeofOrlans

Date

13371453(116years)

Location

France,theLowCountries,England,Spain

Result

EdwardianWar(13371360):
Englishvictory
CarolineWar(13691389):
Frenchvictory
LancastrianWar(14151453):
FrenchvictoryHouseofValoismaintains
thethroneofFrance

Territorial
changes

EnglandgainsthePaleofCalaisbutloses
allothercontinentalterritory

Belligerents

andthe138385CrisisinPortugal.Laterhistoriansinventedtheterm"Hundred
Years'War"asaperiodizationtoencompassalloftheseevents,thusconstructingthe
longestmilitaryconflictinhistory.

France

England

Scotland

Burgundy

Casualtiesandlosses
Thewarowesitshistoricalsignificancetomultiplefactors.Byitsend,feudalarmies
High
High
hadbeenlargelyreplacedbyprofessionaltroops,andaristocraticdominancehad
yieldedtoademocratisationofthemanpowerandweaponsofarmies.Although
primarilyadynasticconflict,thewargaveimpetustoideasofFrenchandEnglishnationalism.Thewiderintroductionofweaponsandtactics
supplantedthefeudalarmieswhereheavycavalryhaddominated.ThefirststandingarmiesinWesternEuropesincethetimeoftheWestern
RomanEmpireoriginatedduringthewar,composedlargelyofcommonersandthushelpingtochangetheirroleinwarfare.Withrespecttothe
belligerents,Englishpoliticalforcesovertimecametoopposethecostlyventure.ThedissatisfactionofEnglishnobles,resultingfromtheloss
oftheircontinentallandholdings,becameafactorleadingtothecivilwarsknownastheWarsoftheRoses(14551487).InFrance,civilwars,
deadlyepidemics,famines,andbanditfreecompaniesofmercenariesreducedthepopulationdrastically.ShornofitsContinentalpossessions,
Englandwasleftwiththesenseofbeinganislandnation,whichprofoundlyaffecteditsoutlookanddevelopmentformorethan500years.[1]

Contents
1Background
1.1Englishkingsandcontinentaldukedoms:10661357
1.2DynasticturmoilinFrance:131428
2Beginningofthewar:133760
2.1GasconyundertheKingofEngland
2.2FrancoScotalliance
2.3Endofhomage
2.4Outbreak,theEnglishChannelandBrittany
2.5BattleofCrcyandthetakingofCalais
2.6BattleofPoitiersandtheTreatyofBrtigny
3Firstpeace:136069
4FrenchascendancyunderCharlesV:136989
4.1AquitaineandCastile

4.2Englishturmoil
5Secondpeace:13891415
6ResumptionofthewarunderHenryV:141529
6.1BurgundyallianceandthetakingofParis
6.1.1BattleofAgincourt(1415)
6.1.2TreatyofTroyes(1420)
6.1.3DeathofClarence(1421)
6.2Englishsuccess
6.3JoanofArcandFrenchrevival
7Frenchvictory:142953
7.1Henry'scoronationsandthedesertionofBurgundy
7.2Frenchresurgence
7.3FallofGascony
7.4Endofthewar
8Significance
9Timeline
9.1Battles
10Importantfigures
11Seealso
12Notes
13References
14Externallinks

Background
Englishkingsandcontinentaldukedoms:10661357

TheAngloNormandynastythathadruledEnglandsincetheNormanconquestof1066wasbroughtto
anendwhenthesonofGeoffreyofAnjouandEmpressMatilda,Henry(greatgrandsonofWilliamthe
Conqueror),becamethefirstoftheAngevinKingsofEnglandin1154asKingHenryII.[2]TheKingof
England,inwhatisnowknownastheAngevinEmpire,directlyruledmoreterritoryonthecontinent
thantheKingofFrance.However,asholdersofcontinentalduchies,Englishkingsowedhomagetothe
KingofFrance.Fromthe11thcenturyonward,thedukeshadautonomy,neutralisingtheissue.[3]
JohnofEnglandinheritedtheAngevindomainsfromKingRichardI.However,PhilipIIofFrance
acteddecisivelytoexploittheweaknessesofKingJohn,bothlegallyandmilitarily,andby1204had
succeededintakingcontrolofmostoftheAngevincontinentalpossessions.FollowingJohn'sreign,the
BattleofBouvines(1214),theSaintongeWar(1242),andfinallytheWarofSaintSardos(1324)
resultedinthecompletelossofNormandyandthereductionofEngland'sholdingsonthecontinenttoa
fewprovincesinGascony.[4]

DynasticturmoilinFrance:131428
ThequestionoffemalesuccessiontotheFrenchthronewasraisedafterthedeathofLouisXin1316.
LouisXleftonlyadaughter,andhisposthumoussonlivedonlyafewdays.Philip,CountofPoitiers,
brotherofLouisX,assertedthat"womencannotsucceedtotheFrenchthrone".Throughhispolitical
sagacityhewonoverhisadversaries,andsucceededtotheFrenchthroneasPhilipVofFrance.Bythe
samelawthatheprocured,hisdaughtersweredeniedthesuccession,whichpassedtohisyounger
brother,CharlesIV,in1322.[5]

HomageofEdwardIofEngland
(kneeling)toPhilipIVofFrance
(seated),1286.AsDukeofAquitaine,
Edwardwasalsoavassaltothe
FrenchKing.

PhilipIIIof
France
r.12701285

PhilipIVof
France
r.12851314

Charlesof
Valois
d.1325

LouisXof
France
r.131416

PhilipVofFrance
r.131622

JoanIIof
Navarre
b.1312

JoanIII,Countessof
Burgundy
b.1308

Charlesof
vreux
b.1332

PhilipofBurgundy
b.1323

CharlesIVof
France
r.132228

Isabellaof
France

EdwardIIof
England

PhilipVIof
France
r.132850

EdwardIIIof
England
b.1312

WhenCharlesIVofFrancediedin1328withonlydaughtersasheirs,thenearestmalerelativewashisnephewEdwardIIIofEngland.
EdwardhadinheritedhisrightthroughhismotherIsabella,thesisterofthedeadFrenchking,butthequestionarosewhethersheshouldbe
abletotransmitarightthatshedidnotherselfpossessbecauseofhergender.TheFrenchnobility,moreover,balkedattheprospectofbeing
ruledbytheEnglishking.TheassembliesoftheFrenchbaronsandprelatesandtheUniversityofParisdecidedthatmaleswhoderivetheir
righttoinheritancethroughtheirmothershouldbeexcluded.ThusthenearestheirthroughmaleancestrywasCharlesIV'sfirstcousin,Philip,
CountofValois,anditwasdecidedthatheshouldbecrownedPhilipVI.In1340theAvignonpapacyconfirmedthatunderSaliclawmales
shouldnotbeabletoinheritthroughtheirmothers.[5][6]

