Chapter 6 Road Construction Techniques

1428137844877.
831
CHAPTER6ROADCONSTRUCTIONTECHNIQUES
Producedby:ForestryDepartment
Title:Watershedmanagementfieldmanual...
EspaolFranais
Moredetails
CHAPTER6
ROADCONSTRUCTIONTECHNIQUES
6.1RoadConstructionTechniques
6.1.1ConstructionStaking
Prior to the construction activity the design information has to be moved from the plan to the ground. This is
accomplishedbystaking.Slopestakesareaneffectivewaytoinsurecompliancewiththedesignstandardsand
tokeepsoildisturbancetoanabsoluteminimum.Variousstakingmethodscanbeemployed.(Dietzetal.,1984
Pearce,1960)Themethoddiscussedhereisbutoneexample.
Stakes, marking various road design points, are typically obliterated during the clearing and grubbing phase. In
ordertorelocatethestakes(centerline,slopestakes)itishelpfultoestablishreferencepointsoutsidetheclearing
limits. Reference points should be set at least 3 to 5 meters behind the uphill clearing limits. On the average,
referencepoints(orRP's)shouldbesetatleastevery70to100meters.Typically,referencepointsareplacedat
pointswherethecenterlinealignmentcanbeeasilyreestablished,suchaspointsofcurvature.Figure102shows
thenecessarystakesandstakenotationneededbytheequipmentoperatortoconstructaroad.
Stakesareusedbytheequipmentoperatorinlocatingwheretobegincutting.Iftheselectedstartingpointistoo
high, considerably more material has to be cut in order to construct the proper subgrade (Figure 103). For
example, if the cut results in a 20 percent wider subgrade, approximately 50 percent more volume has to be
excavated.(SeeSection3.2.2.)Ifthecutisplacedtoolow,anoversteppedcutslopeorextrasidecastingmay
result,bothofwhichareundesirable.
Startingthecutattheproperpointbecomesmoreimportantasthesideslopeincreases.Asarule,slopestakes
shouldbesetwhensideslopesexceed40to45percentdependingonthesensitivityoftheareaandtheoperator's
experience.
The use of RP's (Reference Points) or slope stakes for proper excavation is shown in Figure 104. Here, the
engineerstandsonthepreliminarycenterlineoftheconstructiongradeandsightsfortheRP.Aslopereadingof
30 percent and a slope distance of 5.53 m is recorded. Converting the slope distance of 5.53 m to a horizontal
distanceof5.30mandtoaverticaldistanceof1.59mallowstheengineertodeterminehowmuchthe"present"
or preliminary centerline has to be shifted to conform with the design centerline. The RP tag requires 6.50 m
horizontal distance to centerline with a vertical drop of 4.80 m. From that information, it can be seen that an
additional1.56m[4.80(1.59+1.65)=1.56]hastobecutandthepresentlocationhastobeshiftedby1.2m
(6.505.30=1.20).Heightofinstrumentoreyelevelisassumedtobe1.65m.
Figure102.Roadcrosssectionshowingpossibleconstructioninformation.
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Figure 103. The effect of improperly starting the cut as marked by the slope stake. Starting the cut too high
resultsinexcessexcavationandsidecast.Startingthecuttoolowleavesanoversteppedcutbank.
Figure104.Construction grade check. Engineer stands on center of construction grade and sights to RP tag.
Measureddistanceandslopeallowfordeterminationofadditionalcut.
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6.1.2.ClearingandGrubbingoftheRoadConstructionArea
Preparing the road rightofway or construction area is referred to as clearing and grubbing. During the clearing
phase,treesarefelled.Grubbingreferstotheclearingandremovalofstumpsandorganicdebris.Treesshouldbe
felledandclearedaminimumof1to3m from the top of the cut or toe of the fill (Figure 105). The logs can be
deckedoutsidetheconstructionarea(Figure105,BtoE)orskiddedaway.
Figure105.Clearinglimitsinrelationtoroadbedwidths.Significantquantitiesoforganicmaterialsareremoved
betweenBandE.StumpsareremovedbetweenBandD.StumpsmaybeleftbetweenDandE.Organicdebris
andremovedstumpsareplacedinwindrowsatFtoserveasfilterstrips(seeSection6.3.1).
