Introduction

Your introductions should not exceed two pages (double spaced, typed). See the examples in the writing
portfolio package.
General intent
The purpose of an introduction is to aquaint the reader with the rationale behind the work, with the
intention of defending it. It places your work in a theoretical context, and enables the reader to understand
and appreciate your objectives.
Writing an introduction
The abstract is the only text in a research paper to be written without using paragraphs in order to
separate major points. Approaches vary widely, however for our studies the following approach can
produce an effective introduction.
Describe the importance (significance) of the study - why was this worth doing in the first place?
Provide a broad context.
Defend the model - why did you use this particular organism or system? What are its advantages?
You might comment on its suitability from a theoretical point of view as well as indicate practical
reasons for using it.
Provide a rationale. State your specific hypothesis(es) or objective(s), and describe the reasoning
that led you to select them.
Very briefy describe the experimental design and how it accomplished the stated objectives.
Style:
Use past tense except when referring to established facts. After all, the paper will be submitted
after all of the work is completed.
Organize your ideas, making one major point with each paragraph. If you make the four points
listed above, you will need a minimum of four paragraphs.
Present background information only as needed in order support a position. The reader does not
want to read everything you know about a subject.
State the hypothesis/objective precisely - do not oversimplify.
As always, pay attention to spelling, clarity and appropriateness of sentences and phrases.

Materials and Methods

There is no specific page limit, but a key concept is to keep this section as concise as you possibly can.
People will want to read this material selectively. The reader may only be interested in one formula or part
of a procedure. Materials and methods may be reported under separate subheadings within this section or
can be incorporated together.
General intent
This should be the easiest section to write, but many students misunderstand the purpose. The objective is
to document all specialized materials and general procedures, so that another individual may use some or
all of the methods in another study or judge the scientific merit of your work. It is not to be a step by step
description of everything you did, nor is a methods section a set of instructions. In particular, it is not
supposed to tell a story. By the way, your notebook should contain all of the information that you need for
this section.
Writing a materials and methods section
Materials:
Describe materials separately only if the study is so complicated that it saves space this way.
Include specialized chemicals, biological materials, and any equipment or supplies that are not
commonly found in laboratories.
Do not include commonly found supplies such as test tubes, pipet tips, beakers, etc., or standard lab
equipment such as centrifuges, spectrophotometers, pipettors, etc.
If use of a specific type of equipment, a specific enzyme, or a culture from a particular supplier is
critical to the success of the experiment, then it and the source should be singled out, otherwise no.
Materials may be reported in a separate paragraph or else they may be identified along with your
procedures.
In biosciences we frequently work with solutions - refer to them by name and describe completely,
including concentrations of all reagents, and pH of aqueous solutions, solvent if non-aqueous.
Methods:
See the examples in the writing portfolio package

Report the methodology (not details of each procedure that employed the same methodology)
Describe the mehodology completely, including such specifics as temperatures, incubation times,
etc.
To be concise, present methods under headings devoted to specific procedures or groups of
procedures
Generalize - report how procedures were done, not how they were specifically performed on a
particular day. For example, report "samples were diluted to a final concentration of 2 mg/ml
protein;" don't report that "135 microliters of sample one was diluted with 330 microliters of
buffer to make the protein concentration 2 mg/ml." Always think about what would be relevant to
an investigator at another institution, working on his/her own project.
If well documented procedures were used, report the procedure by name, perhaps with reference,
and that's all. For example, the Bradford assay is well known. You need not report the procedure in
full - just that you used a Bradford assay to estimate protein concentration, and identify what you
used as a standard. The same is true for the SDS-PAGE method, and many other well known
procedures in biology and biochemistry.

Style:
It is awkward or impossible to use active voice when documenting methods without using first
person, which would focus the reader's attention on the investigator rather than the work.
Therefore when writing up the methods most authors use third person passive voice.
Use normal prose in this and in every other section of the paper avoid informal lists, and use
complete sentences.
What to avoid
Materials and methods are not a set of instructions.
Omit all explanatory information and background - save it for the discussion.
Omit information that is irrelevant to a third party, such as what color ice bucket you used, or
which individual logged in the data.