Beginningofthewar:133760
GasconyundertheKingofEngland
Inthe11thcentury,GasconyinsouthwestFrancehadbeenincorporatedintoAquitaine(alsoknownasGuyenneorGuienne)andformedwith
ittheprovinceofGuyenneandGascony(French:GuyenneetGascogne).TheAngevinkingsofEnglandbecameDukesofAquitaineafter
HenryIImarriedtheformerQueenofFrance,EleanorofAquitaine,in1152,fromwhichpointthelandswereheldinvassalagetotheFrench
crown.Bythe13thcenturythetermsAquitaine,GuyenneandGasconywerevirtuallysynonymous.[7][8]AtthebeginningofEdwardIII'sreign
on1February1327,theonlypartofAquitainethatremainedinhishandswastheDuchyofGascony.ThetermGasconycametobeusedfor
theterritoryheldbytheAngevin(Plantagenet)KingsofEnglandinsouthwestFrance,althoughtheystillusedthetitleDukeofAquitaine.[8][9]

Forthefirst10yearsofEdwardIII'sreign,Gasconyhadbeenamajorpointoffriction.TheEnglisharguedthat,asCharlesIVhadnotactedin
aproperwaytowardshistenant,EdwardshouldbeabletoholdtheduchyfreeofanyFrenchsuzerainty.However,thislineofargumentcould
notbemaintainedbytheEnglish,soin1329the17yearoldEdwardIIIpaidhomagetoPhilipVI.Traditiondemandedthatvassalsshould
approachtheirliegeunarmedwithheadsuncovered,howeverEdwarddemonstratedhisreluctancebyattendingtheceremonybywearinghis
crownandsword.[10]DespiteEdwardcomplying,albeitreluctantly,theFrenchcontinuedtopressuretheEnglishadministration.[11]
Gasconywasnottheonlysorepoint.OneofEdward'sinfluentialadviserswasRobertIIIofArtois.RobertwasanexilefromtheFrenchcourt,
havingfallenoutwithPhilipVIoveraninheritanceclaim.HeurgedEdwardtostartawartoreclaimFranceandwasabletoprovideextensive
intelligenceontheFrenchcourt.[12]

FrancoScotalliance
TheKingsofEnglandhadbeentryingtosubjugatetheScotsforsometime.In1295atreatywassignedbetweenFranceandScotlandduring
thereignofPhiliptheFair.CharlesIVformallyrenewedthetreatyin1326,promisingScotlandthatifEnglandinvadedthenFrancewould
supporttheScots.Similarly,theFrenchwouldfindScottishsupportiftheirownkingdomwasattacked.Edwardcouldnotsucceedinhisplans
forScotlandiftheycouldcountonFrenchsupport.[11]
PhilipVIhadassembledalargenavalfleetoffMarseillesaspartofanambitiousplanforacrusadetotheHolyLand.Howevertheplanwas
abandonedandthefleet,includingelementsoftheScottishNavy,movedtotheEnglishChanneloffNormandyin1336,threatening
England.[12]Todealwiththiscrisis,EdwardproposedthattheEnglishraisetwoarmies,onetodealwiththeScots"atasuitabletime",the
othertoproceedatoncetoGascony.AtthesametimeambassadorsweretobesenttoFrancewithaproposedtreatyfortheFrenchking.[13]

Endofhomage
AttheendofApril1337,PhilipofFrancewasinvitedtomeetthedelegationfromEnglandbutrefused.Thearrireban,literallyacallto
arms,wasproclaimedthroughoutFrancestartingon30April1337.Then,inMay1337,PhilipmetwithhisGreatCouncilinParis.Itwas
agreedthattheDuchyofAquitaine,effectivelyGascony,shouldbetakenbackintotheking'shandsonthegroundsthatEdwardIIIwasin
breachofhisobligationsasvassalandhadshelteredtheking's'mortalenemy'Robertd'Artois.[14]Edwardrespondedtotheconfiscationof
AquitainebychallengingPhilip'srighttotheFrenchthrone.WhenCharlesIVdied,EdwardhadmadeaclaimforthesuccessionoftheFrench
throne,throughtherightofhismotherIsabella(CharlesIV'ssister),daughterofPhilipIV.AnyclaimwasconsideredinvalidatedbyEdward's
homagetoPhilipVIin1329.Edwardrevivedhisclaimandin1340formallyassumedthetitle'KingofFranceandtheFrenchRoyalArms'.[15]
On26January1340,EdwardIIIformallyreceivedhomagefromGuy,halfbrotheroftheCountofFlanders.ThecivicauthoritiesofGhent,
YpresandBrugesproclaimedEdwardKingofFrance.Edward'spurposewastostrengthenhisallianceswiththeLowCountries.His
supporterswouldbeabletoclaimthattheywereloyaltothe"true"KingofFranceandwerenotrebelsagainstPhilip.InFebruary1340,

EdwardreturnedtoEnglandtotryandraisemorefundsandalsodealwithpoliticaldifficulties.[16]
RelationswithFlanderswerealsotiedtotheEnglishwooltrade,sinceFlanders'principalcitiesreliedheavilyontextileproductionand
Englandsuppliedmuchoftherawmaterialtheyneeded.EdwardIIIhadcommandedthathischancellorsitonthewoolsackincouncilasa
symbolofthepreeminenceofthewooltrade.[17]Atthetimetherewereabout110,000sheepinSussexalone.[18]ThegreatmedievalEnglish
monasteriesproducedlargesurplusesofwoolthatweresoldtoEurope.Successivegovernmentswereabletomakelargeamountsofmoneyby
taxingit.[17]France'sseapowerledtoeconomicdisruptionsforEngland,shrinkingthewooltradetoFlandersandthewinetradefrom
Gascony.[19][20]

Outbreak,theEnglishChannelandBrittany
Edward,withhisfleet,sailedfromEnglandon22June1340,andarrivedthenextdayofftheZwyn
estuary.TheFrenchfleetassumedadefensiveformationofftheportofSluys.TheEnglishfleet
apparentlytrickedtheFrenchintobelievingtheywerewithdrawing.However,whenthewindturnedin
thelateafternoon,theEnglishattackedwiththewindandsunbehindthem.TheFrenchfleetwas
almostcompletelydestroyedinwhatbecameknownastheBattleofSluys.Englanddominatedthe
EnglishChannelfortherestofthewar,preventingFrenchinvasions.[16]Atthispoint,Edward'sfunds
ranoutandthewarprobablywouldhaveendedwereitnotforthedeathoftheDukeofBrittany
precipitatingasuccessiondisputebetweentheduke'shalfbrotherJohnofMontfortandCharlesof
Blois,nephewofPhilipVI.[21]
In1341,conflictoverthesuccessiontotheDuchyofBrittanybegantheBretonWarofSuccession,in
whichEdwardbackedJohnofMontfortandPhilipbackedCharlesofBlois.Actionforthenextfew
yearsfocusedaroundabackandforthstruggleinBrittany.ThecityofVanneschangedhandsseveral
times,whilefurthercampaignsinGasconymetwithmixedsuccessforbothsides.[21]

