REFERENCE MODEL

A reference model is a concept of framework of how communication should take

place between two network elements. All the processes required for this effective
communication are grouped into layers which reduces complexity. Each layer
provides service to the layer above it in the protocol specification. Reference model
hides the details of network hardware and different network elements to
communicate, independent of their physical connection.
OSI Reference model
OSI (Open System Interconnection) was developed by ISO in 1984, which is the
primary architectural model for inter-computer communication. It is a descriptive
network scheme which ensures greater compatibility and interoperability between
various types of network technologies. It describes how information or data
forwards from one application through a network medium to another application
located on another network.
OSI has seven layers, each has particular network functions. Each layer
communicates with the same layers software or hardware on others computers.
The lower 4 layers concerned with the flow of data between two ends through
network and the upper 4 layers are provide services to the applications.

Application Layer
This layer mainly used by the application program. The main functionality of this
layer is to identify the application program requested communication partner and
establish the communication channel. For Eg., Through browser to upload a file to a
FTP server, it connects to a FTP server via FTP Protocol
Examples Telnet, HTTP, FTP, SNMP

Presentation Layer
Functionality of this layer is to encode/decode the specific data format into generic
data format so that the data is readable by the application layer of another system.
If necessary, it translates between multiple data formats by using a common
format. In simple, provides Encryption & Compression of data. For example,
application needs to transfer the integer value 1, at the presentation layer the value
1 will be converted to a generic value using a encoding scheme.

Examples JPEG, Tiff, MPEG, HTML

Session Layer
Session management is done by this layer i.e., to start, manage and cleanup the
sessions established between the presentation layer entities. It ensures the
dialogue communication between two hosts by offering three different modessimplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Examples Network file system (NFS), SQL, RPC
Transport Layer
This layer segments and re-assembles data into a data stream, regulates the flow
of information to ensure end-to-end connectivity between host applications reliably
and accurately. This layer supports the connection-oriented and connection less
transport layer protocol services.
Connection-Oriented service Provides reliable, end-to-end data transport
services by establishing a logical connection between two hosts. Eg., TCP,
FTP
Connection-less service Provides unreliable, end-to-end data transport
service. Eg., UDP, Voice and video traffic
Network layer
This layer manages the device addressing, tracks the location of the devices in the
network and determines the best way to move data i.e. chooses the best route to
forward the data. Manage the network and control the flow of packets, many
organizations separate their network layer addressing into smaller parts known as
subnets. Routers operate this layer.
Examples IP, IPX, AppleTalk
Data-Link Layer
The functionality of this layer is to ensure that messages are delivered to the correct
device among LAN using hardware addresses and translates messages from the
network layer into bits for the physical layer to transmit. Data link layer is
subdivided into two sub-layers
Logical Link Control hides the underlying network types (Ethernet, token
ring etc) from the network layers
Medium Access Control controls and communicates directly with the
physical network media through the network interface card.
Switches and bridges operate at this layer.

Examples Ethernet, FDDI, 802.11, Wi-Fi, HDLC

Physical Layer
This layer deals with the physical characteristics of transmission medium. It sends
and receives the data in form of bits to and from the physical carrier (wire). This
layer defines things like pin outs, voltage levels, physical data rates, modulation and
encoding of data bits on carrier signals.
Examples EIA/TIA-32, RJ45, RS232, NRZ.