Results
The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported. Continue to be
concise, using figures and tables, if appropriate, to present results most effectively. See recommendations
for content, below.
General intent
The purpose of a results section is to present and illustrate your findings. Make this section a completely
objective report of the results, and save all interpretation for the discussion.
Writing a results section
IMPORTANT: You must clearly distinguish material that would normally be included in a research article
from any raw data or other appendix material that would not be published. In fact, such material should
not be submitted at all unless requested by the instructor.
Content
Summarize your findings in text and illustrate them, if appropriate, with figures and tables.
In text, describe each of your results, pointing the reader to observations that are most relevant.
Provide a context, such as by describing the question that was addressed by making a particular
observation.
Describe results of control experiments and include observations that are not presented in a formal
figure or table, if appropriate.
Analyze your data, then prepare the analyzed (converted) data in the form of a figure (graph),
table, or in text form.
What to avoid
Do not discuss or interpret your results, report background information, or attempt to explain
anything.
Never include raw data or intermediate calculations in a research paper.
Do not present the same data more than once.
Text should complement any figures or tables, not repeat the same information.
Please do not confuse figures with tables - there is a difference.
Style
As always, use past tense when you refer to your results, and put everything in a logical order.

In text, refer to each figure as "figure 1," "figure 2," etc. ; number your tables as well (see the
reference text for details)
Place figures and tables, properly numbered, in order at the end of the report (clearly distinguish
them from any other material such as raw data, standard curves, etc.)
If you prefer, you may place your figures and tables appropriately within the text of your results
section.
Figures and tables
Either place figures and tables within the text of the result, or include them in the back of the
report (following Literature Cited) - do one or the other
If you place figures and tables at the end of the report, make sure they are clearly distinguished
from any attached appendix materials, such as raw data
Regardless of placement, each figure must be numbered consecutively and complete with caption
(caption goes under the figure)
Regardless of placement, each table must be titled, numbered consecutively and complete with
heading (title with description goes above the table)
Each figure and table must be sufficiently complete that it could stand on its own, separate from
text

Discussion
Journal guidelines vary. Space is so valuable in the Journal of Biological Chemistry, that authors are asked
to restrict discussions to four pages or less, double spaced, typed. That works out to one printed page.
While you are learning to write effectively, the limit will be extended to five typed pages. If you practice
economy of words, that should be plenty of space within which to say all that you need to say.
General intent
The objective here is to provide an interpretation of your results and support for all of your conclusions,
using evidence from your experiment and generally accepted knowledge, if appropriate. The significance
of findings should be clearly described.
Writing a discussion
Interpret your data in the discussion in appropriate depth. This means that when you explain a
phenomenon you must describe mechanisms that may account for the observation. If your results differ
from your expectations, explain why that may have happened. If your results agree, then describe the
theory that the evidence supported. It is never appropriate to simply state that the data agreed with
expectations, and let it drop at that.
Decide if each hypothesis is supported, rejected, or if you cannot make a decision with confidence.
Do not simply dismiss a study or part of a study as "inconclusive."
Research papers are not accepted if the work is incomplete. Draw what conclusions you can based
upon the results that you have, and treat the study as a finished work
You may suggest future directions, such as how the experiment might be modified to accomplish
another objective.
Explain all of your observations as much as possible, focusing on mechanisms.
Decide if the experimental design adequately addressed the hypothesis, and whether or not it was
properly controlled.
Try to offer alternative explanations if reasonable alternatives exist.
One experiment will not answer an overall question, so keeping the big picture in mind, where do
you go next? The best studies open up new avenues of research. What questions remain?
Recommendations for specific papers will provide additional suggestions.
Style:
When you refer to information, distinguish data generated by your own studies from published
information or from information obtained from other students (verb tense is an important tool for
accomplishing that purpose).
Refer to work done by specific individuals (including yourself) in past tense.
Refer to generally accepted facts and principles in present tense. For example, "Doofus, in a 1989
survey, found that anemia in basset hounds was correlated with advanced age. Anemia is a
condition in which there is insufficient hemoglobin in the blood."
The biggest mistake that students make in discussions is to present a superficial interpretation that more
or less re-states the results. It is necessary to suggest why results came out as they did, focusing on the
mechanisms behind the observations.
3

