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The charge on the nucleus and the number of electrons in the valence shell
The diagram above shows the first four elements of Noble Gas. We can see that
the outer most shell (valence shell) of Helium has 2 electrons. We call this duplet
electron arrangement.
4
The maximum number of electrons can be filled in the first shell is 2 electrons,
The valence shell all other Group 18 elements (including Xenon and Radon which
is not shown in the diagram) has 8 electrons, and we call this octet electron
arrangement.
6
When the electron arrangement of an atom is duplet or octet, the energy of the
electrons is very low, and it is very difficult (even though it is not impossible) to add
or remove electrons from the atom.
7
This explains why noble gases are reluctant to react with all other elements.
sharing electron
(Two fluorine atoms share one pair of electrons to achieve octet electron
arrangement)
Chemical bonds
2 types of chemical bonds are commonly formed between atoms,
namely
4 Ionic Bond
5 Covalent Bond
The Ionic Bond
(Ionic Bond)
By releasing or receiving electron(s), the atoms will become ions and consequently
form ionic bond between the ions.
Ionic bonds are always formed between metal and non-metal. For example, sodium
(metal) react with chlorine (non-metal) will form an ionic bond between sodium ion
and chloride ion.
The compounds formed are called the ionic compounds.
(Covalent Bond)
By sharing electron(s), the atoms will form covalent bond between the atom and the
molecule formed is called the covalent molecule.
Covalent bond is always formed between non-metal with another non-metal.
Formation of Ion
An ion is an atom or group of atoms carrying positive or negative charge. Example
Ca2+, O2-, SO42- etc.
If a particle has equal numbers of protons (+) and electrons (-), the particle charge is
zero, and the particle is said to be neutral.
In a chemical reaction, electron(s) can be transferred from atom to another atom.
If electron(s) is removed from an atom, the number of protons will be more than
number of electrons. In this case, the atom will has excess positive charge and hence
form a positive ion (cation).
The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (cation) and is usually a
metal.
7
The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (anion) and is usually a
non-metallic element.
For example, the electron arrangement of fluoride ion is 2.8 which is similar to a Neon
atom, 2.8.
Fluoride ion and the neon atom have similar electron arrangement.
Fluoride ion carries charge whereas neon atom is neutral.
(The electrons arrangement of a fluoride ion is the same as a neon atom. However, they
are so much different chemically)
Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonds are formed by one atom transferring electrons to another atom to form ions.
Ions are atoms, or groups of atoms, which have lost or gained electrons.
The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (a cation) and is usually a metal.
The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (an anion) and is usually a non-metallic
element.
Ions of opposite charge will attract one another by strong electrostatic force, thus creating
an ionic bond.
Ionic bond is also known as electrovalence bond.
Example: Ionic Bonding between Group 1 Metals and Group 17 Elements
arrangement of sodium atom is 2.8.1, which is not octet and hence not stable.
To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the sodium atom donate/release one electron and
form sodium ion.
The electron arrangement of chlorine atom is 2.8.7, which is also not octet and hence not
stable, too.
To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the chlorine atom receives one electron from
sodium atom and form a chloride ion.
The sodium ion and the chloride ion carry opposite charge, hence they attract each other
and form an ionic bond between each other.
We can predict the charge of the ions formed from an element base on the group of the
element.
From the charge, we can then write the formula of the ionic compound formed.
In short, we can predict the formula of an ionic compound if we know the group (in
periodic table) of the elements in the compound.
Table below shows the formula of the ionic compounds formed by the elements from
different group in a periodic table.
Elements
Atoms of Metal, M
Formula of Ionic
Atoms of Non-Metal,
Examples
Compound
N
Group 1
Group 15
M3N
Na3N
Group 1
Group 16
M2N
K2O
Group 1
Group 17
MN
LiCl
Group 2
Group 15
M3N2
Ca3N2
Group 2
Group 16
MN
MgO
Group 2
Group 17
MN2
BaBr2
Group 13
Group 15
MN
AlN
Group 13
Group 16
M2N3
Al2O3
Group 13
Group 17
MN3
AlI3
Covalent Bonding
Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonds are formed by atoms sharing electrons to form molecules. This type of
bond usually formed between two non-metallic elements.
In the formation of covalent bonds, atoms of non-metals will combine with each other to
donate one, two or three electrons for sharing.
