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Prepared by
B.ELANGOVAN. M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil.,
(Tamilnadu Dr.Radhakrishnan Best Teacher Award recipient - 2011)
P.G.Teacher in Physics,
PACHAIYAPPAS HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL,
KANCHIPURAM - 631501.
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PHYSICS PRACTICAL
HIGHER SECONDARY - SECOND YEAR
S.NO
DATE
Spectrometer - Prism
Spectrometer - Grating
Metre Bridge
Potentiometer
Tangent Galvanometer
Sonometer
10
11
12
PAGE
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FORMULA REQUIRED:
Refractive index of the material of the given prism is
Where,
AD
2
A
sin
2
sin
DIAGRAM:
To find the angle of Prism
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APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Spectrometer, solid Prism, sodium vapour lamp and reading lens.
PROCEDURE :
1) ANGLE OF THE PRISM
i)
After making initial adjustments, the prism is placed on the prism table.
ii)
iii)
The telescope is rotated until the image of the slit formed by reflection at the
face AB is made to coincide with the vertical cross wire of the telescope in the
position T1. The reading of the verniers are noted.
iv)
The telescope is then rotated to the position T 2 .The image of the slit formed by
reflection at the face AC coincides with the vertical cross wire. The readings
corresponding to the verniers are again noted.
v)
The difference between these two reading gives twice the angle of the prism.
Half of this gives the angle of the prism.
The prism is placed on the prism table so that light from the collimator falls on
one refracting face. The refracted image is observed through the telescope.
ii)
The prism table is now rotated so that the refracted image moves towards the
direct ray. If necessary the telescope is rotated so as to follow the image.
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iii)
It will be found that, the image moves towards the direct ray upto a point and
then turns back. The position of the image where it turns back is the minimum
deviation position and the prism table is fixed in this position.
iv)
The telescope is now adjusted so that its vertical cross wire coincides with the
image and reading of the verniers are noted.
v)
Now the prism is removed and the telescope is turned to receive the direct ray
and vertical cross wire is adjusted to coincide with the image. The reading of the
verniers are noted.
vi)
The difference between the two readings give the angle of minimum deviation (D).
vii)
The refractive idex of the material of the prism is calculated using the formula
A D
2
A
sin
2
sin
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CALCULATIONS:
To find A
2A
= R1 R2 = 227o20 - 127o16
2A
= 120o4
2A = R1 R2 = 407o20 - 287o16
2A
A = 60o2
= 120o4
A = 60o2
Average A = 60o2
To find D
D = R3 R4 = 39o44 - 0o0
D = R3 R4 = 219o44 - 180o0
D = 39o44
D = 39o44
Average D = 39o44
To find
+
602 +
3944
2
2
=
602
2
2
=
=
9946
2
602
2
4953
301
0.7647
0.5003
1.528 ( no unit )
RESULT:
i) The angle of the prism
= 60o 2
= 39o44
iii) Refractive index of the material of the given prism = 1.528 (no unit)
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sin
mN
Where,
is the angle of diffraction
m is the order
N is the number of lines per unit length drawn on the grating
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APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Spectrometer, solid Prism, sodium vapour lamp and reading lens.
PROCEDURE:
The preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The slit is illuminated
by white light from mercury vapour lamp. The grating is mounted on the prism table. The
direct image (white) of the slit is adjusted to coincide with the vertical cross wire. The
direct reading RI is measured using the verniers.
Now the telescope is released to get the first order (n= 1) diffracted image of the
slit in the left side. It is adjusted so that the vertical cross wire coincides with violet
spectral line. Readings corresponding to both the verniers are taken as R 2. The angle of
diffraction for violet is found as R1 R2. The experiment is repeated for green and
yellow spectral lines also.
The number of lines per unit length of the grating is N. Wavelength of the
spectral line is calculated from the formula
sin
mN
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CALCULATIONS :
TO FIND THE
RAY
RD1 R1
RD2 R2
BLUE
B = 13o34
GREEN
G = 15o45
YELLOW
Y = 16o42
mN
1 5 105
5 105
0.04692 105 m
B = 4692 Ao
The wavelength of the Green spectral line :
0.05429 105 m
5
5
mN
1 5 10
5 10
G = 5429 Ao
The wavelength of the Yellow spectral line :
0.05748 10 5 m
5
5
mN
1 5 10
5 10
Y = 5748 Ao
RESULT :
B = 4692 Ao
i)
ii)
iii)
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3. METRE BRIDGE
FORMULA REQUIRED :
l1
ohm
l2
l2
ohm
l1
r2P
Q is known resistance
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
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3. METRE BRIDGE
AIM :
To determine the resistance of the given coil of wire using a meter bridge and to
calculate the specific resistance of the material of the wire.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
The metre bridge, battery, key, galvanometer, known and unknown resistances,
high resistance and connecting wires.