This additional width between construction width and forest edge ensures that space is available to deposit
organic debris outside the road construction width and that there is no overlap between forest edge and
constructionarea.
Agoodconstructionpracticetofollowistoremovestumpsthatarewithintheconstructionwidth(Figure105,Bto
E).Treesshouldbefelledtoleaveastump0.8to1.2mhigh.Thishelpsbulldozersinstumpremovalbyproviding
addedleverage.
Organic overburden or topsoil typically has to be removed over the full construction width (Figure 105, B to D).
Thisisespeciallytrue where organic layers are deep or considerable sidecast embankment or fills are planned.
Organicmaterialwilldecomposeandresultinunevensettlement and potential sidecast failure. Organic material
shouldbedepositedattheloweredgeoftheroad(Figure105,EtoF).Thismaterialcanserveasasedimentfilter
stripandcatchwall(seeSection6.3.1),howevercareshouldbetakenthatthismaterialisnotincorporatedinto
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thebaseofthefill.Pastroadfailuresshowthatfillslopefailureshavebeenmuchmorefrequentthancutslope
failures(70percentand30percent, respectively). In most cases, poorly constructed fills over organic side cast
debriswasthereasonforthefailures.
During the grubbing phase, or preparation phase, a pioneer road is often constructed to facilitate equipment
access,loggingequipmentmovement,anddeliveryofconstructionmaterials,suchasculverts.Thisisoftenthe
case when construction activities are under way at several locations. If pioneer roads are constructed, they are
often built at the top of the construction width and are usually nothing more than a bull dozer trail. When
considerablesidehillfillconstructionisplanned,however,thedozertrailshouldbelocatedatthetoeorbaseof
theproposedfill.Thetrailwillserveasabenchandprovideacatchforthefilltoholdon(Figure106).
Figure106.Pioneerroadlocationatbottomofproposedfillprovidesabenchforholdingfillmaterialofcompleted
road.
6.2GeneralEquipmentConsiderations
Themethodandequipmentusedinroadconstructionisanimportanteconomicanddesignfactorinroadlocation
andsubsequentdesign.Aroadtobebuiltbyanoperatorwhoseonlyequipmentisabulldozerrequiresadifferent
designthanaroadtobebuiltbyacontractorequippedwithhydraulicexcavator,scrapers,andbulldozer.Table38
lists common road construction equipment and their suitability for the different phases of road construction. A
bulldozercanbeusedinallphasesofroadconstructionfromexcavationanddrainageinstallationtofinalgrading.
Thefrontend loader performs well in soft material. Front end log loaders can be fitted with a bucket extending
theirusefulnessunderthecorrectconditions.
6.2.1BulldozerinRoadConstruction
Probablythemostcommonpieceofequipmentinforestroadconstructionisthebulldozerequippedwithstraight
orUtypeblades.Theseareprobablythemosteconomicalpiecesofequipmentwhenmaterialhastobemoveda
shortdistance.Theeconomichaulorpushdistanceforabulldozerwithastraightbladeisfrom17to90meters
dependingongrade.Theroaddesignshouldattempttokeepthemassbalancepointswithintheseconstraints.
Theroaddesignshouldconsiderthefollowingpointswhenbulldozersaretobeusedforroadconstruction.
1.Roadsshouldbefullbenched.Earthissidecastandthenwastedratherthanusedtobuildupsidecastfills.
2.Earthismoveddowngradewiththeaidofgravity,notupgrade.
3.Fillmaterialisborrowedratherthanpushedorhauledfartherthantheeconomiclimitofthebulldozer.
4.Rockoutcropsshouldbebypassed.Unlesssubstantialrockblastingisspecifiedrequiringdrillingandblasting
equipment,solidrockfacesshouldbeavoided(This,however,isprimarilyaroadlocator'sresponsibility.)
Table38.Roadconstructionequipmentcharacteristics.(fromOSUExtensionService,1983).