BattleofSluysfromamanuscriptof
Froissart'sChronicles,Bruge,c.1470

BattleofCrcyandthetakingofCalais
InJuly1346,Edwardmountedamajorinvasionacrossthechannel,landinginNormandy'sCotentin,atSt.Vaast.TheEnglisharmycaptured
thecompletelyunguardedCaeninjustoneday,surprisingtheFrench.PhilipgatheredalargearmytoopposeEdward,whochosetomarch
northwardtowardtheLowCountries,pillagingashewent,ratherthanattemptingtotakeandholdterritory.HereachedtheriverSeinetofind
mostofthecrossingsdestroyed.Hemovedfurtherandfurthersouth,worryinglyclosetoParis,untilhefoundthecrossingatPoissy.Thishad
onlybeenpartiallydestroyed,sothecarpenterswithinhisarmywereabletofixit.HethencontinuedonhiswaytoFlandersuntilhereached
theriverSomme.ThearmycrossedatatidalfordatBlanchetaque,leavingPhilip'sarmystranded.Edward,assistedbythisheadstart,
continuedonhiswaytoFlandersoncemore,until,findinghimselfunabletooutmanoeuvrePhilip,Edwardpositionedhisforcesforbattleand

Philip'sarmyattacked.TheBattleofCrcywasacompletedisasterfortheFrench,largelycreditedtotheEnglishlongbowmenandtheFrench
king,whoallowedhisarmytoattackbeforeitwasready.[22]PhilipappealedtohisScottishalliestohelpwithadiversionaryattackon
England.KingDavidIIofScotlandrespondedbyinvadingnorthernEngland,buthisarmywasdefeatedandhewascapturedattheBattleof
Neville'sCross,on17October1346.ThisgreatlyreducedthethreatfromScotland.[21][23]InFrance,Edwardproceedednorthunopposedand
besiegedthecityofCalaisontheEnglishChannel,capturingitin1347.ThisbecameanimportantstrategicassetfortheEnglish,allowing
themtosafelykeeptroopsinnorthernFrance.[22]CalaiswouldremainunderEnglishcontrol,evenaftertheendoftheHundredYears'War,
untilthesuccessfulFrenchsiegein1558.[24]

BattleofPoitiersandtheTreatyofBrtigny
In1348,theBlackDeath,whichhadjustarrivedinParis,begantoravageEurope.[25]In1356,afterthe
plaguehadpassedandEnglandwasabletorecoverfinancially,Edward'ssonandnamesake,thePrince
ofWales,laterknownastheBlackPrince,invadedFrancefromGascony,winningagreatvictoryin
theBattleofPoitiers.[21]Duringthebattle,theGasconnobleJeandeGrailly,captaldeBuchleda
mountedunitthatwasconcealedinaforest.TheFrenchadvancewascontained,atwhichpointde
GraillyledaflankingmovementwithhishorsemencuttingofftheFrenchretreatandsucceedingin
capturingKingJohnIIofFrance(knownasJohntheGood)andmanyofhisnobles.[26][27]WithJohn
heldhostage,hissontheDauphin(latertobecomeCharlesVofFrance)tookoverasregent.[28]

BattleofCrcy,1346

AftertheBattleofPoitiers,chaosruled,asmanyFrenchnoblesandmercenariesrampaged.A
contemporaryreportsaid:
...allwentillwiththekingdomandtheStatewasundone.Thievesandrobbersroseupeverywhereintheland.TheNobles
despisedandhatedallothersandtooknothoughtforusefulnessandprofitoflordandmen.Theysubjectedanddespoiledthe
peasantsandthemenofthevillages.Innowisedidtheydefendtheircountryfromitsenemiesratherdidtheytrampleit
underfoot,robbingandpillagingthepeasants'goods...
FromtheChroniclesofJeandeVenette[29]

EdwardinvadedFrance,forthethirdandlasttime,hopingtocapitaliseonthediscontentandseizethethrone.TheDauphin'sstrategywasthat
ofnonengagementwiththeEnglisharmyinthefield.HoweverEdwardwantedthecrownandchosethecathedralcityofReimsforhis
coronation(Reimswasthetraditionalcoronationcity).[30]However,thecitizensofReimsbuiltandreinforcedthecity'sdefencesbefore
Edwardandhisarmyarrived.[31]Edwardbesiegedthecityforfiveweeks,butthedefencesheldandtherewasnocoronation.[30]Edward

movedontoParis,butretreatedafterafewskirmishesinthesuburbs.TheFrenchmadecontactwith
himandforcedhimtonegotiate.[32]AconferencewasheldatBrtignythatresultedintheTreatyof
Brtigny(8May1360).ThetreatywasratifiedatCalaisinOctober.Inreturnforincreasedlandsin
Aquitaine,EdwardrenouncedNormandy,Touraine,AnjouandMaineandconsentedtoreducingKing
John'sransombyamillioncrowns.EdwardalsoabandonedhisclaimtothecrownofFrance.[26][28][33]

Firstpeace:136069
TheFrenchking,JohnII,hadbeenheldcaptiveinEngland.TheTreatyofBrtignysethisransomat
3millioncrownsandallowedforhostagestobeheldinlieuofJohn.Thehostagesincludedtwoofhis
sons,severalprincesandnobles,fourinhabitantsofParis,andtwocitizensfromeachofthenineteen
principaltownsofFrance.Whilethesehostageswereheld,JohnreturnedtoFrancetotryandraise
fundstopaytheransom.In1362John'ssonLouisofAnjou,ahostageinEnglishheldCalais,escaped
captivity.So,withhisstandinhostagegone,Johnfelthonourboundtoreturntocaptivityin
England.[28][33]

EdwardIIIcountingthedeadonthe
battlefieldofCrcy

TheFrenchcrownhadbeenatoddswithNavarre(nearsouthernGascony)since1354andin1363the
NavarreseusedJohnII'scaptivityinLondonandthepoliticalweaknessoftheDauphintotrytoseizepower.[34]Althoughtherewasnoformal
treaty,EdwardIIIsupportedtheNavarresemovesparticularlyastherewasaprospectthathemightgaincontroloverthenorthernandwestern
provincesasaconsequence.WiththisinmindEdwarddeliberatelyslowedthepeacenegotiations.[35]In1364,JohnIIdiedinLondon,while
stillinhonourablecaptivity.[36]CharlesVsucceededhimaskingofFrance.[28][37]On6May1364,onemonthafterthedauphin'saccession
andthreedaysbeforehiscoronationasCharlesV,theNavarresesufferedacrushingdefeatattheBattleofCocherel.[38]