PROCEDURE :
The connections are made as in the circuit diagram. The jockey J is pressed near
the ends A and C and if the deflections in the galvanometer are in the opposite directions,
then the circuit is correct. Now the jockey is moved over the wire and its position J is
found when there is no deflection in the galvanometer. The balancing lengths AJ = 1
and JC =2 are measured. The experiment is repeated four more times by increasing the
value of Q in steps of 1 ohm.
When the known resistance Q is in the right gap G2, the resistance of the wire
unknown resistance P Q
l1
.
l2
Then the resistances Q and P are interchanged in the gaps G1 and G2. The
unknown resistance P is calculated from the formula P Q
l2
.
l1
The length () of the coil is measured using scale and radius(r) of the coil is
measured using screw gauge. The specific resistance of the coil is calculated using the
formula
r2P
l
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CALCULATIONS :
RESULT :
1) Resistance of the wire
P = 4.569
= 1.39 x 10 -6 m
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4.
FORMULA REQUIRED :
E2 l2
( NO UNIT )
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Here,
Bt = Battery, K = Key, Rh = Rheostat, G = Galvanometer, HR = High resistance
J = Jockey
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4.
AIM:
To compare the emfs of two primary cells using a potentiometer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Potentiometer, Battery, Key, Rheostat, Galvanometer, High resistance,
the two given cells, Jockey and connecting wires.
PROCEDURE :
i)
The connections are made according to the circuit diagram. The jockey
J i s p r e s s e d in the first and the last wire and the opposite side
deflections in the galvanometer shows that the connections are
correct.
ii)
iii)
Daniel cell is included in the circuit using the DPDT switch, and
the balancing length is measured as 2.
iv)
v)
The ratio of the emf of the two cells is found from the formula
E1 l1
E2 l2
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CALCULATIONS:
RESULT :
The mean ratio of emf of the two cells using the Potentiometer =
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APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Tangent galvanometer, key, Rheostat, ammeter, commutator
and connecting wires.
FORMULA REQUIRED :
current
a radius of coil
mean deflection produced in TG
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Here,
Bt = battery,
K = key
A = ammeter,
C = commutator
TG = Tangent galvanometer,
Rh = rheostat
tesla
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FORMULA :
tesla
PROCEDURE:
The battery, rheostat, ammeter and tangent galvanometer are connected as in
the circuit diagram. The coil in the tangent galvanometer is adjusted to be along the
magnetic meridian. Then the compass box alone is rotated so that the aluminum pointer
read 00 00.
The current I is passed through the circuit and the deflections of the needle are
noted as 1 and 2 . By reversing the current, the deflection are noted as 3 and 4.
The average deflection is found out.
The experiment is repeated by varying the current.
The average value of
tesla.
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CALCULATIONS :
Radius (r) =
7.5 102 m
. : 2
. : 1
0.7
0.6
=
=
tan
41
0.7536
0.6
0.6
=
=
tan
37
0.7536
= 0.8052
= 0.7961
. : 3
. : 4
0.8
0.6
=
=
tan
46
1.0355
0.9
0.9
=
=
tan
50
1.1918
= 0.7725
Mean
= 0.7555
0.7961+0.8052+0.7725+0.7555
4
= 0.7823
=
=
=
4 10 7 5 0.7823
2 7.5 10 2
49.12844
105 = 3.28 105
15
RESULT :
The horizontal component of earths magnetic field (BH) = 3.28 X 10 - 5 Tesla
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6. SONOMETER FREQUENCY OF AC
AIM:
To determine the frequency of the ac main using a sonometer.
FORMULA REQUIRED:
The frequency of the ac main
DIAGRAM :
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6. SONOMETER FREQUENCY OF AC
AIM:
To determine the frequency of the ac main using a sonometer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
The sonometer, 6V AC power supply, Different loads, bar magnets, knife
edges and connecting wires.
PROCEDURE:
The ac mains voltage is brought down to 6 V by means of step down
transformer. The secondary of the transformer is connected to the ends of the
sonometer wire. A bar magnet is held below the sonometer wire at the centre. The
magnetic field is horizontal and at right angles to the length of the wire.
With 250 gms (M) added to the weight hanger, the a.c. current is passed through
the wire. Now the wire is set into forced vibrations. The length between the two
knife edges is adjusted so that it vibrates in one segment. The length between the
knife edges is measured as 1. The same procedure is repeated and 2 is measured. The
average 1 and 2 is . The experiment is repeated for the loads 500gm, 750 gm and
1000 gm.
The radius of the wire r is measured using screw gauge. The linear density of the wire
is m = r2, where is its density.