Criteria
Bulldozer
Frontend
Loader
Hydraulic
excavator
Dump
trucks
orscrapers
Farm
tractors
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Excavation
Digsand Minordigging
Digs,
Scraperscan
mode(level
pushes
ofsoft
swings,&
load
ofcontrolof
adequate materiallifts deposits
themselves
excavated
control
&carries
excellent
'topdown'
materials) (dependson goodcontrol controlcan
subgrade
bladetype)
avoidmixing excavation
materials
usedfor
longdistance
small
material
quantities
movement
excellent
control
Minordigging
andcarrying
goodcontrol
becauseit
handles
Operating
distancefor
materials
movement
91m
pushing
downhill
preferred
Suitabilityfor
fill
construction
Adequate
Good
Limitedto
smallerfills
Goodfor
largerfills
Notsuitable
Clearingand
grubbing
(capacityto
handlelogs
anddebris
Good
Adequate
Excellent
Notsuitable
Handlesonly
smallmaterials
Abilityto
install
drainage
features
Adequate
Digging
limitedto
soft
materials
Excellent
Notsuitable
Adequatefor
smalltasks
Operating
Moderate,
costperhour dependingon
machinesize
Relatively
low
Moderateto
high,but
productivity
excellent
Veryhigh
Low
Special
limitationsor
advantages
Cannotdig
Goodfor
Limitedto Verydependent
hard
roadson
moving
onsite
material
steep
materiallong conditionsand
maybe
hillsidescan distances
operator
traction
doall
canhaul
skill
limited
required
rock,riprap,
except
etc.
spreadrock
forrock
surfacing
Widely
available
canmatch
sizetojob
candoall
requiredwith
good
operator
91mon
23m(limited
Nolimit
31m
goodtraction
toswing
exceptby (approximately)
surfaces
distance)
economics
trucksmust
beloaded
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Whenusingbulldozers,thepracticeofbalancingcutandfillsectionsshouldbeusedonlywhen:
sideslopesdonotexceed45to55percent
propercompactionequipmentisavailablesuchasa"gridroller"orvibratingortampingroller
fillshaveasufficientwidthtoallowpassageofeithercompactionequipmentorconstructionequipment,suchas
dumptrucks.
Adequatecompactioncannotbeachievedwithbulldozersalone.Thedegreeofcompactionexertedbyapieceof
equipmentisdirectlyrelatedtoitscompactiveenergyorgroundpressure.Effectivegroundpressureiscalculated
astheweightofthevehicledividedbythetotalgroundcontactarea,ortheareaoftiresortracksincontactwith
thesurface.Bulldozersarealowgroundpressuremachineandthereforeareunsuitableforthisprocess.Ground
pressure of a 149 kW (200 hp), 23 tonne bulldozer (Cat D7G, for example) is 0.7 bar (10.2 lb / in2). By
comparison,aloadeddumptruck(3axles,10m3boxcapacity)generatesagroundpressureof5to6bar(72.5to
87.1lb/in2).
ComparativeproductionratesforvarioussizebulldozersareshowninFigure107.Oneshouldnotethatproduction
curvesarebasedon:
1.100%efficiency(60minutes/hour),
2.powershiftmachinewith0.05minutefixedtime,
3.machinecutsfor15mthendriftsbladeloadtodumpoverahighwall,
4.soildensityof1,370kg/m3(85.6Ib/ft3)looseor1790kg/m3(111.9Ib/ft3)bank,
5.coefficientoftraction>0.5,and
6.hydrauliccontrolledbladesareused.
Figure 107. Maximum production rates for different bulldozers equipped with straight blade in relation to haul
distance.(fromCaterpillarHandbook,1984).
The graph provides the uncorrected, maximum production. In order to adjust to various conditions which affect
production,correctionfactorsaregiveninTable39.Adjustmentfactorsforgrade(pushinguphillor downhill) are
giveninFigure108.
