Development of Pavement Temperature

Contours for India

M.R.Nivitha & J.M.Krishnan

Journal of The Institution of

Engineers (India): Series A
Civil, Architectural, Environmental and
Agricultural Engineering
ISSN 2250-2149
Volume 95
Number 2
J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A (2014) 95:83-90
DOI 10.1007/s40030-014-0074-y

1 23

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Author's personal copy

J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A (AprilJune 2014) 95(2):8390
DOI 10.1007/s40030-014-0074-y

ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTION

Development of Pavement Temperature Contours for India

M. R. Nivitha J. M. Krishnan

Received: 22 February 2013 / Accepted: 5 May 2014 / Published online: 3 June 2014
The Institution of Engineers (India) 2014

Abstract The stress-strain response of the bituminous

pavements is highly sensitive to temperature. To systematically analyze the pavement performance, it is necessary
that one understands the variation of pavement temperature
spatially and temporally during the life time of a pavement.
In this investigation, historic air temperature data for 37
locations across India was collected. Using this database,
pavement temperature data was predicted by an appropriate
air temperature-pavement temperature model. High and
low temperature pavement temperature contours were
generated for the first time for India. It was seen that the
locations spanning from Srinagar to Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan to Orissa were extremely critical. The minimum
temperature in these locations was 10  C and the maximum temperature was around 68  C. Clearly such information is necessary when making choice of binder grade
and bituminous layer thickness.
Keywords Pavement temperature 
Artificial neural networks  Air temperature forecasting 
Design air temperature

Introduction
Bitumen is a complex construction material used for
pavement construction. Of the total pavements constructed

M. R. Nivitha  J. M. Krishnan (&)

Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Madras, Chennai 600036, India
e-mail: jmk@iitm.ac.in

across the world, 90 % of them use bitumen as the binder.

Though the proportion of binder is only around 46 % in
the bituminous layers, it has a large influence on the distresses in bituminous pavements.
The three common distresses observed in a bituminous
pavement are rutting, fatigue cracking and low temperature
cracking. The properties of binder chosen is considered to
have a significant influence on these three distresses [1].
Rutting, fatigue cracking and low temperature cracking
observed in a pavement are influenced by the binder
approximately to an extent of 80, 60 and 40 % respectively
[2]. Hence the type of binder chosen for any given location
is a significant factor affecting the performance of the
pavement.
The critical factors influencing the choice of binder for
any pavement are pavement temperature and traffic. Binder
response ranges from elastic solid to viscoelastic solid to
viscoelastic fluid to non-Newtonian and Newtonian
depending on the temperature it is subjected to. In the
working temperature ranges of a pavement (1065  C),
bitumen exhibits predominantly viscoelastic behaviour and
hence the mechanical response is dependent on speed of
traffic (rate of loading). Owing to this effect of temperature
and traffic, the required performance of a binder can be
obtained only in a certain temperature and traffic range.
Hence it is essential to use the binder at locations which
have identical temperature and traffic factors. To enable
this, temperature and traffic details are required to be
known for any location before selecting the appropriate
type of binder.
The importance of temperature and traffic on the performance of the pavement is understood and the pavement
design specifications proposed by various countries
account for these factors while selecting an appropriate
grade of binder. In India, the design guidelines for

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84

bituminous pavements [3] gives a very general approach

regarding the choice of binder. A broad classification is
provided for temperature and traffic and the binder grade is
specified depending upon the combination of these two
factors. The climatic regions of the country are classified as
hot, cold and moderate and the traffic is considered in two
categories namely high and low volume. The Australian
specifications [4] use the same baseline except that quantitative values are given for temperature and traffic.
The Superpave method of binder selection [2] currently
being followed in North America encompasses detailed
analysis on the influence of temperature and traffic on the
performance of pavements. The Superpave method of
binder specification selects the grade of binder based on
temperature of the location where it is to be used and tests
the binder for its performance properties with respect to the
temperature range prevalent at the selected location. Seven
day average maximum and one day minimum pavement
temperatures are considered as the design pavement temperatures. Traffic is included in the specification by means
of testing the binder properties at a specified frequency.
The binder is tested for a constant traffic volume of 10
Million Standard Axles (MSA) and traffic speed of
80 kmph. For other traffic conditions, suitable modification
procedures are specified [2]. Thus the final grade of binder
can be obtained for a given location having a specified
traffic speed and volume.
To develop a robust binder selection methodology customized to the climatic and traffic conditions of any region,
one needs meticulous data collection. This is the major
limitation as far as India is considered. The basic information required for binder selection and stress-strain analysis is the data pertaining to the pavement temperature. To
the best of the knowledge of the authors, such data was
collected by the Highways Research Station (HRS) in
Chennai as early as 1969 [5]. In this paper, an attempt is
made to use the available air temperature data and statistical models to generate pavement temperature data for
India.

