CALCULATIONS OF GENERATOR SOURCE SHORT- CIRCUIT CURRENT

ACCORDING TO ANSI/IEEE AND IEC STANDARDS, WITH EMTP VERIFICATIONS.

J.C. Das, FIEE, FIEE, FIE, PE
AMEC, INC.
Atlanta, Georgia
Abstract: For the interruption of a large
generator source-short-circuit current, a current
zero may not be obtained at the contact parting
time of the circuit breaker. Large generators
which have high X/R ratio, and depending upon
the relative impedances and time constants the dc
component can be higher than the ac decaying
component delaying the occurrence of current
zero well beyond contact parting time of the
circuit breaker. The subject is well addressed in
the current literature, though not the calculations
of it. This paper presents calculations of a large
practical generator using ANSI/IEEE and IEC
standards with verifications of results using
EMTP. It demonstrates large differences which
impact the selection of generator circuit breaker
interrupting duties.

UAT, (3) from the generator itself. However,

the generator breaker sees only the component
(3) contributed by the generator. Similarly for
fault at F1, the generator breaker sees the sum
of the utility source and auxiliary distribution
system short-circuits current contributions, but
not the contribution from the generator itself.
While selecting a generator breaker, higher of
these two fault currents at F1 and F2 should
be considered. Generally, the generator
contribution for fault at F2 gives rise to higher
asymmetry than the fault at F1,because large
generators have a higher X/R ratio compared
to the short-circuit X/R ratios in the utility
systems.

I. INTRODUCTION

Fig. 2 shows a bus connected

generator in an industrial distribution system
running in synchronism with utility. Again the
faults at F1 and F2 can be considered and the
generator breaker sees only the generator
contribution for a fault at F1.

Consider system configurations shown in

Fig. 1 and Fig.2. Fig.1 shows a generating
station, the generation voltage is stepped up to
500 kV, the ratings of generators and
transformers are not shown for generality of
the discussions. Generators 2 and 3 have a
generator breaker, while generators 1 and 4 do
not. Provision of a generator breaker makes it
possible to use the generator step up
transformer as step down transformer during
start-up. (The relative merits of providing a
generator breaker are not discussed. In-line
generators breakers rated at 50 kA continuous
current and short-circuit interrupting current
up to 250 kA are available.) Consider fault
locations F1 and F2 in Fig.1. The generator
breaker short-circuit duties are of interest. For
a fault at F2, there are three contributions of
the short-circuit currents; which are: (1) from
the utility source, (2) from the auxiliary
distribution system rotating loads through

ANSI/IEEE Std. C37.010 [1] cautions

that the longer dc time constants could cause a
problem with SF6 type puffer circuit breakers.
The interrupting window, which is the time
difference between the minimum and
maximum arcing times, may be exceeded
because of delayed current zero, and arc
energy and interruption window are of
concern. The calculation methods described in
this standard are qualified that the E/Z method
of calculation with adjustments of ac and dc
decrements can be used provided the X/R does
not exceed 45 at 60 Hz, i.e., the dc time
constant is not more than 120 ms. Yet, the
commercial software available in the USA is
based upon the empirical calculations of the
short-circuit currents according to ANSI/IEEE
standard [1], and unfortunately the industry
ignores the qualifying statement of dc time
constant with respect to short-circuit
calculations.

Key terms: generator source asymmetrical

short-circuit current, degree of asymmetry,
lack of current zero at contact separation.

IEEE std. C37.013 [2] for generator

circuit breakers, states that any combination
of ac symmetrical and dc components of
short-circuit currents are permissible provided
the following conditions are met at the
primary contact parting time:

from generator source short-circuit current

may exceed 110% in the large generators
being manufactured today. Ref. [2] recognizes
this asymmetry and states that at the time of
current interruption, the arc fault resistance
will add to the generator armature resistance.
This reduces the time constant of the dc
component and forces it to decay faster:

1. The symmetrical component does not

exceed required generator source
symmetrical capability.

X d"
Ta =
2f (Ra + Radd )

2. The degree of asymmetry from

generator source does not exceed
110%.

Where Ta is the armature time constant, Ra

is the armature resistance, Radd is the added arc
resistance and Xd is the subtransient
reactance and f is the system frequency.