Table39.Jobconditioncorrectionfactors for estimating bulldozer earth moving production rates. Values are for
tracktypetractorequippedstraight(S)blade.(CaterpillarHandbook,1984)
TRACKTYPE
TRACTOR
WHEELTYPE
TRACTOR
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OPERATOR
Excellent
1.00
1.00
Average
0.75
0.60
Poor
0.60
0.50
MATERIAL
Loosestockpile
1.20
Harttocutfrozen
1.20
withtiltcylinder
0.80
0.75
withouttiltcylinder
0.70
cablecontrolledblade
0.60
Hard to drift "dead" (dry, non

cohesive material) or very
stickymaterial
0.80
0.80
SLOTDOZING
0.600.80
SIDEBYSIDEDOZING
1.151.25
1.151.25
VISIBILITY
Dust, rain,
darkness
snow,
JOBEFFICIENCY
fog,
0.80
0.70
50min/hr
0.84
0.84
40min/hr
0.67
0.67
DIRECT
DRIVE
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TRANSMISSION
(0.1min.fixedtime)
BULLDOZER*
0.80
Angling(A)blade
0.500.75
Cushioned(C)blade
0.500.75
0.500.75
D5narrowgauge
0.90
LightmaterialUblade(coal)
1.20
1.20
* Note: Angling blades and cushion blades are not considered

production dozing tools. Depending on job conditions, the Ablade
andCbladewillaverage5075%ofstraightbladeproduction.
Figure 108. Adjustment factors for bulldozer production rates in relation to grade. (Caterpillar Performance
Handbook,1984).
EXAMPLE:
Determinetheaveragehourlyproductionofa200hpbulldozer(D7)equippedwithastraightbladeandtiltcylinder.
The soil is a hard packed clay, the grade is 15 percent favorable, and a slot dozing technique is used. The
averagehaulorpushdistanceis30m.Thesoilweightisestimated at 1,200 kg/m3 loose, with a load factor of
0.769(30%swell).Aninexperiencedoperatedisused.Jobefficiencyis50min/hour.
The uncorrected maximum production is 430 m3 loose/hour (from Figure 107) bulldozer curve D7S. Applicable
correctionfactorsare:
Job efficiency (50
0.84
min/hr)
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Pooroperator
0.60
Hardtocutsoil
0.80
Slot
technique
1.20
dozing
Weightcorrection
0.87
Production=MaximumProduction*CorrectionFactor
=(430m3loose/hr)(0.84)(0.60)(0.80)(1.20)(0.87)=181m3loose/hour
Production(bankm3)=(181m3loose/hr)(0.769)=139bankm3/hr
Productionratesforbulldozersarealsoinfluencedbygradeandsideslopes.Percentchangeinhauldistancewith
respecttochangesingradeareshowninTable40.Assideslopeincreases,productionratedecreases.Typical
production rates for a medium sized bulldozer in the 12 to 16 tonne range (for example, Cat D6) are shown in
Table41.
Table40.Approximateeconomicalhaullimitfora185hpbulldozerinrelationtograde.(Productionratesachieved
areexpressedinpercentofproductionona10percentfavorablegradewith30mhaul).(Pearce,1978).
Grade(%)
Haul
distance
(meter)
10
+5
+10
+15
+20
161
198
234
percent
15
54
72
23
43
90
44
126
56
76
30
37
45
54
70
86
102
60
42
54
65
77
75
43
52
62
47
100
122
144
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90
105
43
51
43
Bulldozers,tosummarize,areanefficientandeconomicalpieceofequipmentforroadconstructionwhereroads
canbefullbenchedandexcavatedmaterialcanbesidecastandwasted.Itshouldbenoted,however,thatside
castmaterialisnotcompacted.Typically,thistypeofconstructionequipmentshouldonlybeusedwhen:(1)side
slopesarenottoosteep(ideallylessthan50percent),(2)adequatefilterstripsareprovidedalongthetoeofthe
fill,togetherwithabarrier(naturalorartificial)tocatchsidecastmaterial,and(3)erosionisnotconsideredtobea
significant factor either as a result of soil type, precipitation regime, or both. Under these circumstances,
bulldozers can be used on slopes steeper than 50 percent. If sideslopes exceed 60 percent, end hauling and/or
useofahydraulicexcavatorishighlyrecommended.Sidecastwastingfrombulldozerconstructionrepresentsa
continuous source for raveling, erosion, and mass failures. On steep slopes, bulldozers should only be used in
combinationwithspecialconstructiontechniques(trenchexcavation,seeSection6.3.1).
Table41.Averageproductionratesfora medium sized bulldozer (12 16 tonnes) constructing a 6 to 7 m wide
subgrade.