J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A (AprilJune 2014) 95(2):8390

vary in the 50 year period. This difference is expected to be

amplified to a significant level when it is converted into
pavement temperature. It is well known that the air temperature follows periodic variations with varying cycle
times. Some predominant air temperature patterns are the
Bruckners cycle (around 35 years) [6] and Hales cycle
(around 8 years) [7]. Forecasting air temperature using
pattern recognition tools can capture the pattern in the air
temperature history data and reflect the same for the design
period. This to an extent will provide the realistic daily air
temperature for the design period.
For the thirty seven chosen locations and for a design
period of thirty years, a total number of 8,10,300 data
points were collected. Of the total 14,600 data points
available for each city, at least 50 data points were missing.
The various methods available to fill in missing entries may
be categorized under three heads: within-station, regression-based and inter-station [8]. Using the methodology for
within-station category, the average of the past five days
and the next 5 days was taken as the current days temperature for filling in missing and anomalous data. This can
be expressed as follows:
P

P5
5
x

x
n1 in
n1 in
1
xi
2
where, xi = Air temperature of the missing entry
As a check to validate this approach, 1,000 air temperature data points were selected from the input data for
Chennai and 10 temperature values starting from 1st January, 1970 were removed at an interval of 50 data points.
These missing values were calculated using Eq. 1. The
average mean absolute error(MAE) of the selected points
was 1.032  C and MAE up to 2  C is considered acceptable
for filling in missing data in the literature [9]. Hence this
method was considered acceptable and it was used to fill in
all the missing entries. There were also cases when the data
was missing for more than two consecutive days. In these
cases, recursive iteration was carried out on the basis that,
the difference in values between two successive iterations
was less than 0.001.

Data Collection
Thirty seven locations were selected such that they cater to
all the geographical areas of India. Daily maximum and
minimum air temperature data were collected for these
locations, for a period of 30 years (19702000), from the
archived database available at Indian Meteorological
Department, Pune. A design period of 20 years was chosen
during which air temperature and pavement temperature
has to be predicted using the 30 years historical weather
data. Hence the window here is a total period of 50 years
and the yearly design air temperature pattern is expected to

123

Air Temperature Forecast

Among the various models available to forecast time series,
ANN was chosen to predict the air temperature as it is
considered to be effective in pattern recognition and long
term forecasting [10]. The in-built Neural Networks tool
box available in MATLAB [11] was used to predict the air
temperature and for that purpose the available data was
separated into training, testing and validation sets. All the
initial trials were carried out for Chennai data by varying

Author's personal copy

J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A (AprilJune 2014) 95(2):8390

Fig. 1 Actual and predicted (using ANN) air temperature for Chennai
for the year 2009

represent the temperature variation in a year for the

selected location. The temperature variation of a location is
commonly indicated in terms of the average or maximum
and minimum air temperatures experienced at the location.
In India, the design guidelines for bituminous pavements
[3] considers the annual average pavement temperature
directly for determining the material properties for stressstrain analysis. This measure of temperature does not
highlight the extremes of temperature a pavement is
experiencing in its service life. It is expected that locations
having the same annual average pavement temperature can
have different maximum and minimum temperatures and
hence different susceptibility to rutting and cracking. It is
thus necessary to consider the yearly maximum and minimum temperatures in a binder selection methodology. In
this paper, the seven day average maximum and one day
minimum air temperatures as per the Superpave specification [2] is followed to calculate the design air temperature. These approaches also have their own limitations
[15].

Pavement Temperature Model

The design pavement temperatures can be calculated from
design air temperatures using analytical models and
regression equations. In the analytical models, the heat
equation is solved and the pavement temperature is calculated knowing the weather parameters such as solar
radiation, absorptivity and emissivity of the surface and air
temperature [16]. Regression equation developed from the
measured pavement temperature database relating air
temperature and latitude can also be used and the pavement
temperature for the required time period can be calculated
[17]. Due to the complexity in measuring the material