Functions of advertising
1. To differentiate the product from their competitors
2. To communicate product information
3. To urge product used
4. To expand the product distribution
5. Too increase brand preference and loyalty
6. To reduce overall sales cost
7. Creates new demands
1. Differentiate the product from their competitors :
An important function of advertising is the identification function, that is, to identify a product
and differentiate it from others; this creates an awareness of the product and provides a basis for
consumers to choose the advertised product over other products this creates an awareness of the
product and provides a basis for consumers to choose the advertised product over other products.
The identification function of advertising includes the ability of advertising to differentiate a
product so that it has its own unique identity or personality.
There are four additional ways to differentiate your offering from the competition and increase your
differentiation:
1. leveraging the brand,
2. innovating your service offering
3. designing product
4. packaging
2. Communicate product information
Another function of advertising is to communicate information about the product, its attributes,
and its location of sale; this is the information function. Product information communicated to the
customers in manner that meets their information needs. Most consumers tend to discount the
information in advertising because they understand that the purpose of the advertising is to
persuade. Making an advertising message believable is not easy; though often it is sufficient to
make the consumer curious enough to try the product. Such curiosity is often referred to as
interested disbelief. Advertisers use a variety of devices to increase the believability of their
advertising: celebrities or experts who are the spokespersons for the product, user testimonials,
product demonstrations, research results, and endorsements.
Example:
Ponds age miracle, in that ad the celebrity HADIQA KAYANI is informing the consumers about the
benefits of it. That how the old women can look younger by using it continuously. It will make you
fair cream plus it reduces freckles plus it can be used as a sun block as well it will make you look
young.
3. Urge product used
The third function of advertising is to induce consumers to try new products and to suggest reuse
of the product as well as new uses; this is the persuasion function.
The basic function of advertising is to provide constant reminders and reinforcements to generate
the desired behavior the advertiser wants from them. This is a particularly effective function in the
long run as reminders and reinforcements register in the consumers' minds, becoming the base on
which they shape their future decisions. Sampling in the way to urge the product using
4. Expand the product distribution
When the consumer comes to know about the particular product from the advertisement he/she
wants to try that new product. They go to shops to buy the product; if the new product is not
available in a shop then the shopkeeper consults the distributor to make that product available in
his shop. It is basically to provide the product all over market. It is necessary to make sure that

product should be accessible to everyone. Availability of product effect the distribution. .

Accessibility is major factor for successful product
5. Increase brand preference and loyalty
Marketing is a moving thing. As your needs are changed your preferences are changed. When the
product delivers the promised quality, service and value, it creates satisfied customers who become
instrumental in spreading a favorable word-of-mouth. Satisfied customers also develop brand
preference; each product features and uses are written on the product.
Example: 99% girls who are not married will not look at the ad of pampers or any milk powder for
children but when they will get married their interest will automatically move towards such ad'
6. Brand loyalty
Brand loyalty is a long-term customer preference for a particular product or service. Brand loyalty
can be produced by factors such as customer satisfaction with the performance or price of a
specific product or service, or through identifying with a brand image. It can be encouraged by
advertising.
People often make purchasing decisions based on how a brand makes them feel emotionally rather
than based on quality or other objective evaluations. If "Just Do it" strikes a chord with an athlete,
he'll buy Nike; the decision may have little to do with quality.
Example: For instance, when one buys a tube of Colgate toothpaste and finds it ok, one will not
have to spend any valuable time on looking for other toothpaste brands.
7. To reduce overall sales cost
When a product is selling you have to teach the people about the product.
Like if we would advertise through newspapers, TV, broachers and internet, it would cater huge sum
of masses and if you do individually it would be more costly and time consuming.
Example: Coke targets their consumers on a very large scale through mass media whereas make
cola advertise on smaller scale or go door to door to advertise their product.
Creates new demands
Advertising have to create new demands they should educate the people about more and more new
things coming up in the market. Each year new products, including line extensions and new brands
are introduced into groceries and drugstores.
Example: Wateen telecom is offering wireless internet chips, video conferencing and WIMAX
services as they are introducing new services in market its creating new demands.
Advertising agency
INTRODUCTION; Advertising agencies are outside companies that provide for the marketing and
advertising needs of other businesses and organizations. Advertising agencies offer a full range of
advertising services and advice based on market studies, popular culture and advanced sales
techniques. Because Advertising agencies produce logos, creating effective and attractive color
schemes to draw the consumer's attention to their clients' ads. They also prepare slogans and
brochures, and write descriptive copy for sales materials. They may produce public service
announcements for charitable organizations and social programs as well, and issue press releases
for new programs, events, and products. Advertising agencies use assorted forms of media to
promote their clients' businesses or organizations, including magazine advertisements, newspaper
ads, radio and TV commercials, websites, and even infomercials. Some also plan events, provide
booths at conventions, and give away promotional items. they are independent from the client
company, they can be objective about a client's promotional needs
.The way advertising
agencies work is by getting to know their clients' product or service well and determining which
demographic provides the best audience for promotion. If a company sells designer handbags, an ad
agency would likely try to position the company's TV commercials during women's programming or
on a channel geared toward women. The look and tone of an ad campaign is also dependent upon
demographics. If the company's target audience is mature adults, design elements should be more
traditional than if the target were a younger generation