3. The total source current does not

exceed the required generator-source
asymmetrical capability.
It is the second condition that is discussed
in this paper, which shows that asymmetry

52

52

52

52

52

52

500 kV double bus

52

52

52

GSU1

52

52

52

GSU3

GSU2

GSU4

F2
52
G

G1

52
G

UAT2

UAT1

F1

G2

52

52

G3

G4

Interlocks and auto switching

4.16 kV Bus 1

Aux Transf. 1

52

52

4.16 kV Bus 2

52

52

Generation Medium-voltage
auxiliary loads

Aux. Transf. 2

Third standby
source of power
Interlocks and auto switching
0.48 kV Bus 1

(1)

0.48 kV Bus 2

Generation Low-voltage
auxiliary loads

Fig.1. A diagram of connections, large utility generating station.

Fig.2.

A bus connected industrial generator

IEC standard [3], does not discuss the

asymmetry at the contact parting time of the
breaker. Short-circuit current profiles for far
from and near to the generator are shown in
Figs. 1 and 2 of this standard, respectively. There
is no discussion of not obtaining a current zero at
the contact parting time of the breaker. The IEC
standard showing the examples of short-circuit
calculations, part- 4 is yet to be published. Note
that some examples of calculations were included
in earlier 1988 issue of this standard, which have
been withdrawn. IEC may adopt IEEE standard [2]
for the generator breakers.
II. AC CURRENT INTERRUPTION
A short-circuit current with maximum
asymmetry in one phase may not have zero
crossing in many periods, while the asymmetry in
the other two phases will be minimum and these
phases will interrupt first.

Fig.3. A current zero obtained at the contact parting time

with added arc fault resistance.

Fig. 3 shows this effect on decay of the dc

component and the current zero obtained at the
contact parting time. However, the performance
with arc fault resistance is difficult to simulate and
demonstrate even in a test station.
When no current zero is obtained, the current
interruption in this mode will be equivalent to that
of interrupting a dc current without current zero
crossing. The high voltage circuit breakers have
limited interrupting capability in this mode of
operation, unless specifically designed to introduce
resistance in the arc fault path at current zero.
Generator circuit breakers capable of interrupting
with 130% asymmetry at the contact parting time
are commercially available. Current technologies in
some SF6 breaker designs use arc rotation
techniques to force a current zero. The vacuum
interruption technology may also achieve the same
results. The available continuous current rating and
the interrupting symmetrical rating of generator
breakers at the upper end is 50 kA and 250 kA,
respectively.

A short-circuit in the phase having zero

asymmetry (depending upon the instant of fault on
the voltage wave), will be interrupted first, the
short-circuit changes to a two-phase fault, the
current is reduced by a factor of 0.866, which will
further prevent short-circuit current envelope from
crossing the zero-axis. When a two-phase fault
escalates to a three-phase fault, zero crossing may
not occur after several periods of contact opening
time.
With no current zero, the current interruption
is equivalent to interrupting a dc current. The high
voltage circuit breakers have limited current
interrupting capability in this mode. Some modern
technologies in ac circuit breakers intended for
generator applications , say SF6 designs, use arc
rotation techniques to force a current zero, and the
vacuum technology may also achieve the same
results. But caution has to be exercised that all
ANSI/IEEE rated breakers may not be suitable for
high asymmetrical current interruption. It is
prudent to consult the manufacturer for this
application.

III. GENERATOR SOURCE SHORTCIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

The generator source fault current, for a
practical machine, is calculated by three methods:
(1) IEEE standard, (2) IEC standard and, (3) EMTP
simulation. A comparative analysis of the results of
these calculations is made for further discussions
and analysis..
A generator of 234 MVA, 2-pole, 18 kV,
0.85 power factor, (198.9 MW), 7505 rated current,
60 Hz. 350 field volts, wye connected 0.56 SCR
(short-circuit ratio), high resistance grounded and
connected directly to a step up transformer is
considered. Table 1, shows the manufacturers
data, which is limited to the modeling and the
calculations in this paper. All data is in per unit on
generator MVA base of 234 MVA. All time
constants are in seconds. Table shows saturated
reactances, which are used in the short-circuit
calculations
1V. ANSI CALCULATIONS
Generator source short circuit current, in the phase
with maximum asymmetry and the generator
unloaded is calculated using the following
equation, from [2]:

1
1 t / T "