FrenchascendancyunderCharlesV:136989
AquitaineandCastile
In1366therewasacivilwarofsuccessioninCastile(partofmodernSpain).TherulerPeterofCastile'sforceswerepitchedagainstthoseof
hishalfbrotherHenryofTrastmara.TheEnglishcrownsupportedPeterandtheFrench,Henry.FrenchforceswereledbyBertranddu
Guesclin,aBreton,whorosefromrelativelyhumblebeginningstoprominenceasoneofFrance'swarleaders.CharlesVprovidedaforceof
12,000,withduGuesclinattheirhead,tosupportTrastmarainhisinvasionofCastile.[39]

PeterappealedtoEnglandandAquitaine'sBlackPrinceforhelp,butnonewasforthcoming,forcingPeterintoexileinAquitaine.TheBlack
PrincehadpreviouslyagreedtosupportPeter'sclaimsbutconcernsoverthetermsofthetreatyofBrtignyledhimtoassistPeterasa
representativeofAquitaine,ratherthanEngland.HethenledanAngloGasconarmyintoCastille.Peterwasrestoredtopowerafter
Trastmara'sarmywasdefeatedattheBattleofNajera.[40]
AlthoughtheCastilianshadagreedtofundtheBlackPrince,theyfailedtodoso.ThePrincewassufferingfromillhealthandreturnedwith
hisarmytoAquitaine.TopayoffdebtsincurredduringtheCastillecampaign,theprinceinstituteda
hearthtax.ArnaudAmanieuVIII,LordofAlbrethadfoughtontheBlackPrince'ssideduringthewar.
Albret,whoalreadyhadbecomediscontentedbytheinfluxofEnglishadministratorsintotheenlarged
Aquitaine,refusedtoallowthetaxtobecollectedinhisfief.HethenjoinedagroupofGasconlords
whoappealedtoCharlesVforsupportintheirrefusaltopaythetax.CharlesVsummonedoneGascon
lordandtheBlackPrincetohearthecaseinhisparlementinParis.TheBlackPrince'sanswerwasthat
hewouldgotoPariswithsixtythousandmenbehindhim.WarbrokeoutagainandEdwardIII
resumedthetitleofKingofFrance.[41]CharlesVdeclaredthatalltheEnglishpossessionsinFrance
wereforfeitedandbeforetheendof1369allAquitainewasinfullrevolt.[41][42]
WiththeBlackPrincegonefromCastile,HenrydeTrastmaraledasecondinvasionthatendedwith
Peter'sdeathattheBattleofMontielinMarch,1369.ThenewCastilianregimeprovidednavalsupport
toFrenchcampaignsagainstAquitaineandEngland.[40]

Englishturmoil
Withhishealthcontinuingtodeteriorate,theBlackPrincereturnedtoEnglandinJanuary1371,where
bynowhisfatherEdwardIIIwaselderlyandalsoinpoorhealth.Theprince'sillnesswasdebilitating.
Hediedon8June1376.[43]EdwardIIIonlyjustoutlivedhissonanddiedthefollowingyearon21
StatueofBertrandduGuesclinin
Dinan
June1377[44]hewassucceededbytheBlackPrince'ssecondsonRichardIIwhowasstillachild.[45]
ThetreatyatBrtignyleftEdwardIIIandEnglandwithenlargedholdingsinFrance,howeverasmall
professionalFrencharmyundertheleadershipofduGuesclinpushedtheEnglishbackand,bythetimeofCharlesV'sdeathin1380,the
EnglishonlyheldCalais.[46]
Itwasusualtoappointaregentinthecaseofachildmonarch,butnoregentwasappointedforRichardII,whonominallyexercisedthepower
ofkingshipfromthedateofhisaccessionin1377.[45]However,between1377and1380,actualpowerwasinthehandsofaseriesofcouncils.
Thepoliticalcommunitypreferredthistoaregencyledbytheking'suncle,JohnofGaunt,althoughGauntremainedhighlyinfluential.[45]

Richardfacedmanychallengesduringhisreign,includingthePeasants'RevoltledbyWatTylerin
1381,anAngloScottishwarin138485.HisattemptstoraisetaxestopayforhisScottishadventure
andfortheprotectionofCalaisagainsttheFrenchmadehimincreasinglyunpopular.[45]

Secondpeace:13891415
ThewarbecameincreasinglyunpopularwiththeEnglishpubliclargelyduetothehightaxesneededto
sustainit.ThesetaxeswereseenasoneofthereasonsforthePeasantsrevolt.[47]Richard'sincreasing
disinterestinthewartogetherwithhispreferentialtreatmentofaselectfewclosefriendsandadvisors
angeredanallianceoflordsthatincludedoneofhisuncles.Thisgroup,knownasLordsAppellant,
managedtosuccessfullypresschargesoftreasonagainstfiveofRichard'sadvisorsandfriendsinthe
MercilessParliament.TheLordsAppellantwereabletogaincontrolofthecouncilin1388andtried,
unsuccessfully,toreignitethewar.Althoughthewillwasthere,thefundstopaythetroopswas
lacking,sointheautumnof1388theCouncilagreedtoresumenegotiationswiththeFrenchcrown,
beginningon18June1389withthesigningofathreeyeartruceatLeulinghen.[47][48]

TheFrancoCastilianNavy,ledby
AdmiralsdeVienneandTovar,
managedtoraidtheEnglishcoasts
forthefirsttimesincethebeginning
oftheHundredYears'War.

In1389,Richard'suncleandsupporter,JohnofGaunt,returnedfromSpainandRichardwasableto
rebuildhispowergraduallyuntil1397,whenhereassertedhisauthorityanddestroyedtheprincipal
threeamongtheLordsAppellant.In1399,afterJohnofGauntdied,RichardIIdisinheritedGaunt's
son,theexiledHenryofBolingbroke.BolingbrokereturnedtoEnglandwithhissupportersand
deposedRichardandhadhimselfcrownedHenryIV.[48][49][45]
InScotland,theEnglishregimechangepromptedborderraidsthatwerecounteredbyaninvasionin
1402andthedefeatofaScottisharmyattheBattleofHomildonHill.[50]Adisputeoverthespoils
betweenHenryandHenryPercy,1stEarlofNorthumberlandresultedinalongandbloodystruggle
betweenthetwoforcontrolofnorthernEngland,resolvedonlywiththealmostcompletedestructionof
thePercyfamilyby1408.[51][52]
InWales,OwainGlyndrwasdeclaredPrinceofWaleson16September1400.Hewastheleaderof
themostseriousandwidespreadrebellionagainstEnglishauthorityinWalessincetheconquestof
12823.Therebellionwasfinallyputdownonlyin1415andresultedinWelshsemiindependencefor
anumberofyears.[53]