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CALCUATIONS :
Diameter of the wire d =
Radius of the wire r =
S.No: 1
T = 0.250 9.8 = 2.45
= 1.565
= 0.332 m
1.565
=
= 4.714
0.332
= 2.214
= 0.455 m
2.214
=
= 4.863
0.455
= 2.711
= 0.559
2.711
=
= 4.849
0.559
= 3.130
= 0.644
3.13
=
= 4.860
0.644
S.No: 2
T = 0.500 9.8 =4.90
S.No: 3
T = 0.750 9.8 =7.35
S.No: 4
T = 1.000 9.8 =9.80
Mean
4.714+4.863+4.849+4.860
4
= 4.8215
1 4.8215
2 4.147 10 2
= 58.13 Hz
RESULT :
The frequency of the ac main n =
58.13 Hz
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
ZENER DIODE reverse bias
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b)
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
PN-junction diode, zener diode, variable voltage source, milliammeter, voltmeter
and connecting wires.
PROCEDURE :
1) Forward Characteristic Curve of a PN junction diode:i)
ii)
The forward voltage Vf is increased from zero in steps of 0.1 V upto 1V.
iii)
The corresponding values of If are noted. A graph is drawn with Vf along Xaxis and If along Y-axis. This is called forward characteristic curve.
iv)
The reciprocal of the slope of this curve above the knee point is found as
forward resistance of the Diode.
v)
Forward resistance =
ii)
iii)
A graph is drawn with VO along X-axis and IZ along Y-axis. This is called
reverse characteristic curve.
iv)
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CALCULATIONS :
RESULT :
i)
ii)
7.3 volt.
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FORMULA REQURIED :
(i)
Input impedance =
(ii)
Output impedance =
Here,
is the change in base emitter voltage
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APPARATUS REQUIRED :
NPN transistor, milliammeter, microammeter, voltmeters, variable voltage sources
and connecting wires
PROCEDURE :
The circuit connections are made as in the diagram.
ii)
The base emitter voltage VBE is increased from zero in steps of 0.1 V
upto 1V. The corresponding values of IB are noted.
iii)
A graph is drawn with VBE along X-axis and IB along Y-axis. This is called
input characteristic curve.
iv)
The reciprocal of the slope of this curve above the knee point is found as
input impedance of the transistor.
v)
ii)
iii)
A graph is drawn with VCE along X-axis and IC along Y-axis. This is called
output characteristic curve.
iv)
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RESULT :
i)
ii)
iii)
2 k
700
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Output impedance =
ii)
Current gain
(No unit)
Here,
is the change in base emitter voltage
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
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APPARATUS REQUIRED :
NPN transistor, milliammeter, microammeter, voltmeters, variable voltage
sources and connecting wires.
PROCEDURE:
ii)
iii)
A graph is drawn with VCE along X-axis and IC along Y-axis. This is called
output characteristic curve.
iv)
ii)
iii)
A graph is drawn with IB along X-axis and Ic along Y-axis. This is called
transfer characteristic curve.
iv)
The slope of this curve gives the current gain of the transistor.
Current gain =
(no unit)
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CALCULATIONS:
RESULT :
I)
II)
III)
700
100 ( no unit )
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ii)
The output voltage of the inverting summing amplifier, V0 = (V1 +V2) volt
Here,
V0 output voltage
Vin, V1 and V2 are the input voltages
Rf and Rs are the external resistances
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS :
INVERTING AMPLIFIER :
SUMMING AMPLIFIER :
i)
(no unit)
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Inverting amplifier
ii)
Summing amplifier
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Operational amplifier(IC-741), dual power supply, 10K, 22K, 33K resistors, digital
voltmeter and connecting wires.
PROCEDURE :
INVERTING AMPLIFIER:i)
ii)
RS is kept as 10 K and RF as 22 K.
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
SUMMING AMPLIFIER:i)
ii)
The values of R1, R2 and RF are kept as 10 K . The input voltages are kept
as VI = 1V and V2 =2.0V and the output voltage Vo is measured using the
digital voltmeter
iii)
Then the experiment is repeated for different sets of values for V 1 and V2.
Theoretical output v o l t a g e i s found from V0 = - (V1 + V2).
iv)
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CALCULATIONS :
1. Inverting amplifier
EXPERIMENTAL GAIN
S.No : 1
2.26
=
=
= 2.26
1.0
THEORETICAL GAIN
22
=
= 2.20
10
22
=
= 2.20
10
22
=
= 2.20
10
22
=
= 2.20
10
S.No: 2
3.42
=
=
= 2.28
1.5
S.No: 3
4.54
=
=
= 2.27
2.0
S.No: 4
5.73
=
=
= 2.29
2.5
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CALCULATIONS :
Summing amplifier
Theoretical output
S.No : 1
Experimental output Vo = - 3.08 volt
Vo = (V1 + V2) = - ( 1 + 2 )
= - 3.00 V
Theoretical output
S.No: 2
Experimental output Vo = - 4.05 volt
Theoretical output
S.No: 3
Experimental output Vo = - 5.09 volt
Vo = (V1 + V2) = - (2 + 3)
= - 5.00 V
Theoretical output
S.No: 4
Experimental output Vo = - 6.06 volt
RESULT :
i)
The inverting amplifier and summing amplifier are constructed using OP-AMP and
the experimental and the theoretical outputs are compared.