" ' e d
P 2 X d X d

I asym =
cos2t

V 3 1
1 t / Td'
1
e
+

+
X d' X d
X d
1

1
" + " et / Ta

d
q
P 2

V 3 1 1

2 X '' X " cos2t

q
d

(2)
Where Iasym is the generator source
asymmetrical current, P = rated power, V =rated
maximum voltage, is the angular frequency, and
t is the time in seconds. All other symbols are
defined in Table 1. The second harmonic term in
this equation is neglected. Note that there is no
commercially available software computerizing the
short-circuit calculations

Table 1.
Generator Manufacturers Data

Description
Symbol
Data
Per unit reactance data, direct axis
Synchronous
Xd
2.120
Transient
Xd
0.230
Subtransient
Xd
0.150
Saturated negative
0.150
X2v
sequence
Leakage reactance,
0.135
XLM,OXE
overexcited
Leakage reactance,
0.150
XLM,UEX
under excited
Per unit reactance data, quadrature axis
Synchronous
Xq
1.858
Transient
Xq
0.434
Subtransient
Xq
0.140
Generator effective
X/R
125
X/R
Field time constant data, direct axis
Open circuit
Tdo
5.615
Three-phase short0.597
Td
circuit transient
Short-circuit
0.015
T d
subtransient
Open circuit
0.022
Tdo
subtransient
Field time constant data quadrature axis
Open circuit
Tqo
0.451
Open circuit
0.046
Tq0
subtransient
Armature dc component time constant data
Three-phase short0.330
Ta
circuit
The calculations in this paper follow a sample
example in [2]. If the generator is operating underexcited at leading power factor a higher
asymmetry can be expected at the contact parting
time [2].

The equation (2) considers that the generator is

operating at no-load. ANSI/IEEE Short-circuit
calculations ignore the prior loading of generators
and motors and the calculations are, generally,
made at the rated voltage. This is rather an
oversimplification of a complex transient
phenomenon. In practice the generator will be
connected to an interconnected system, and its
terminal voltage, rotor angle and frequency will all
change. For a terminal fault, as discussed here, the
terminal voltage will be zero, and power supplied
to the load reduces to zero, while the prime mover
output cannot change abruptly. Thus, the generator
will accelerate. In multi-machine system speeds of
all machines will change, so that these generate
their share of synchronizing power in the overall
impact, as these strive to reach a mean retardation
through oscillations [6]. The paper confines to the
basis laid out in the standard. Using the data
from Table 2 and considering a 5 cycle breaker,
with contact parting time of 3-cycles, consisting of
cycle tripping delay and 2.5 cycles opening time,
the calculated short-circuit currents are:

Close and latch: 112.2 kA peak.

Generator source ac symmetrical

interrupting current: 30.9 kA rms.

Dc component = 59.22 kA.

Total rms asymmetrical interrupting

current at contact parting=66.80 kA.

Asymmetry factor = 135.5% and the

current zero is not obtained.

The step-by step details of the calculations

are not shown. The asymmetry factor is given by:
=

dc component
2 symmetrical int errupting current

(3)

And the total asymmetrical interrupting current

is given by:

I total ,asym = (ac sym ) 2 + (dc) 2

(4)

An important parameter of calculation is the

X/R ratio. The effective resistance of the generator
used in the short-circuit calculations is calculated
from the following expression, from [1].

RG =

X 2v
2 f Ta

(5)

Where RG is the generator effective resistance,

and all the symbols have been described in Table
2. Using appropriate values from Table 2, this
gives an X/R of 125, which correlates with the
data supplied by the manufacturer in Table 2.
Ref. [2], however, specifies a dc component
decay time constant of 133 ms. Required
asymmetrical interrupting capability for threephase faults is 110% of the peak value of the
symmetrical generator source current. It implies
that a current zero will always be obtained at the
contact parting time due to added arc resistance at
the current interruption.
V. IEC CALCULATIONS
There are analytical and conceptual
differences between the ANSI/IEEE methods of
short circuit calculations and IEC [7, 8, 9, and 10].
It is not the intention to go into the details of the
IEC calculations, except to present the calculated
results.
For near to generator faults, IEC distinguishes
between the generators directly connected to
systems and generators and unit transformers of
power station units, i.e., the generator and
transformer is considered a single unit. IEC
requires calculation of initial symmetrical shortcircuit current in each contributing source, which
forms basis of further calculations. Tracking each
contributing source current throughout the system
is necessary, and each of these component currents
is a function of X/R ratio, type of network,
(meshed or radial), type of excitation system for
synchronous generators, preloading, minimum
time delay and the determination whether the
contribution is from near to (local) or far from
(remote) short-circuit sources.
For the calculations of peak short-circuit
current with sufficient accuracy, [3] recommends a
fictitious resistance, which considers ac and dc
decay:
RGf = 0.05 times the subtransient reactance for
machines of UrG > 1 kV and SrG 100 MVA.
(6)