AssassinationofLouisI,Dukeof
Orlans

InthemeantimeCharlesVIofFrancewasdescendingintomadnessandanopenconflictforpowerbeganbetweenhiscousinJohnthe
Fearlessandhisbrother,LouisofOrlans.AfterLouis'sassassination,theArmagnacfamilytookpoliticalpowerinoppositiontoJohn.By
1410,bothsideswerebiddingforthehelpofEnglishforcesinacivilwar.[49]In1418PariswastakenbytheBurgundians,whomassacredthe
CountofArmagnacandabout2,500ofhisfollowers.[54]
Throughoutthisperiod,Englandconfrontedrepeatedraidsbypiratesthatheavilydamagedtradeandthenavy.Thereissomeevidencethat
HenryIVusedstatelegalisedpiracyasaformofwarfareintheEnglishChannel.Heusedsuchprivateeringcampaignstopressureenemies
withoutriskingopenwar.[55]TheFrenchrespondedinkindandFrenchpirates,underScottishprotection,raidedmanyEnglishcoastal
towns.[56]
ThedomesticanddynasticdifficultiesfacedbyEnglandandFranceinthisperiodquietedthewarforadecade.[56]
HenryIVofEnglanddiedin1413andwasreplacedbyhiseldestsonHenryV.CharlesVIofFrance'smentalillnessallowedhispowertobe
exercisedbyroyalprinceswhoserivalriescauseddeepdivisionsinFrance.HenryVwaswellawareofthesedivisionsandhopedtoexploit
them.In1414whileheheldcourtatLeicester,hereceivedambassadorsfromBurgundy.[57]
HenryaccreditedenvoystotheFrenchkingtomakeclearhisterritorialclaimsinFrancehealsodemandedthehandofCharlesVI'syoungest
daughterCatherineofValois.TheFrenchrejectedhisdemands,leadingHenrytoprepareforwar.[57]

ResumptionofthewarunderHenryV:141529
BurgundyallianceandthetakingofParis
BattleofAgincourt(1415)
InAugust1415,HenryVsailedfromEnglandwithaforceofabout10,500andlaidsiegetoHarfleur.Thecityresistedforlongerthan
expected,butfinallysurrenderedon22September1415.Becauseoftheunexpecteddelay,mostofthecampaignseasonwasgone.Ratherthan
marchonParisdirectly,heelectedtomakearaidingexpeditionacrossFrancetowardEnglishoccupiedCalais.Inacampaignreminiscentof
Crcy,hefoundhimselfoutmaneuveredandlowonsuppliesandhadtofightamuchlargerFrencharmyattheBattleofAgincourt,northof
theSomme.Despitetheproblemsandhavingasmallerforce,hisvictorywasneartotaltheFrenchdefeatwascatastrophic,costingmanyof
theArmagnacleaders.About40%oftheFrenchnobilitywaskilled.[58]Henrywasapparentlyconcernedthatthelargenumberofprisoners
takenwereasecurityrisk(thereweremoreFrenchprisonersthantheentireEnglisharmy)andheorderedtheirdeaths.[57]
TreatyofTroyes(1420)

HenryretookmuchofNormandy,includingCaenin1417,andRouenon19January1419,turningNormandyEnglishforthefirsttimeintwo
centuries.AformalalliancewasmadewiththeDuchyofBurgundy,whichhadtakenParisaftertheassassinationofDukeJohntheFearlessin
1419.In1420,HenrymetwithKingCharlesVI.TheysignedtheTreatyofTroyes,bywhichHenryfinallymarriedCharles'daughter
CatherineofValoisandHenry'sheirswouldinheritthethroneofFrance.TheDauphin,CharlesVII,wasdeclaredillegitimate.Henryformally
enteredParislaterthatyearandtheagreementwasratifiedbytheEstatesGeneral.[57]
DeathofClarence(1421)
On22March1421HenryV'sprogressinhisFrenchcampaignexperiencedanunexpectedreverse.
HenryhadlefthisbrotherandpresumptiveheirThomas,DukeofClarenceinchargewhilehereturned
toEngland.ClarenceengagedaFrancoScottishforceof5000men,ledbyJohnStewart,Earlof
BuchanattheBattleofBaug.Clarence,againsttheadviceofhislieutenants,beforehisarmyhadbeen
fullyassembled,attackedwithaforceofnomorethan1500menatarms.Hethen,duringthecourseof
thebattle,ledachargeofafewhundredmenintothemainbodyoftheFrancoScottisharmy,who
quicklyenvelopedtheEnglish.Intheensuingmele,theScot,JohnCarmichaelofDouglasdale,broke
hislanceunhorsingtheDukeofClarence.Onceontheground,thedukewasslainbyAlexander
Buchanan.[57][59]ThebodyoftheDukeofClarencewasrecoveredfromthefieldbyThomas
Montacute,4thEarlofSalisbury,whoconductedtheEnglishretreat.[60]

Englishsuccess

Fifteenthcenturyminiaturedepicting
theBattleofAgincourt.

HenryVreturnedtoFranceandwenttoParis,thenvisitingChartresandGtinaisbeforereturningto
Paris.FromtherehedecidedtoattacktheDauphinheldtownofMeaux.Itturnedouttobemore
difficulttoovercomethanfirstthought.Thesiegebeganabout6October1421,andthetownheldforsevenmonthsbeforefinallyfallingon11
May1422.[57]
AttheendofMay,HenrywasjoinedbyhisqueenandtogetherwiththeFrenchcourt,theywenttorestatSenlis.Whilethereitbecame
apparentthathewasill(possiblydysentery)andwhenhesetouttotheUpperLoirehedivertedtotheroyalcastleatVincennes,nearParis,
wherehediedon31August1422.[57]TheelderlyandinsaneCharlesVIofFrancediedtwomonthslater,on21October1422.Henryleftan
onlychild,hisninemontholdson,Henry,latertobecomeHenryVI.[61]
Onhisdeathbed,HenryVhadgiventheDukeofBedfordresponsibilityforEnglishFrance(asHenryVIwasonlyaninfant).Thewarin
FrancecontinuedunderBedford'sgeneralshipandseveralbattleswerewon.TheEnglishwonanemphaticvictoryattheBattleofVerneuil,
(17August1424).AttheBattleofBaug,Clarencehadrushedintobattlewithoutthesupportofhisarchers.AtVerneuilthearchersfoughtto

devastatingeffectagainsttheFrancoScottisharmy.TheeffectofthebattlewastovirtuallydestroytheDauphin'sfieldarmyandtoeliminate
theScotsasasignificantmilitaryforcefortherestofthewar.[61][62]