There are several associations that advertising agencies may belong to, such as the Ad Council, the
American Advertising Federation, the International Association of Business Communicators, and
the American Association of Advertising Agencies, or AAAA. When deciding between advertising
agencies, it is a good idea to see if they are members of any associations and to check them out
with the Better Business Bureau. Also helpful is asking an ad agency for examples of their work.
You may find that they are responsible for well-recognized ad campaigns that have helped establish
other companies. Such agencies may be expensive and you may have to wait some time to join
their list of clients, but an agency that can make your product or service a household name is
worth the wait and the cost.
ADVERTISING AGENCY IN INDIA
The First World War created conditions for the growth of some of the Indian consumer industries.
After the war, new British investment followed. The need arose for specialized advertising services.
The British India Corporation, a British firm in Kanpur, with a relatively wide range of consumer
goods, set up Alliance Advertising Associates Limited. This was probably the first advertising
agency in India to provide a wide variety of services. In 1922, Mr. L.A. Stronach, a senior artist of
Alliance Advertising, left to start his own agency in Bombay. Thus was born a new type of business
enterprise in the service sector in India.
The Indian advertising industry had a slow start and got its first boost during the Second World
War. With the British personnel having to join the armed forces, opportunities opened up for
Indians in this new talent-intensive business. Then followed a brief interlude of uncertainty in the
years immediately following Independence. The launching of the First Five-Year Plan and more so
the Second Five Year Plan, with the accent on rapid industrialization, gave an impetus to the
growth of advertising agency business in India. By 1952 there were 109 advertising agencies in
India with a total turnover of Rs 3.5 corer. By 1967, the number of advertising agencies had
increased to 279 with a total turnover of Rs 35 corer. The Indian advertising industry has really
come' into its own with the growing liberalization of the economy since the mid-eighties. According
to the fourth agency report of the journal Advertising and Marketing, the Indian advertising
industry grew by 36.5 per cent in 1992 -93, far outpacing the growth of Indian industry. What is
significant, however, is that three of the top four advertising agencies in India continue to be
subsidiaries of international advertising agencies-Hindustan Thompson Associates and Lintas India
being the first two, and Ogilvy & Mather being the fourth. What is more with the new interest of
many national corporations in the Indian market, a large number of international advertising
agencies have entered the Indian advertising industry in collaboration with leading Indian
advertising agencies. This is the process of globalization of Indian advertising agency business. This
is opening up new opportunities for Indian advertising to assume greater responsibility and serve
everywhere in the world and gather experience of global marketing and advertising.
Types of advertising agencies;
Following are major types of advertising agencies that are currently serving the advertising
industry
. Full Service Agencies
A full service ad agency is one that provides a range of marketing services. A full services
agency provides services that are directly related to advertising such as copywriting, artwork,
production of ads, media planning etc. It also provides such services in respect of pricing,
distribution, packaging, product design etc
Modular agencies
A modular agency is a full service agency that sells its services on a piece meal basis. Thus
an advertiser may commission an agencys creative department to develop an ad campaign while
obtaining other agency services elsewhere. Or, an advertiser may hire an agencies media
department to plan and execute a program for advertising that another agency has developed. Fees
are charged for actual work undertaken.
In House agencies

Those companies, which prefer to have closer control over advertising, have their own inhouse agency. This type is owned completely by the advertiser. It performs almost all functions
that an outside advertising agency would perform and thats why some people refer to it as fullservice advertising department of the advertiser. However, the difference between an in-house
agency and an advertising department is that the in-house agency can undertake to serve several
other clients, if the owner so desires, but an advertising department solely undertakes that work of
its owner and not of outside clients. Secondly an advertising department may not be equipped the
personnel and facilities, which an in-advertising schedule and costs, but also offers convenience for
its owner, because it is just available in the same building as that of the head office of advertiser.
Such in-house agency also benefits the owner as it can bring revenue through agency commission
that are offered by the media and by way of fees that are collected from outside parties for
undertaking their advertising work. Such revenue increases the funds and profits of the company.
There is another version of in-house agency whereby advertiser handles the total agency functions
by buying service unit to buy time, space and place the ads. Such an In-house agency is an
administrative center (under the direction of an advertising director) that gathers and directs
varying outside for its operation use agency would posses. In-house agency not only provides
control over
Creative Boutiques
These are shop agencies that provides only creative functions and not full-service. The
specialized creative functions include copy writing, artwork and production of ads, they charge a
fee or percentage of full service agencies, and as such most of them convert into a full service
agency or merge with other agencies to provide a wide range of services.
Mega agencies
A significant of 1980s is the development of mega agency. Agencies worldwide merge with
each other serve their clients in much better way. It was in 1986, Saachi & Saachi, a London based
agency who started the movement and at present it is the third largest agency network in the
world.
The Specialists Agency
There are some agencies who undertake advertising work only in certain areas. there are
agencies that specialize only in financial services or only in publicity or only in point-of-purchase
material etc. for instance Soubhagya advertising agency concentrate on specialized in financial
advertising.
The Benefits of Using an Advertising Agency
Added Expertise
Media Knowledge and Unbiased Advice
Easier Administration
Media Buying
Quality Control