Sideslope(%)
Production
meters/hour
rate
in
040
4060
>60
1218
814
69
6.2.2HydraulicExcavatorinRoadConstruction
The hydraulic excavator is a relatively new technology in forest road construction. This machine basically
operatesbydigging,swinginganddepositingmaterial.Sincethematerialisplaced,asopposedtopushedand/or
sidecast, excellent control is achieved in the placement of the excavated soil. This feature becomes more
importantasthesideslopeincreases.Fillslopelengthscanbeshortenedthroughthepossibilityofconstructinga
catchwallofbouldersalongthetoeofthefill.Thisfeatureisparticularlyimportantwhensideslopesincreaseto
over40percent.
Mass balance along the centerline is limited to the reach of the excavator, typically about 15 to 20 meters.
However,becauseofexcellentplacementcontrol,constructionofabalancedcrosssectioncanbeachievedwith
considerablylessexcavation.Ravelingdisturbanceanderosionisreducedaswellbecauseoflesserexcavation
andlittleornodownhilldriftingofembankmentmaterial(Figure109).
Figure109.Fillslopelengthreductionbymeansofcatchwallattoeoffill.(SeealsoFigure55).
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ProductionratesforhydraulicexcavatorsaregiveninTable42.Productionratesareshownforthreedifferentside
slopeclasses.The values given are for a medium sized excavator with a 100 kW power rating (e.g., CAT 225,
Liebherr922).
Table 42. Production rates for hydraulic excavators in relation to side slopes, constructing a 6 to 7 m wide
subgrade.
Sideslope
%
Productionrate
meter/...hour
040
1216
4060
1013
>60
810
The excavator production rate approaches the dozer production rate as side slope increases. There are now
indications that excavator production rates are higher than dozer production rates on slopes steeper than 50
percent.Thisdifferencewillincreasewithincreasedrockintheexcavatedmaterial.Thebucketoftheexcavator
is much more effective at ripping than the dozer blade. Excavators are also more effective at ditching and
installingculverts.
6.3SubgradeConstruction
6.3.1SubgradeExcavationwithBulldozer
Properconstructionequipmentandtechniquesarecriticallyimportantforminimizingerosionfromroadsduringand
aftertheconstruction.Thereareclearindicationsthatapproximately80percentofthetotalaccumulatederosion
overthelifeoftheroadoccurswithinthefirstyearafterconstruction.Ofthat,mostofitisdirectlylinkedtothe
constructionphase.
In order to keep erosion during the construction phase to an absolute minimum, four elements must be
considered.
1.Keepconstructiontime(exposureofunprotectedsurfaces)asshortaspossible.
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2.Planconstructionactivitiesforthedryseason.Constructionactivitiesduringheavyorextendedrainfallshould
behalted.
3.Installdrainagefacilitiesrightaway.Oncestarted,drainageinstallationshouldcontinueuntilcompleted.
4.Constructfilterstripsorwindrowsatthetoeoffillslopestocatchearthstumpsandsheeterosion(seeSection
6.3.5).
Theformationorconstructionofthesubgradebeginsaftertheclearingandgrubbing(stumpremoval)phase.Three
basicconstructiontechniquesarecommonlyused:sidecastfillsand/orwasting,fullbenchconstructionwithend
haul,andbalancedroadsectionswithexcavationincorporatedintolayeredfills(Figure110).
Sidecastandwastingtraditionallyhasbeenthemostcommonconstructionmethod.Italsohasbeenresponsible
forthehighesterosionratesandmakinglargeareasunproductive.Inthismethod,mostifnotthefullroadwidthis
placedinundisturbedsoil(Figure110).Excavatedmaterialissidecastandwasted,ratherthanincorporatedinto
theroadprism.Theadvantageisuniformsubgradeandsoilstrength.Itisunlikelythatthetravelledroadwidthwill
beinvolvedinfillfailures.Anobviousdisadvantageisthepotentialforerosionofloose,unconsolidatedsidecast
material.
Sidecastconstructionisthepreferredconstructionmethodforbulldozers.Thebulldozerstartsthecutatthetop
ofthecutslope,andexcavatesandsidecastsmaterialuntiltherequiredroadwidthisachieved(Figure111).Itis
importantthatthecutbestartedexactlyatthe"topofcut"constructionstake(pointB,Figure105)andthecutting
proceedwiththerequiredcutsloperatio(seeSection6.1.4).Dependingonthetypeofblade(SorUblade)the
bulldozer can push or drift excess or excavated material up to 100 meters in front of the blade along the road
sectiontodeposititinastableplace.