JoanofArcandFrenchrevival
JoanofArc'sappearancesparkedarevivalofFrenchspiritandthetidebegantoturnagainsttheEnglish.[61]
In1428,theEnglishlaidsiegetoOrlans.Theirforcewasinsufficienttofullyinvestthecity.In1429JoanconvincedtheDauphintosendher
tothesiege,sayingshehadreceivedvisionsfromGodtellinghertodriveouttheEnglish.Sheraisedthemoraleofthetroopsandthey
attackedtheEnglishredoubts,forcingtheEnglishtoliftthesiege.InspiredbyJoan,theFrenchtookseveralEnglishstrongholdsonthe
Loire.[63]
TheEnglishretreatedfromtheLoireValley,pursuedbyaFrencharmy.NearthevillageofPatay,
FrenchcavalrybrokethroughaunitofEnglishlongbowmenthathadbeensenttoblocktheroad,then
sweptthroughtheretreatingEnglisharmy.TheEnglishlost2,200men,andthecommanderJohn
Talbot,1stEarlofShrewsburywastakenprisoner.ThisvictoryopenedthewayfortheDauphinto
marchtoReimsforhiscoronationasCharlesVII(16July1429).[63][64]
Afterthecoronation,CharlesVII'sarmyfaredlesswell.AnattemptedFrenchsiegeofPariswas
defeatedon8September1429,andCharlesVIIwithdrewbacktotheLoireValley.[65]

Frenchvictory:142953
Henry'scoronationsandthedesertionofBurgundy
HenryVIwascrownedkingofEnglandatWestminsterAbbeyon5November1429andkingof
FranceatNotreDame,inParis,on16December1431.[61]
JoanwascapturedbytheBurgundiansatthesiegeofCompiegneon23May1430.TheBurgundians
transferredhertotheEnglish,whoorganisedatrialheadedbyPierreCauchon,aproEnglish
clergyman.Joanwasburnedatthestakeon30May1431.[63](Shewasrehabilitated25yearslaterby
PopeCallixtusIII).

ClanCarmichaelcrestwithbroken
spearcommemoratingtheunseating
oftheDukeofClarence.

AfterJoanofArc'sdeaththefortunesofwarturneddramaticallyagainsttheEnglish.[66]MostofHenry'sroyaladviserswereagainstmaking
peace.Amongthefactions,theDukeofBedfordwantedtodefendNormandy,theDukeofGloucesterwascommittedtojustCalaiswhereas
CardinalBeaufortwasinclinedtopeace.Negotiationsstalled.ItseemsthatatthecongressofArras,inthesummerof1435,wherethedukeof
Beaufortwasmediator,theEnglishwereunrealisticintheirdemands.A
fewdaysafterthecongressendedinSeptember,PhilipIII,dukeof
BurgundydesertedtoCharlesVII,signingtheTreatyofArrasthat
returnedParistotheKingofFrance.ThiswasamajorblowtoEnglish
sovereigntyinFrance.[61]TheDukeofBedforddied14September
1435andwasreplacedbyalesserman.[66]

Frenchresurgence
Burgundy'sallegianceremainedfickle,buttheEnglishfocuson
expandingtheirdomainsintotheLowCountriesleftthemlittleenergy
tointerveneinFrance.[67]Thelongtrucesthatmarkedthewargave
CharlestimetocentralisetheFrenchstateandreorganisehisarmyand
government,replacinghisfeudallevieswithamoremodern
professionalarmythatcouldputitssuperiornumberstogooduse.Acastlethatoncecouldonlybecaptured
afteraprolongedsiegewouldnowfallafterafewdaysfromcannonbombardment.TheFrenchartillery
developedareputationasthebestintheworld.[66]
ThefirstWesternimageofabattle
withcannon:theSiegeofOrlans
in1429.

JoanofArc(c.14501500)

By1449,theFrenchhadretakenRouenandin1450theCountofClermontandArthurdeRichemont,
EarlofRichmond,oftheMontfortfamily(thefutureArthurIII,DukeofBrittany)caughtanEnglish
armyattemptingtorelieveCaenattheBattleofFormignyanddefeatedit.TheEnglisharmyhadbeen
attackedfromtheflankandrearbyRichemont'sforcejustastheywereonthevergeofbeating
Clermont'sarmy.[68]

FallofGascony
AfterCharlesVII'ssuccessfulNormandycampaignin1450,heconcentratedhiseffortsonGascony,
TheBattleofFormigny(1450)
thelastprovinceheldbytheEnglish.Bordeaux,Gascony'scapital,wasbesiegedandsurrenderedtothe
Frenchon30June1451.LargelyduetotheEnglishsympathiesoftheGasconpeoplethiswasreversed
whenJohnTalbotandhisarmyretookthecityon23October1452.However,theEnglishweredefeatedattheBattleofCastillonon17July
1453.TalbothadbeenpersuadedtoengagetheFrencharmyatCastillonnearBordeaux.DuringthebattletheFrenchappearedtoretreat

towardstheircamp.TheFrenchcampatCastillonhadbeenlaidoutbyCharlesVII'sordnanceofficerJeanBureauandthiswasinstrumentalin
theFrenchsuccessaswhentheFrenchcannonopenedfire,fromtheirpositionsinthecamp,theEnglishtookseverecasualtieslosingboth
Talbotandhisson.[69]

Endofthewar
AlthoughtheBattleofCastillonisconsideredthelastbattleoftheHundredYears'War,[69]England
andFranceremainedformallyatwarforanother20years,buttheEnglishwereinnopositiontocarry
onthewarastheyfacedunrestathome.FollowingdefeatintheHundredYears'War,English
landownerscomplainedvociferouslyaboutthefinanciallossesresultingfromthelossoftheir
continentalholdingsthisisoftenconsideredamajorcauseoftheWaroftheRoses,thatstartedin
1455.[66][70]

Charles"theVictorious".

TheHundredYears'Waralmostresumedin1474,whenthedukeCharlesofBurgundy,countingon
Englishsupport,tookuparmsagainstLouisXIofFrance.LouismanagedtoisolatetheBurgundians
bybuyingEdwardIVofEnglandoffwithalargecashsumandanannualpension,inanagreement
signedattheTreatyofPicquigny(1475).ThetreatyformallyendedtheHundredYears'Warwith
EdwardrenouncinghisclaimtothethroneofFrance.However,futureKingsofEnglandcontinuedto
keeptheliliesofFrance(Fleurdelis)ontheircoatofarmsandevenborethetitle,until1803,when
theyweredroppedindeferencetotheexiledCountofProvence,titularKingLouisXVIIIofFrance,
whowaslivinginEnglandaftertheFrenchRevolution.[71]

CharlestheBold,thelastdukeofBurgundy,waskilledattheBattleofNancyin1477,[72]leavingadaughter,Mary,wholosttheprovincesof
Artois,Flanders,PicardyandBurgundytoLouisXI'sarmies.[72]