Air temperature, C

Air temperature, C

the number of layers, number of neurons in each layer and

the proportion of training and testing data to obtain the best
fit parameters for predicting the air temperature. As an
initial trial, 15 years (19701985) data was taken as
training data, 10 years (19861995) for testing and five
years (19962000) for validation. The number of layers
were varied from 2 to 5 and the neurons in each layer were
varied from 1 to 20. The best fit was obtained when 2
layers were used having 20 and 2 neurons respectively and
a proportion of 20:7:3 for training:testing:validation data
set were used to forecast the air temperature. The same best
fit parameters were used for all the 37 cities and for each
city ANN was trained separately with daily maximum and
minimum air temperatures to predict the same for the
design period.
To validate the ANN model, daily air temperature data
for Chennai, available at an internet domain [12] was
collected for the year 2009 and compared with the predicted air temperature (Fig. 1). The MAE for daily maximum air temperature is 1.88  C and it is slightly higher
than the daily minimum air temperature having a MAE of
1.35  C. An MAE up to 2  C is commonly reported in
literature [13, 14] for air temperature forecasting using
ANN and hence the MAE obtained in this study is considered to be acceptable. The yearly maximum and minimum air temperature for the 50 year period comprising the
data collection period (19702000) and the design period
(20012020) for Chennai is shown in Fig. 2. It can be
observed from Fig. 2 that the variation of design air temperature for the 50 years is within a band of 5  C with the
variation of air temperature more pronounced in the actual
data compared to the forecast.
The next step after obtaining the daily air temperatures
for the design period would be to choose a particular air
temperature or a norm of air temperature values to

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Fig. 2 Variation of yearly maximum and minimum air temperatures

for Chennai from 1970 to 2020

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J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A (AprilJune 2014) 95(2):8390

parameters required for use in the analytical models, most

of the attempts related to pavement temperature have
focused on regression models. The various factors influencing the pavement temperature are air temperature, latitude, solar radiation, wind speed and rainfall. Among these
factors, air temperature and latitude are considered as the
sole factors influencing the pavement temperature [17].
The development of regression models require considerable amount of data and since such data was not available
for India, the air temperature and the corresponding
pavement temperatures data collected as part of the Long
Term Pavement Performance Program (LTPP) of USA was
used to develop the regression model [18]. The LTPP
database [18] monitors and collects data for 890 sites under
various studies such as General Pavement Section (GPS),
Specific Pavement Study (SPS) and Seasonal Monitoring
Program (SMP). The SMP, which collects the various data
including the air and pavement temperature for a location,
has been implemented only in 66 sites. Eleven sites (Table
1) out of the sixty six sites which had similar latitude and
altitude as that of India were selected on the basis that
locations having similar latitude and altitude are expected
to have identical climatic conditions. The southern part of
the USA and the northern part of India have similar latitude
(36 to 25 N) (Table 1) and hence are expected to have
identical climatic conditions for specific altitude ranges. To
verify the similarity in air temperature pattern, the monthly
average air temperatures of a location in India (Patiala,
having a latitude of 30.33 N and an altitude of 249 m) was
compared with another in USA (Atlanta (SHRP ID:1031),
having a latitude of 32.61 N and an altitude of 138 m). It
can be observed from Fig. 3 that the air temperature pattern
is similar for both the locations and hence details from
LTPP can be used for the regression model. The altitude of
the selected locations in India and USA was limited to less

Air temperature, C

86

Fig. 3 Comparison of air temperature for Atlanta and Patiala for the
year 2000

than 2000 m. A total of 172 data points were collected and

the data collection period was from 1994 to 2001. The
database had data points from all the months throughout
the year. To formulate a regression equation using this
database, a linear regression equation with two variables
was assumed considering the effect of latitude and air
temperature on the pavement temperature [17]. The coefficients of the equation were determined by the in-built
linear regression function in MATLAB and given as
follows:
Pt 0:7147 1:3023At 0:1103L;

where, Pt = pavement temperature ( C); At = air temperature ( C); L = latitude of the selected location. This
regression model developed is used to calculate pavement
temperature for the entire country.
As there was no pavement temperature information
available to validate the regression model, a comparison

Table 1 Details of locations selected for collection of pavement temperature from LTPP database [18]
United States of America

India

SHRP ID

Latitude

Altitude, m

Location

Latitude

1024

35.27

1663

Guwahati

26.11

47

1053

38.69

1567

Gwalior

26.14

205

1005

32.61

138

Jodhpur

26.17

217

1031

34.40

37

Gorakhpur

26.45

76

1112

34.30

1146

Jaipur

26.53

385

1060
1068

28.51
33.50

24
136

Lucknow
Dibrugarh

26.55
27.29

122
110

1077

34.54

559

Delhi

28.37

233

1122

29.23

143

Patiala

30.2

249

3739

26.98

11

Dharamshala

32.16

1457

1001

37.28

1336

Srinagar

34.08

1585

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Altitude, m

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J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A (AprilJune 2014) 95(2):8390