Asthesideslopebecomessteeper,lessandlessofthesidecastmaterialisincorporatedintothesidefill.Bull
dozerequipmenthasverylittleplacementcontrolespeciallyonsteepersideslopeswhere"sliverfills"oftenresult
(Figure112).Thesefillsperformmarginally,atbest,and"fullbenching"withsidecastandwastingofexcavated
materialis preferred by many road builders. The result is a stable road surface but with a very unstable waste
materialfill.
Figure110.Threebasicroadprismconstructionmethods.
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Figure 111. Road construction with a bulldozer. The machine starts at the top and in successive passes
excavatesdowntotherequiredgrade.Excavatedmaterialissidecastandmayformpartoftheroadway.
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Figure112.Sliverfillscreatedonsteepsideslopeswheregroundslopeandfillslopeanglesdifferbylessthan7
andfillslopeheightgreaterthan6.0metersareinherentlyunstable.
14/21
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Side cast or wasted material cannot remain stable on side slopes exceeding 60 to 70 percent. Under such
conditions excavated material has to be end hauled to a safe disposal area. This requires dump trucks and
excavatorsorshovelsforloadingandhauling.
Unwantedsidecastmayresultfromdozerexcavationonsteepsideslopesbecauseoflackofplacementcontrol.
Inordertocontainsidecastlosswithintheconstructionwidthofafullbenchroadthesocalled"trenchmethod"
hasbeensuccessfullyusedinthePacificNorthwest(Nagygyor,1984).Inthismethodtherightofwaytimberis
felledparalleltotheroadcenterline.Treesandstumpsarenotremoved.Theywillactas a temporary retaining
wall for loose, excavated material (Figure 113). A pioneer road is built at the top of the cut by drifting material
againstandontopofthefelledtrees.Initialexcavationandsidecastlosscan therefore be kept to a minimum.
Whenrockisencountered,dirtdriftedagainstorontopoftreeswillformatemporarybridgetoallowpassageof
constructionequipment.
Actualexcavationisstartedabout10to12metersfromtheloaderbycuttingabladewidetrenchanddriftingthe
materialtowardsit.Loosematerialwhichescapesduringthisprocessiscaughtbythefelledtreesandslash.As
the cut gets deeper material will fall inside the trench from both sides (Figure 113). Debris, stumps, tops and
branches are pushed and loaded together with the excavated material, if it is not placed in designated fills.
Otherwiseitcanbeseparatedoutatthispoint.
Figure 113. Trenchexcavation to minimize sidehill loss of excavation material. Debris and material falls into
trench in front of the dozer blade. Felled trees and stumps are left to act as temporary retaining walls until
removedduringfinalexcavation.
6.3.2FillConstruction
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Fill construction is required to cross draws, creeks, flats or swampy areas and when excess excavation has
takenplace.Roadfillssupporttrafficandthereforemustwithstandconsiderableabuse.Onlymineralsoil,freeof
organicdebrissuchasstumps,treetopsandhumusshouldbeused.Fillsshouldbeconstructedandbuiltupin
layers (Figure 114). Each layer, or lift, should be spread and then compacted. Lift height before compaction
depends on the compaction equipment being used. Typically lift height should be about 30 cm and should not
exceed 50 cm. A bulldozer is not a good machine for compacting fills because of their low ground pressure
characteristics. Fills across draws or creeks are especially critical since they may act as dams if the culvert
shouldplug up. It is considered poor practice to build fills by end dumping instead of layering and compacting
(Figure115).
Figure114.Fills are constructed by layering and compacting each layer. Lift height should not exceed 50 cm.
Compactionshouldbedonewithpropercompactionequipmentandnotabulldozer(fromOSUExt.Service1983).
Figure 115. Fills which are part of the roadway should not be constructed by end dumping. (from OSU Ext.
Service,1983).
6.3.3Compaction
Proper compaction techniques result in significant cost reduction and reductions in erosion. Erosion potential is
directly proportional to the excavation volume especially if it is side cast in unconsolidated and loose fills.