Significance
TheHundredYears'Warwasatimeofrapidmilitaryevolution.Weapons,tactics,armystructureandthesocialmeaningofwarallchanged,
partlyinresponsetothewar'scosts,partlythroughadvancementintechnologyandpartlythroughlessonsthatwarfaretaught.Thefeudal
systemwasslowlydisintegratingthroughoutthehundredyearswar.
BeforetheHundredYears'War,heavycavalrywasconsideredthemostpowerfulunitinanarmy,butbythewar'send,thisbeliefhadshifted.
Theheavyhorsewasincreasinglynegatedbytheuseofthelongbow(and,later,anotherlongdistanceweapon:firearms).EdwardIIIwas
famousfordismountinghismenatarmsandhavingthemandhisarchersstandincloselyintegratedbattlelinesthehorsesonlybeingusedfor

transportorpursuit.[73]TheEnglishbeganusinglightlyarmouredmountedtroops,knownashobelars.Hoblarstacticshadbeendeveloped
againsttheScots,intheAngloScottishwarsofthe14thcentury.Hobelarsrodesmallerunarmouredhorses,enablingthemtomovethrough
difficultorboggyterrainwhereheaviercavalrywouldstruggle.Ratherthanfightwhileseatedonthehorse,theywoulddismounttoengagethe
enemy.[74][75][76]
BytheendoftheHundredYears'War,thesevariousfactorscausedthedeclineoftheexpensivelyoutfitted,highlytrainedheavycavalryand
theeventualendofthearmouredknightasamilitaryforceandofthenobilityasapoliticalone.[76]
Thewarstimulatednationalisticsentiment.ItdevastatedFranceasaland,butitalsoawakenedFrench
nationalism.TheHundredYears'WaracceleratedtheprocessoftransformingFrancefromafeudal
monarchytoacentralisedstate.[77]In1445thefirstregularstandingarmysinceRomantimeswas
organisedinFrancepartlyasasolutiontomaraudingfreecompanies.Themercenarycompanieswere
givenachoiceofeitherjoiningtheRoyalarmyascompagniesd'ordonnanceonapermanentbasis,or
beinghunteddownanddestroyediftheyrefused.Francegainedatotalstandingarmyofaround6,000
men,whichwassentouttograduallyeliminatetheremainingmercenarieswhoinsistedonoperatingon
theirown.Thenewstandingarmyhadamoredisciplinedandprofessionalapproachtowarfarethanits
predecessors.[76]
TheconflictdevelopedsuchthatitwasnotjustbetweentheKingsofEnglandandFrancebutalso
betweentheirrespectivepeoples.TherewereconstantrumoursinEnglandthattheFrenchmeantto
invadeanddestroytheEnglishlanguage.Nationalfeelingthatemergedfromsuchrumoursunifiedboth
FranceandEnglandfurther.TheHundredYears'WarbasicallyconfirmedthefalloftheFrench
languageinEngland,whichhadservedasthelanguageoftherulingclassesandcommercetherefrom
thetimeoftheNormanconquestuntil1362.[77]

Burgundianterritories
(orange/yellow)andlimitsofFrance
(red)aftertheBurgundianWar.

Lowe(1997)arguedthatoppositiontothewarhelpedtoshapeEngland'searlymodernpoliticalculture.Althoughantiwarandpropeace
spokesmengenerallyfailedtoinfluenceoutcomesatthetime,theyhadalongtermimpact.Englandshoweddecreasingenthusiasmfor
conflictdeemednotinthenationalinterest,yieldingonlylossesinreturnforhigheconomicburdens.IncomparingthisEnglishcostbenefit
analysiswithFrenchattitudes,giventhatbothcountriessufferedfromweakleadersandundisciplinedsoldiers,LowenotedthattheFrench
understoodthatwarfarewasnecessarytoexpeltheforeignersoccupyingtheirhomeland.FurthermoreFrenchkingsfoundalternativewaysto
financethewarsalestaxes,debasingthecoinageandwerelessdependentthantheEnglishontaxleviespassedbynationallegislatures.
EnglishantiwarcriticsthushadmoretoworkwiththantheFrench.[78]

BubonicplagueandwarfarereducedpopulationnumbersthroughoutEuropeduringthisperiod.Francelosthalfitspopulationduringthe
HundredYears'War.[58]Normandylostthreequartersofitspopulation,andParistwothirds.[79]ThepopulationofEnglandwasreducedby20
to33percentduetoplagueinthesameperiod.[80]

Timeline

ThespreadoftheBlackDeath(with
modernborders).

Battles

Importantfigures

England
KingEdwardIII

132777

PhilipIV'sgrandson

KingRichardII

137799

EdwardIII'sgrandson

KingHenryIV

13991413 JohnofGaunt'sson

KingHenryV

141322

HenryIV'sson

KingHenryVI

142261

HenryV'sson

Edward,theBlackPrince

133076

EdwardIII'sson

JohnofGaunt,1stDukeofLancaster

134099

EdwardIII'sson

JohnofLancaster,1stDukeofBedford

13891435 HenryIV'sson

HenryofGrosmont,1stDukeofLancaster 130661

Knight

JohnTalbot,1stEarlofShrewsbury

13841453 Knight

RichardPlantagenet,3rdDukeofYork

141160

SirJohnFastolf[64]

13801459 Knight

Knight

KingPhilipVI

France
132850

CharlesofValois'son

KingJohnII

135064

PhilipVI'sson

KingCharlesV

136480

JohnII'sson

LouisI,DukeofAnjou 138082

JohnII'sson

KingCharlesVI

13801422 CharlesV'sson

KingCharlesVII

142261

CharlesVI'sson

JoanofArc

141231

Commander

JeandeDunois

140368

Knight

GillesdeRais

140440

Knight

BertrandduGuesclin

132080

Knight

JeanBureau

13901463 Knight

LaHire

13901443 Knight

Burgundy
PhiliptheBold,DukeofBurgundy
13631404 SonofJohnIIofFrance
JohntheFearless,DukeofBurgundy 140419

SonofPhiliptheBold

PhiliptheGood,DukeofBurgundy

SonofJohntheFearless

141967

Seealso
TimelineoftheHundredYears'War
Frenchmilitaryhistory
Britishmilitaryhistory
AngloFrenchrelations
Medievaldemography
SecondHundredYears'WarthisisthenamegivenbysomehistorianstothenearcontinuousseriesofconflictsbetweenBritainand
Francefrom16881815,beginningwiththeGloriousRevolutionandendingwiththeBattleofWaterloo.
ListofbattlesinvolvingFranceintheMiddleAges

Notes
1. ^Asnotedin,e.g.,GregoryD.Cleva,HenryKissingerandtheAmericanApproachtoForeignPolicy,BucknellUniversityPress,1989p.87("the
EnglishChannelgavethenationasenseofgeographicalremoteness",whileits"navyfosteredasenseofphysicalunassailability"thatlasteduntilthe
early20thcentury).
2. ^Bartlett2000,p.22
3. ^Bartlett2000,p.17
4. ^Gormley2007[1](http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/archive/hundredyearswar.cfm?
CFID=12106913&CFTOKEN=48989585&jsessionid=463076a37003e50bfe0063343a5d3c64687b)OhioStateUniversity
5. ^abBrissaud1915,pp.329330
6. ^PreviteOrton1978,p.872
7. ^Harris1994,p.8
8. ^abPrestwich1988,p.298