Where UrG is the generator rated voltage, RGf is

the fictitious generator resistance and SrG is its
rating in MVA.
Using the values from Table 2, this gives an
X/R ratio of 20, which is much lower than the X/R
ratio of 125 calculated using (5). IEC [3], however,
cautions that the actual generator resistance can
be much lower and the value arrived from (5) can
not be used for calculating the aperiodic dc
component of short-circuit current.
The partial initial short-circuit current of the
"
generator, I kG
, is given by:
"
I kG
=

cU rG
3K G ,SO Z G

(7)

Where c is the IEC voltage factor =1.10 for

maximum short-circuit current calculations for
medium and high voltages (>1-230 kV), UrG is the
generator rated voltage, ZG is generator impedance
and K G,SO is a defined factor for generators and
unit transformers of the power stations. It is given
by the following expression:

K G , SO =

1
c
"
1 + pG 1 + X d sin rG

(8)

Where rG is the load power factor angle prior

to the generator fault and factor pG considers
generator voltage regulation. For the purpose of
this calculation, it is ignored as ANSI/IEEE
methods and EMTP simulations are made with
rated generator voltage. Also the generator is
considered at no-load, i.e., rG =0. Substituting all
the values, KG,SO=1.10
ZG is the generator impedance, given by:

Z G = RGf + jX d"

(9)

"
Then, from (7), I kG
= 49.97 kA . Generator

peak current is given by:

"
i pG = 2 I kG

(10)

Where ipG is the peak short-circuit current

(equivalent ANSI /IEEE close and latch current).
The factor can be ascertained from the X/R
curves in [3] or from analytical expression in [3].
This gives i pG = 131.6 peak .

The generator breaking (ANSI interrupting)

current for minimum time delay of 0.05 s (ANSI
contact parting time) is:
"
ibsym = I kG

(11)

Where ibsym is the symmetrical component of

the generator source fault current and is the
multiplying factor, calculated from the expressions
in [3]. This calculation gives, ibsym = 38.5 kA.
Compare this calculation with IEEE
calculation of generator source symmetrical fault
current calculated as 30.90 kA. There is
considerable difference in the calculated results
using the same data.
The aperiodic dc component at minimum time
delay is calculated from equation (64) of [3]:
"
I dc = 2 I kG
e 2ftR / X

(12)

Here X/R =20 cannot be used. Using

X/R=125, as calculated before, Idc=60.73 kA.
Thus, the asymmetry factor is 112% versus
135% with ANSI calculations.
The calculations described above omit many
steps and explanations, Ref. [3, 7, 9 and 10]
provide further reading.
VI. EMTP SIMULATION
Short-circuit calculations are conducted
using EMTP program, with detail modeling and
Parks transformations. EMTP uses Parks
transformation, which is a powerful analytical
transformation for the study of synchronous
machine
behavior.
Conceptually
this
transformation is shown in Fig. 4. The inductance
matrix of a synchronous machine reactance in the
stator frame of reference is not constant and varies
with the position of the rotor with respect to the
stator coils. Consider that the field winding is cophasial with the direct axis and also that the direct
axis carries a damper winding. The q-axis also has
a damper winding. The field flux is directed along
d-axis; therefore, the machine generated voltage is
at right angles to it, along q-axis. Consider phase
a inductance, which is a combination of its own
self inductance, and its mutual inductance with
respect to phases b an c. All these inductances
vary with the position of the rotor with respect to
the stator.

Parks transformation describes a new set of

variables, such as currents, voltages and flux
linkages in 0dq axes. The stator parameters are
transferred to the rotor parameters.
Using matrix notation:

i0 dq = P iabc
v0 dq = P v abc

(13)