Conventional side cast techniques where most of the road surface is excavated into a stable hill side results in
approximately 25 to 35 percent more excavated material when compared to "balanced" road design and
construction where the excavation is incorporated into the road prism. In the former case, most if not all of the
excavatedMaterialis wasted as loose side cast material readily available for erosion. In the latter case, it has
beenincorporatedintothefill,properlycompacted,andpresumablyunavailableforerosion.
Thekeytoastable,balancedroaddesignispropercompactionoffillmaterial.HaberandKoch(1982)quantified
costsforerosionandcompactionforseveraltypesofsedimentcontroltreatmentsonroadsinsouthwestIdaho.
Thisstudyrepresentsanexcellentexampleofapplyinguniformcriteriatoexaminedifferencesbetweenstandard
andnonstandardconstructiontechniques.
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Costswereinitiallydeterminedforeachactivityusingtwomethods:(1)local(Boise)laborandequipmentrates,
taxes, insurance, and servicing (repair and maintenance) including 10 percent profit and risk margin, and (2)
RegionalEquipmentBlueBookGuidebookwhichincludemarginsforprofitandrisk,fuel,oil,lubrication,repairs,
maintenance,insurance, and incidental expenses. After actual costs for each activity were calculated, average
cost per unit and average crew cost was determined based on design quantities. A comparison was then made
betweenactualcostsfor"nonstandard"treatmentsandactualcostsofstandardtreatments.
Average observed production rates for all activities were calculated for use in predicting time and costs
associated with "nonstandard" construction techniques. Figure 116 illustrates an example of their results in
determining the cost of three different methods of embankment placement. These methods are: (1) side cast
embankmentswithnocompactiveeffort,(2) layer placed (less than 30 cm (12 in) thick) embankments in which
eachlayerisleveledandsmoothedbeforeeachsubsequentlayerisplaced(somecompactionisobtainedduring
the leveling process as the bulldozer passes over the material), and (3) controlled compaction in which
embankmentsareplacedinlayers(lessthan20cm(8in)thick)followedbycompactionwithwaterandvibratory
rollertoachieverelativedensityof95percent.
Asexpected,sidecastembankmentconstructionpervolumecoststheleastandcontrolledcompactionthemost.
(Road 106781 was shorter and only a small quantity of earth was moved resulting in a higher unit cost.) Total
cost, however, for a road expressed in cost per unit length may be very similar for side cast embankment and
layered placement considering the fact that total excavation volume may be up to 35 percent less for the latter
case.Asmentionedbefore,mostofthisexcavatedmaterialisnowconsolidatedratherthanloose.Combinedwith
properfillslopesurfacetreatmentandfilterwindrowsverylittleerosioncanbeexpected.
Itisworthnotingthatproductionratesofmanuallaborforexcavationworkaregenerally3.8to4m3(5yd.3)of
dirt during eight hours of work (Sheng, 1977). However, these rates will vary widely depending on terrain, soil,
environmental,andpsychologicalconditionsoftheworkcrew.
Figure116.Excavationcostcomparisonforthreedifferentembankmentconstructiontechniques(1cu.yd.=0.9
m3).(afterHaberandKoch,1983).
6.3.4SubgradeConstructionwithExcavator
Excavators are becoming more and more common in road construction. Because of their excellent placement
controlofexcavatedmaterial,theyareidealmachinesforconstructionunderdifficultconditions.Thebackhoeor
excavator should be the preferred machine on steep side slopes. The construction sequence differs from the
bulldozerapproachandisexplainedbelow.
Theexcavatorworksfromaplatformorpioneerroadatthelowerendofthefinishedroad.
1stpass:Pioneeringoflogandstumpremovalaccomplishedinthefistpass.Justenoughoverburdenismoved
toprovideastableworkingplatform(Figure117).Logsarepiledatthelowersideoftheclearinglimit.
17/21
1428137845203.105
2ndpass: After completion of the first pass the operator begins retracing its path. During this pass unsuitable
materialisstrippedandplacedbelowthetoeofthefill(Figure118).
3rd pass: During the third pass, now working forward again, the exposed mineral soil is dug up for the
embankment construction. At the same time a ditch is prepared and the cut slope smoothed and rounded. The
portion of pioneer road or platform which consist of organic debris is outside the load bearing road surface fill
(Figure119).