9. ^Prestwich2005,pp.292293
10. ^Wilson2011,p.194
11. ^abPrestwich2005,p.394
12. ^abPrestwich2005,p.306
13. ^Sumption1991,p.180
14. ^Sumption1991,p.184
15. ^Prestwich2003,pp.149150
16. ^abPrestwich2005,pp.307312
17. ^abFriar2004,pp.480481
18. ^R.E.Glassock.Englandcirca1334inDarby1976NewEdition,p.160
19. ^Sumption1991,pp.188189
20. ^Sumption1991,pp.233234
21. ^abcdRogers2010,pp.8889
22. ^abPrestwich2005,pp.318319
23. ^Rogers2010,pp.5545
24. ^Grummitt2008,p.1
25. ^TheBlackDeath,transl.&ed.RosemayHorrox,(ManchesterUniversityPress,1994),9.
26. ^abLePatourel1984,pp.2021
27. ^Wilson2011,p.218
28. ^abcdGuignebert1930,Volume1.pp.304307
29. ^deVenette1953,p.66
30. ^abPrestwich2005,p.326
31. ^LePatourel1984,p.189
32. ^LePatourel1984,p.32
33. ^ab s:1911EncyclopdiaBritannica/Brtigny.
34. ^Wagner2006,pp.102103
35. ^Ormrod.EdwardIII.p.384
36. ^Backman2003,pp.179180Noblescapturedinbattlewereheldin"HonorableCaptivity",whichrecognisedtheirstatusasprisonersofwarand
permittedransom.
37. ^Britannica.TreatyofBrtigny(http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/78946/TreatyofBretigny).Retrieved21September2012

38. ^Wagner2006,pp.86
39. ^Curry2002,pp.6970
40. ^abWagner2006,p.78
41. ^abWagner2006,p.122
42. ^Wagner2006,pp.34
43. ^Barber,Richard(2008)."Edward,princeofWalesandofAquitaine(133076)inOxfordDictionaryofNationalBiography,OxfordUniversityPress,
2004onlineedn.SubscriptionRequired"(http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8523).Retrieved3October2012.
44. ^Omrod,W.M(2008)."EdwardIII(13121377)inOxfordDictionaryofNationalBiography,OxfordUniversityPress,2004onlineedn.Subscription
Required"(http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8519).Retrieved3October2012.
45. ^abcdeTuck,Richard(2008)."RichardII(13671400inOxfordDictionaryofNationalBiography,OxfordUniversityPress,2004onlineedn.
SubscriptionRequired"(http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/23499).Retrieved3October2012.
46. ^FrancoiseAutrand.CharlesVKingofFranceinVauchz.EncyclopediaoftheMiddleAges.Volume1.pp.283284
47. ^abBaker2000,p.6
48. ^abNeillands1990,pp.182184
49. ^abCurry2002,pp.7782
50. ^Mortimer2008,pp.253254
51. ^Mortimer2008,pp.263264
52. ^Bean,J.M.W(2008)."Percy,Henry,firstearlofNorthumberland(13411408)inOxfordDictionaryofNationalBiography,OxfordUniversityPress,
2004onlineedn.SubscriptionRequired"(http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/21/101021932).Retrieved8October2012.
53. ^Smith,Llinos(2008)."GlynDr,Owain(c.1359c.1416)inOxfordDictionaryofNationalBiography,OxfordUniversityPress,2004onlineedn.
SubscriptionRequired"(http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/10/101010816).Retrieved8October2012.
54. ^Sizer,Michael(2007)."TheCalamityofViolence:ReadingtheParisMassacresof1418"(http://quod.lib.umich.edu/w/wsfh/0642292.0035.002/
calamityofviolencereadingtheparismassacresof1418?rgn=mainview=fulltext).Retrieved29December2013.
55. ^IanFriel.TheEnglishandWaratSea.c.1200c1500inHattendorf.WaratSea.pp.7677
56. ^abNolan.TheAgeofWarsofReligion.p.424
57. ^abcdefgAllmand,C.T(2008)."HenryV(13861422)inOxfordDictionaryofNationalBiography,OxfordUniversityPress,2004onlineedn.
SubscriptionRequired"(http://www.oxforddnb.com/index/12/101012952).Retrieved8October2012.
58. ^abTurchin2003,pp.179180Historicaldynamics:whystatesriseandfall(http://books.google.com/books?id=mUoCrTUo
eEC&pg=PA179&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false)
59. ^Wagner2006,pp.4445

60. ^G.L.Harriss,Thomas,dukeofClarence(13871421),OxfordDictionaryofNationalBiography,OxfordUniversityPress,2004onlineedn,Sept
2010accessed14May2013(http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27198,)Subscriptionrequired.
61. ^abcdeGriffiths2004
62. ^Wagner2006,pp.307308
63. ^abcDavis2003,pp.7680
64. ^ab"SirJohnFastolf"(http://www.archives.norfolk.gov.uk/view/NCC110270).Norwich:NorfolkRecordOffice.Retrieved20December2012.
65. ^Jaques,Tony.2007(https://books.google.com/books?
id=tW_eEVbVxpEC&pg=PA777&lpg=PA777&dq=French+siege+of+Paris+was+defeated+on+8+September+1429&source=bl&ots=pxigJl0nf5&sig=ZD
952C3hb3tOmPBK7uGJ2AHwFbk&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Ti3AVNLrGunksATYnYDwDg&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=French%20siege%20of%
20Paris%20was%20defeated%20on%208%20September%201429&f=false).Westport,Connecticut:GreenwoodPress.p.777.RetrievedJanuary21,
2015.
66. ^abcdLee1998,pp.145147
67. ^Sumption1991,p.562
68. ^Nicole2012,pp.2635
69. ^abWagner2006,p.79
70. ^Webster1998,pp.3940:"Everyversionofthecomplaintsputforwardbytherebelsin1450harpsonthelossesinFrance."
71. ^Neillands1990,pp.290291
72. ^abCharlesDerekRoss,EdwardIV,(UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1974),249250.
73. ^Powicke1962,p.189
74. ^ColmMcNamee.HobelarsinRogers2010,pp.267268
75. ^Jones2008,pp.117
76. ^abcPreston,Wise&Werner1991,pp.8489
77. ^abHolmes,Urban&Schutz1948,p.61
78. ^Lowe1997,pp.147195
79. ^Ladurie1987,p.32TheFrenchpeasantry,14501660(http://books.google.com/books?
id=VT9rIMQFt2MC&pg=PA32&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false)
80. ^Neillands1990,pp.110111

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Externallinks
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