0 dq = P abc
Here the matrix and vectors are denoted by a
top bar, subscript 0dq refers to transformed axes
and subscript abc refers to stator frame of
reference. i , v , are currents, voltages and flux
linkage vector and P the transformation matrix.
The abc constants in the stator windings produce a
synchronously rotating field, stationary with
respect to the rotor. This rotating field is produced
by constant currents in the fictitious rotating coils
in d-q axes, Fig.4 (b).
It is not the intention to go into the details of
the synchronous machine modeling theory or the
calculation routines in EMTP. Manufacturers data
is always supplied in the stator frame of reference,
Table 2. The input of this data into EMTP
modeling converts it to 0dq axes. For example the
decoupled flux matrix in d-axis can be written as:

d
Ld
f = KM fd
kd KM dkd

KM fd
Lf
M fkd

KM dkd id
M fkd i f
Lkd

ikd

(16)
Where
Ld
= self inductance of the armature
Lf
= self inductance of the field
winding
Lkd =self inductance of the damper winding
Mfd
=mutual inductance between the
field and armature windings
Mdkd
= mutual inductance between
armature and damper windings

Fig.4. To illustrate Parks transformation and

inverse Parks transformation
Mfkd
= mutual inductance between field
and damper windings
id, if, ikd
=Currents in the direct axis, field
and damper windings.
K
= 3/2
These all pertain to transformed d-axis.
Similar transformation applies to q-axis. EMTP
routine calculates the transformed parameters
based upon the input manufacturers data. It can
also accept the transformed parameters in 0dq axes
directly, which can be first externally calculated
from the manufacturers data in a-b-c frame of
reference. These calculations are not shown. Refs
[11-15] provide further reading.
Also the system inertia constant and
mechanical damping has been modeled. These
details are not presented. Ref. [16] may be seen for
the EMTP model.

The three-phase short-circuit current profile is

shown in Fig. 7 for phases a, b and c. It is seen
that in phase c, current zero is not obtained for a
number of cycles. The calculated values at the
contact parting time are:

Generator
symmetrical
interrupting
/breaking short circuit current = 33.59 kA
rms

Dc component = 62.5 kA

Asymmetry factor = 131%.

This simulation is, however, to show the

impact of low load and very low power factor.
Practically, while absorbing power from the power
system, a generator will not be operated at such a
low power factor.

The results are read from the computer outputs;

Ref.[17] describes a geometric construction for the
calculation of ac symmetrical and dc components
from offset asymmetrical wave.
Table 3 shows the comparative results obtained
with the three methods of calculations.
VII. THE EFFECT OF POWER FACTOR
The load power factor (lagging) in IEC
"
calculations will increase
I kG
(equation
(7)).Similarly a leading power factor will
"
decrease I kG
. This is correct; as a lagging power
factor increases the internal voltage behind the
machine transient reactance, and conversely a
leading power factor decreases it. However from
(11) and (12) it does not change the asymmetry at
"
the contact parting time, because I kG
is common to
these equations. But, the asymmetry does change
with the power factor and prior load. This is clearly
shown in the EMTP simulation in Fig. 8. Fig. 8(a)
shows the generator operating at no-load; it is the
same plot as shown in Fig. 7 for phase c, except
that the simulation is carried for 500 ms. The
comparative results are shown in Table 2, which
shows considerable differences in the asymmetry
factor, calculated by the three methods.
Fig. 8(b) shows the simulation with prior load
on the generator as follows:
MW=28, Mvar= 92.4 Mvar, 0.29 PF, 93.3
MVA.
The first cycle peak current is reduced from
132 kA at no-load to 129 kA and the asymmetry at
contact parting time is increased from 131% at no
load to 142%, and the current zero is further
delayed compared to Fig. 8 (a).

Fig.7. EMTP simulations of the generator shortcircuit currents, see text

Table 2
Comparison of Calculations using IEEE/IEC
Standards and EMTP Simulations
Calculated
Parameter

IEEE

IEC

EMTP

Close and Latch ,

kA peak ( IEC
peak short-circuit
current)
Generator source
Interrupting kA
sym. RMS (IEC
symmetrical
breaking current
ibsym.
Dc component, kA
Total
asymmetrical, kA
RMS
(IEC ibasym)

112.2

131.60

132.05

Asymmetry
factor

30.90

38.50

33.59

59.22
66.80

60.73
71.90

62.50
70.90

135%

112%

131%

ms, (b) short-circuit current in phase C, with

generator loaded, 28 MW, 0.29 leading power
factor
VIII. CALCULATIONS FOR BUS
CONNECTED GENERATOR
Fig. 2 shows a generator of 81.82 MVA,
12.47 kV, 0.85 power factor directly connected to
a 12.47 kV bus, also powered by a 30/40/50 MVA,
115-12.47 kV utility transformer. The two sources
are run in synchronism, and the plant running load
is 45 MVA; the excess generated power is
supplied into the utility system. The size of a
generator that can be bus connected in an
industrial distribution is approximately limited to
100 MVA, as an acceptable level of short-circuit
should be maintained at the medium voltage
switchgear and the downstream distributions.
Such large units in the industrial
distribution pose the same problem of higher
asymmetry at the contact parting time as the
directly connected utility generators through step
up transformers. Following are the specific
parameters of the 81.82 MVA generator shown in
Fig. 10.