Onsteepsideslopestheexcavatorisabletoplacelargebouldersatthetoeofthefill(inaditchline)andplace
excavatedmaterial against it (Figure 55 and 109). Total excavation and exposed surface area can be kept to a
minimum.
Figure 117. First pass with excavator, clearing logs and stumps from construction site. Working platform or
pioneerroadjustoutsideofplannedroadsurfacewidth.
Figure118.Second pass with excavator, removing or stripping overburden or unsuitable material and placing it
belowpioneerroad.
Figure119.Thirdpass,finishingsubgradeandembankmentfilloverpioneerroad.Roadsideditchisfinishedat
thesametime.
18/21
1428137845219.196
6.3.5FilterWindrowConstruction
Erosionfromnewlybuiltfillslopescaneffectivelybetrappedthroughfilterstripsorwindrowsmadeofslashand
placedatthetoeofthefills.Thismeasureisparticularlyimportantandeffectivewheretheroadcrossesadrawor
creek.TheeffectofsuchfilterstripsonsoillossfromnewfillslopesisshowninTable43.Fillerosionfromnewly
builtslopescanbereducedbymorethan95percentovera3yearperiod(CookandKing,1983).Thistimeperiod
issufficientinmostcasestoallowforothermeasuressuchassurfaceseeding,mulching,orwattlingtobecome
established.
Table 43. Fill slope erosion volume for windrowed and nonwindrowed slopes during a 3 year period following
construction(CookandKing,1983).
Slope
Class*
FilterWindrow(no
windrow)
Unprotected
m3/1000m
1
0.30
33.29
0.65
64.30
*class1:verticalfillheight<3meter
class2:verticalfillheight3to6meter
Constructionoffilterstrips:
1.Suitablematerialfromtheclearingandpioneeringactivityshouldbestockpiledatdesignatedareaseitherabove
orbelowtheclearinglimits.Slashshouldconsistoftops,limbsandbranches,nottoexceed15cmindiameter
and3,5minlength.Stumpsandrootwadsarenotsuitablematerialandshouldbeexcluded.
2. Windrows are constructed by placing a cull log (reasonably sound) on the fill slope immediately above and
paralleltothetoeofthefill(Figure120)forthefillmaterialtocatchagainst.Thelogshouldbeapproximately40
cmindiameterandshouldbefirmlyanchoredagainstundisturbedstumps,rocksortrees.
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1428137845237.098
3.Slashshouldbeplacedonthefillabovetheculllog.Theresultingwindrowshouldbecompacted,forexample,
bytampingitwiththebucketofanexcavator.Itisimportantthatpartoftheslashbeembeddedinthetop15cm
ofthefill.Filterstripsarebuiltduringsubgradeconstructioninordertomaximizetheireffectiveness.Careshould
betakensoasnottoblockdrainagestructures(outlets)orstreamchannels.
Figure120.Typical filter windrow dimensions built of slash and placed on the fill slope immediately above the
toe.The windrow should be compressed and the bottom part embedded 15 cm in thefillslope.(after Cook and
King,1983).
LITERATURECITED
Caterpillar.1984.CaterpillarPerformanceHandbook,No.14.Peoria,Illinois.
Cook, M.J. and J.G. King,1983. Construction cost and erosion control effectiveness of filter windrows on fill
slopes.USDAForestService,ResearchNoteINT335,November1983.
Dietz, P., W. Knigge and H. Loeffler. 1984. Walderschliessung. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg and Berlin,
Germany.
Haber,D.andT.Koch.1983.CostsoferosioncontrolconstructionmeasuresusedonaforestroadintheSilver
CreekwatershedinIdaho.U.S.ForestService,Region1andUniversityofIdaho,Moscow,Idaho.
Nagygyor, S.A. 1984. Construction of environmentally sound forest roads in the Pacific Northwest. In (ed
Corcoran and Gill) C.O.F.E./U.F.R.O. Proceedings, University of Maine, Orono, and University of New
Brunswick,Fredericton,April1984,p.143147.
OregonStateUniversity.1983.Roadconstructiononwoodlandproperties.Or.St.Univ.Ext.Cir.1135.Corvallis,
20/21
1428137845253.118
Oregon.24p.
Pearce,J.K.1960.ForestEngineeringHandbook.USDept.ofInterior.BureauofLandManagement.220p.
21/21

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