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Non-Inverting amplifier
FORMULA REQUIRED :
ii)
The output voltage of the inverting summing amplifier, V0 = (V1 +V2) volt
Here,
V0 output voltage
Vin, V1 and V2 are the input voltages
Rf and Rs are the external resistances
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS :
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER :
SUMMING AMPLIFIER :
=1+
i)
(no unit)
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AIM :
To construct the following basic amplifiers using OP-AMP IC741.
i)
Non-inverting amplifier
ii)
Summing amplifier
APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Operational amplifier(IC-741), dual power supply, 10K, 22K, 33K resistors, digital
voltmeter and connecting wires.
PROCEDURE :
1. NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER:I)
II)
RS is kept as 10 K and RF as 22 K.
III)
IV)
V)
VI)
VII)
=1+
2. SUMMING AMPLIFIER:i)
ii)
The values of R1, R2 and RF are kept as 10 K . The input voltages are kept
as VI = 1V and V2 =2.0V and the output voltage Vo is measured using the
digital voltmeter
iii)
Then the experiment is repeated for different sets of values for V1 and V2.
Theoretical output v o l t a g e i s found from V0 = - (V1 + V2).
iv)
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CALCULATIONS :
Non- Inverting amplifier
EXPERIMENTAL GAIN
S.No : 1
3.26
= = 1.0 = 3.26
THEORETICAL GAIN
= 1 +
S.No: 2
4.86
=
=
= 3.24
1.5
= 1 +
S.No: 3
6.56
=
=
= 3.28
2.0
= 1 +
S.No: 4
8.05
=
=
= 3.22
2.5
= 1 +
22
= 1 + 10 = 3.20
22
= 1 + 10 = 3.20
22
= 1 + 10 = 3.20
22
= 1 + 10 = 3.20
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CALCULATIONS :
Summing amplifier
Theoretical output
S.No : 1
Experimental output Vo = - 3.08 volt
Theoretical output
S.No: 2
Experimental output Vo = - 4.05 volt
Theoretical output
S.No: 3
Experimental output Vo = - 5.09 volt
Theoretical output
S.No: 4
Experimental output Vo = - 6.06 volt
RESULT :
The non-inverting amplifier and summing amplifier are constructed using OP-AMP
and the experimental and the theoretical outputs are compared.
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2) For IC 7402(NOR)
FORMULA REQUIRED :
OR gate:
Boolean equation
Y =A + B
AND gate:
Boolean equation
Y = AB
NOT gate:
Boolean equation
Y=A
NOR gate:
Boolean equation
Y=A+B
NAND gate:
Boolean equation
Y=A B
EX-OR gate:
Boolean equation
Y = AB = AB + AB
Here, A, B = inputs
and
Y = output
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APPARATUS REQUIRED :
Logic Gates IC 7400(NAND), IC 7402 (NOR), IC 7404 (NOT), IC 7408(AND), IC 7432
(OR), and IC 7486 (EXOR)
PROCEDURE :
For NAND gate, AND gate, OR gate and EXOR gate:i)
Power supply +5V is connected to pin 14 and ground to pin 7 of the IC.
ii)
iii)
iv)
Inputs A & B are kept at 0 & 0 and output LED is observed. Then the
inputs are changed as 0 & 1, 1 & 0 and 1 & 1 and the outputs are
observed each time. The inputs and outputs are tabulated in the truth
table.
v)
Similarly, ICs 7408 (AND), 7432 (OR) and 7486 (EXOR) are placed on the
board and the same procedure is followed as for NAND gate and outputs
are tabulated in the truth table.
NOR gate :-
i)
IC 7402 is placed on the board. Power supply and ground are connected
as before.
ii)
The inputs are connected to pins 2 & 3 and the output to pin 1 of IC.
Then the same procedure is repeated and tabulation is done in the truth
table.
NOT gate :-
i)
ii)
Input is kept at logic 1 and then at logic 0 and the outputs are
found and tabulated in the truth table.
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CALCULATIONS :
RESULT :
The performance of digital gates OR, AND, NOT, NAND, NOR and EX-OR gates
and their truth tables are verified using IC chips.
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L
Prepared by
P.G.Teacher in Physics,
PACHAIYAPPAS HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL,
KANCHIPURAM - 631501.