X d'' = 16.2, X d' = 22.3, X d = 201.8,

X q'' = 15.9, Td'' = 0.015 s,
Td' = 0.638 s, Ta = 0.476 s
Considering a 5-cycle symmetrical rated
breaker, the asymmetry at the contact parting time
from (2) and (3) = 132%. The calculations are not
carried out using IEC standards and EMTP
simulation.
IX. CONCLUSIONS

Fig. 8, (a) EMTP simulation of the generator short

circuit current, generator unloaded, same as in Fig.
7, phase C, except the simulation carried for 500

A power system engineer must be cautious

when applying calculation methods according to
accepted standards. There can be differences in the
calculations using the same data. When using IEC
calculations, actual X/R specified by the
manufacturers should be used for calculation of
aperiodic dc current at the contact parting time.
The example of calculation in this paper
clearly demonstrates that asymmetry at contact
parting time can be even 130% or more. The
delayed current zeros can also occur on short-

circuits in large industrial systems, with cogeneration facilities. In general, a generator breaker
capable of interrupting 130% asymmetrical current
seems to be an appropriate application in most
cases.
Developments in generator circuit breakers
have produced designs, which can handle 130%
asymmetry, [18, 19 and 20]. The manufacturers
can supply test certificates showing successful
interruption at this asymmetry. All generator
breakers in the market may not meet these criteria.
The possibility of catastrophic failure exist when
this phenomena is ignored and short-circuit
currents are not properly calculated. The
manufacturer should be consulted for applicability
of their breakers to interrupt the high asymmetry
currents as demonstrated by testing. One solution
to the problem can be purposely delaying the
opening of the breaker; though this will increase
the fault energy let-through and will have profound
impact on stability of the power system.

[6] Jacobs Dunki JR, Lam P, Stafford P, A

Comparison of ANSI-based andDynamically
Rigorous Short-Circuit Current Calculation
Procedures,
Trans.
IEEE,
Industry
Applications Society,1988, Vol. 24, pp 11801194.
[7] Das
JC,
Short-Circuit
Calculations
ANSI/IEEE & IEC Methods, Similarities and
Differences, Proceedings of 8th International
Symposium on Short-Circuit Currents in
Power Systems, 1988, Brussels.
[8] Das, JC, Power System Analysis, Chapter 8,
Short-Circuit Calculations According to IEC
Standards,2002, Marcel Dekker, New York
[9] Knight Gene, Sieling Harry, Comparison of
ANSI and IEC 909 Short-Circuit Current
Calculation Procedures, IEEE Trans.
Industry Applications, May/June 1993,
Vol.29, No.3, pp 625-630.

X. REFERENCES
[1] ANSI/IEEE Std. C37.010, Guide for AC High
Voltage
Circuit
Breakers
Rated
on
Symmetrical Current Basis, 1999.
[2] IEEE Std. C37.013, 1997. IEEE Standard for
Generator Circuit Breakers Rated on
Symmetrical Current Basis, 1997 and IEEE
Std. C37.013a, Amendment 1: supplement for
use with Generators rated 10-100 MVA, 2007.
[3] IEC 60909.-0, Short-Circuit Currents in ThreePhase AC Systems, 0- Calculation of Currents,
2001-07, Also IEC 60909-1;, Factors for
Calculation of Short-Circuit Currents in ThreePhase AC Systems According to IEC 60909-0,
1991.
[4] Ragaller K. Current Interruption in High
Voltage Networks, 1978, New York, Plenum
Press.
[5] Braun A., Edinger, A., Rouss, E., Interruption
of Short-Circuit Currents in High Voltage AC
Networks, BBC Review, April 1979, Vol. 66,
Baden.

[10] Berizzi A, Massucco S, Silvestri A, and Zanin

D, Short-Circuit Current Calculations: A
comparison between Methods of IEC and
ANSI Standards Using Dynamic Simulation
as Reference, IEEE Trans. Industry
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