Pavement temperature, C

was performed with the data points extracted from the HRS
data [5]. This study was carried out in the year 19691971.
The highways research station at Chennai constructed an
experimental bituminous concrete section and collected
pavement temperature at the surface of the pavement as
well as at different depths. From this report, 48 data points
were extracted to validate the regression model developed
as a part of this study. Among these, 24 data points were
hourly pavement temperature measurements on a single
day, 8th June, 1969 and the other 24 points were monthly
average pavement temperatures for two years, 1970 and
1971. Figure 4 shows the predictions for the full 24 h. Due
to brevity, the monthly average predictions are not shown
here. It is seen that the present model can predict the
pavement temperature to a reasonable accuracy.
Using Eq. 2, the design maximum and minimum
pavement temperatures were calculated for all the selected 37 locations. The design pavement temperature was
calculated using the maximum of seven day average
maximum and minimum of one day minimum air temperature obtained for the design period [2]. The reliability
considered in this case is of the order of 99.6 % as the
maximum of seven day average maximum air temperature
was used in calculating the pavement temperature and
similarly the one day minimum air temperature for the
design minimum case. However, in circumstances where
agencies specify other reliability levels, the design air
temperature can be considered accordingly. The mean and
standard deviation values were calculated for design
maximum and minimum air temperatures for all the cities,
as represented in Table 2. One can now use these values
to calculate the design air temperatures for any required

Time, hr
Fig. 4 Comparison of pavement temperatures measured by HRS [5]
and predicted by regression equation

87

level of reliability and convert them into pavement temperatures using Eq. 2. The maximum and minimum
pavement temperatures calculated for reliability levels of
99 and 75% are shown in Table 2.
Pavement Temperature Contours
Quantum GIS software was used to interpolate and
determine the spatial distribution of pavement temperatures. Pavement temperature values were input for the
selected 37 locations and temperature values for the
intermediate locations were interpolated using triangular
interpolation. The contour maps were then generated for
the entire country based on the interpolated values for all
the locations. The entire map area was divided into 1,000
grids vertically and horizontally and the values were
interpolated for each cell. As a check to validate the
interpolation method inbuilt in the software, three locations namely Bhubaneswar, Coimbatore and Kurnool
were removed from the data set and the pavement temperatures were determined based on interpolation. The
average MAE was 0.59  C for design maximum temperature and 1.35  C for design minimum temperature
were obtained for the interpolated values. The maximum
deviation obtained for these cities was less than 2  C for
maximum and minimum pavement temperatures. The
maximum pavement temperature contour for India is
shown in Fig. 5 for every two degree increase in pavement temperature starting from 54 to 68  C. For any
location lying in between the contours, one can interpolate between the two temperature contours.
It can be deduced that the pavement temperatures in
India are highest in regions of central Rajasthan, portions
of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar,
Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh. In these locations, the pavement temperature crosses 65  C. The design minimum
pavement temperature in some of these same locations
goes up to 10  C making them critical both in terms of
rutting and low temperature cracking. Hence the binder to
be used in these locations is required to have excellent
temperature susceptibility to withstand both rutting and
low temperature cracking. The core of the southern part of
India experiences high temperature during summer over 65

C but the low temperature does not fall below 18  C
compared to the northern part where the low temperature is
observed to be 10  C. In the coastal regions of the
southern part of India, the high temperature does not rise
beyond 60  C and the low temperature does not fall below
10  C. In these locations, a low temperature susceptible
binder is considered to be sufficient provided the binder
exhibits the required performance at high temperatures.

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J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A (AprilJune 2014) 95(2):8390

Table 2 Design temperatures for selected locations

Loc ID Location

Maximum air
temperature,  C

Minimum air
temperature,  C

Design pavement temperature for Design pavement temperature for

75 % reliability (C)
99 % reliability (C)