The compound formed through the formation of covalent bonds is called the covalent
compounds.
Examples of Covalent Compound
Covalent
Formula
Compound
Covalent
Formula
Compound
Chlorine
Cl2
Phosphorus
Hydrogen
H2
Sulfur dioxide
SO2
Oxygen
O2
Carbon dioxide
CO2
N2
Tetrachloro-
CCl4
Nitrogen
methane
The electrons
arrangement of a
fluorine atom is 2.7
To achieve octet
electrons
arrangement, 2
fluorine atoms share 1
pair of electrons
between each other.
As a result, a covalent bond formed between the 2 atoms.
P4
The electrons
arrangement of an
oxygen atom is 2.6
To achieve octet
electrons
arrangement, 2
fluorine atoms share
2 pair of electrons
between each other.
As a result, 2
covalent bonds
formed between the 2 atoms.
The electrons
arrangement of an
oxygen atom is 2.6
and the electrons
arrangement of a
hydrogen atom is 1.
To achieve octet
electrons arrangement, the oxygen atom share 2 pair of electrons with 2 hydrogen atoms.
The hydrogen atoms achieve duplet electrons arrangement after sharing electron with the
oxygen atom.
As a result, covalent bonds formed between the oxygen atom and the hydrogen atoms.
Number of Bond
There are 3 types of
covalent bond:
8 Single
covalent
bond
sharing of
one pair
of
electrons
9 Doubl
e
covalent
bond
sharing of
two pairs of electrons
10 Triple covalent bond sharing of three pairs of electrons
Example
Number of electron
1 pair
2 pair
type of
covalent bond:
Double Bond
3 pair
type of
covalent bond:
Triple Bond
Formation of
Double Bond
(Oxygen Molecule)
Formation of Triple
Bond (Nitrogen
Molecule)
Predicting the
Molecular Formula
of Covalent
Compounds
1 Like the formula of
ionic compounds,
the formula of most
covalent compounds
can be predicted by
referring to the
group in periodic
table of the elements
in the compound.
2 We can predict the
formula of a
covalent compound
by referring to the valency of the elements in the compound, if we know which group in
periodic table the element is located.
3 The valency of an atom is the number of electrons receive of release to achieve octet
electrons arrangement.
4 For example, the electron arrangement of an oxygen atom is 2.6. To achieve octet
electrons arrangement, the oxygen atom need to receive 2 electrons. Therefore, the
valency of oxygen is 2.
5 Table below shows the group of the elements, the valency of the elements and the
predicted formula of covalent compounds formed among the elements.
Element that combine
Element X from
Valency
Group 15
Group 15
XY
Group 15
Group 16
X2Y3
Group 15
Group 17
XY3
Group 16
Group 16
XY
Group 16
Group 17
XY2
Group 17
Group 17
XY
Most covalent
compounds are
made up of
independent
molecular units, as
shown in figure
above.
The attraction force
between molecules
is the weak Van der
Waals force.
Properties of Simple Covalent Molecular Substances - Small Molecules!
The intermolecular force between the simple covalent molecules is very weak. Therefore,
covalent compounds have low melting and boiling point.
They are also poor conductors of electricity because there are no free electrons or ions in
any state to carry electric charge.
Most small molecules will dissolve in a solvent to form a solution.
Physical Properties of Covalent Compounds - Macromolecular compounds
Macromolecular Compounds
The macromolecular compounds have giant, covalent molecules with extremely large
molecular lattices.
They have very high melting and boiling points.
They don't conduct electricity not even when molten (except for graphite).
They're usually insoluble in water.
Examples of such macromolecules are diamond, silica and graphite.
Diamond and Silica(Sand)
Graphite
Carbon also occurs in the form of graphite. The carbon atoms form joined hexagonal
rings forming layers 1 atom thick.
Graphite is black and opaque.
Each carbon atom only forms three covalent bonds, creating sheets of carbon atoms
which are free to slide over each other. This makes graphite slippery, so it's useful as a
lubricant.
The layers are held together so loosely that they can be rubbed off onto paper to leave a
black mark that's how pencils work.
Graphite has a high melting point the covalent bonds need lots of energy before they
break.
Only three out of each carbon's four outer electrons are used in bonds, so there are lots of
spare electrons. This means graphite conducts electricity it's used for electrodes.