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Max

Min

Max

Min

Anantpur

33.9

3.24

22.66

2.65

56.31

17.77

63.31

Aurangabad

32.13

3.4

18.39

4.12

54.71

12.26

62.06

7.34

3
4

Bangalore
Belgaum

29.2
30.14

2.5
3.41

19.07
18.24

1.74
2.36

49.34
51.68

16.32
14.76

54.75
59.05

14.24
11.94

Bhopal

31.35

4.48

18.45

5.14

55.04

10.40

64.72

4.26

Bhubaneshwar 32.53

2.53

21.96

3.8

54.54

15.13

60.01

10.59

Chennai

2.54

24.53

1.95

53.75

20.00

59.24

17.67

Coimbatore

32.21

2.17

21.37

1.36

52.80

18.47

57.49

16.85

Cudappah

34.8

3.55

22.85

3.09

57.76

17.40

65.43

13.71

32.52

14.60

10

Delhi

30.85

5.72

18.73

7.21

56.04

6.80

68.41

-1.81

11

Dharamshala

23.83

4.88

14.51

5.72

46.58

4.82

57.13

-2.02

12

Dibrugarh

27.67

2.18

18.7

5.15

48.69

9.73

53.40

3.58

13

Gorakhpur

31.19

4.64

19.18

6.1

55.33

9.02

65.36

1.73

14

Guwahati

29.11

2.89

19.62

5.13

51.06

10.67

57.30

4.54

15

Gwalior

31.9

5.11

18.05

6.9

56.63

7.21

67.68

-1.03

16

Hyderabad

32.1

3.61

20.76

3.22

54.60

15.40

62.40

11.55

17

Imphal

26.7

2.66

15.42

5.83

47.53

7.08

53.28

0.11

18
19

Jagdalpur
Jaipur

31.24
31.41

3.4
5.46

19.13
18.91

4.34
6.25

53.50
56.34

12.60
8.61

60.85
68.14

7.41
1.14

20

Jharsuguda

32.7

3.98

21.01

4.73

56.18

13.06

64.78

7.41

21

Jodhpur

33.29

4.63

19.25

6.36

58.02

8.79

68.03

1.19

22

Kakinada

32.52

2.35

24.24

2.14

54.01

19.13

59.09

16.57

23

Kanyakumari

30.6

0.55

24.34

0.69

49.00

21.34

50.19

20.52

24

Kolkatta

31.29

2.73

22.07

4.51

53.34

13.96

59.24

8.57

25

Kottayam

31.77

1.36

22.3

0.56

51.34

19.89

54.28

19.22

26

Kurnool

34.55

3.63

22.97

2.9

57.65

17.54

65.50

14.07

27

Lucknow

31.58

5.17

18.59

6.65

56.31

7.85

67.49

-0.10

28

Mumbai

31.86

1.23

22.66

3.24

52.36

16.55

55.01

12.68

29

Nagpur

33.29

4.43

20.7

4.75

57.29

12.88

66.87

7.21

30

Patiala

29.32

5.75

17.64

7.05

54.28

5.80

66.71

-2.62

31

Patna

31.16

4.54

19.61

6.15

55.08

9.49

64.90

2.14

32

Raipur

32.97

4.09

20.5

4.79

56.63

12.61

65.47

6.89

33

Rajkot

33.82

3.52

20.88

4.34

57.31

13.34

64.92

8.15

34
35

Ramagundam
Satna

34
32.04

3.81
4.86

21.84
18.93

4.43
6.51

57.38
56.40

14.52
8.73

65.62
66.90

9.23
0.95

36

Srinagar

19.77

5.27

7.83

7.11

41.85

-2.34

53.24

-10.84

37

Trichy

33.91

2.77

23.88

2.09

55.48

19.63

61.47

17.13

Conclusion
The choice of a correct quality of the binder in a pavement
construction is paramount in ensuring that it exhibits the
required performance for the complete design life. This
paper focussed on the providing the information related to
expected temperature ranges during the design life. ANN
was used to predict air temperature for the design period

123

using 30 years of history data for 37 locations across India.

The design air temperatures were estimated and converted
to pavement temperature using regression model developed
as a part of this study. From the pavement temperatures
calculated, pavement temperature (low and high) contours
were drawn for the first time for India.
From the pavement temperature contours, it was seen
that the design maximum pavement temperature varied

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J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. A (AprilJune 2014) 95(2):8390

89

Fig. 5 Maximum pavement

temperature contour for India

from 54 to 68  C with highest temperature in the central

part of India. The design minimum pavement temperatures
went sub-zero in some locations in the northern part of
India while up to 20  C was observed in the southern most
part of India. On similar lines, detailed analysis of traffic is
also necessary before one could make a judicious choice on
the type of binder required to be used for any location. The
regression equation developed in this study has to be validated with more data points as data becomes available.
The binder properties have to be ascertained specific to the
location it is serving and they have to be correlated to the
field performance. All these require enormous data collection and this is the need of the hour for India.
Acknowledgments The authors are thankful to Department of
Science and Technology, Govt. of India for research grant DST/TSG/
STS/2011/46 and Indian Meteorological Department, Pune for providing weather data.

2.

3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.

9.

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