CHAPTER 4

TRAFFIC VOLUME
4.1 Definitions:
ADT: Average daily traffic or ADT, and sometimes also mean daily traffic, is the average
number of vehicles two-way passing a specific point in a 24-hour period, normally
measured throughout a year. ADT is the standard measurement for vehicle traffic load on
a section of road, and the basis for most decisions regarding transport planning, or to the
environmental hazards of pollution related to road transport. Road authorities have norms
based on ADT, with decisions to expand road capacity at given thresholds.
AADT: Annual average daily traffic, abbreviated AADT, is a measure used primarily in
transportation planning and transportation engineering. It is the total volume of vehicle
traffic of a highway or road for a year divided by 365 days. AADT is a useful and simple
measurement of how busy the road is. It is also sometimes reported as "average annual
daily traffic".
Total 24 hours volume
Volume for particular hour
Hourly Expansion Factor (HEF):
Avg. total weekly vo lume
Avg. volume for particular day
Daily Expansion Factor (DEF):
AADT
ADT for particular month
Monthly Expansion Factor (MEF) :
4.2 Counting Method:
Two methods are available for conducting traffic volume counts:
(1) Manual and
(2) Automatic.
Manual counts are typically used to gather data for determination of vehicle
classification, turning movements, direction of travel, pedestrian movements, or vehicle
occupancy. Automatic counts are typically used to gather data for determination of
vehicle hourly patterns, daily or seasonal variations and growth trends, or annual traffic
estimates.

The selection of study method should be determined using the count period. The count
period should be representative of the time of day, day of month, and month of year for
the study area.

4.2.1 Manual Count Method

Most applications of manual counts require small samples of data at any given
location. Manual counts are sometimes used when the effort and expense of automated
equipment are not justified. Manual counts are necessary when automatic equipment is
not available. Manual counts are typically used for periods of less than a day. Normal
intervals for a manual count are 5, 10, or 30 minutes.
Manual Count Recording Methods: Manual counts are recorded using one of three
methods: tally sheets, mechanical counting boards, or electronic counting boards.
Tally Sheets: Recording data onto tally sheets is the simplest means of conducting
manual counts. The data can be recorded with a tick mark on a pre-prepared field form. A
watch or stopwatch is necessary to measure the desired count interval.

Mechanical Counting Boards: Mechanical count boards consist of counters mounted on

a board that record each direction of travel. Common counts include pedestrian, bicycle,
vehicle classification, and traffic volume counts. Typical counters are push button devices
with three to five registers. Each button represents a different stratification of type of
vehicle or pedestrian being counted. The limited number of buttons on the counter can
restrict the number of classifications that can be counted on a given board. A watch or a
stopwatch is also necessary with this method to measure the desired count interval. See
Figure - 1 for an example mechanical counting board.
Electronic Counting Boards:
Electronic counting boards are battery-operated, hand-held devices used in
collecting traffic count data. They are similar to mechanical counting boards, but with
some important differences. Electronic counting boards are lighter, more compact, and
easier to handle. They have an internal clock that automatically separates the data by time
interval. Special functions include automatic data reduction and summary. The data can
also be downloaded to a computer, which saves time. See Figure - 2 for an example
electronic counting board.
There are three steps to a manual traffic volume count:
1. Prepare. Determine the type of equipment to use, the field procedures to follow,
and the number of observers required. Label and organize tally sheets. Each sheet
should include information about the location, time and date of observation, and
weather conditions.

2. Select observer location(s). Observers (data collectors) should be positioned

where they have a clear view of traffic and are safely away from the edge of the
roadway.
3. Record observations on site.

4.2.2 Automatic Count Method

The automatic count method provides a means for gathering large amounts of
traffic data. Automatic counts are usually taken in 1-hour intervals for each 24-hour
period. The counts may extend for a week, month, or year. When the counts are recorded
for each 24-hour time period, the peak flow period can be identified.

Automatic Count Recording Methods: Automatic counts are recorded using one of
three methods: portable counters, permanent counters, and videotape.

Portable Counters: Portable counting is a form of manual observation. Portable counters

serve the same purpose as manual counts but with automatic counting equipment. The
period of data collection using this method is usually longer than when using manual
counts. The portable counter method is mainly used for 24-hour counts. Pneumatic road
tubes are used to conduct this method of automatic counts (see Figure 3).

Permanent Counters: Permanent counters are used when long-term counts are to be
conducted. The counts could be performed every day for a year or more. The data
collected may be used to monitor and evaluate traffic volumes and trends over a long
period of time. Permanent counters are not a cost-effective option in most situations. Few
jurisdictions have access to this equipment.

Videotape: Observers can record count data by videotaping traffic. Traffic volumes can
be counted by viewing videotapes recorded with a camera at a collection site. A digital
clock in the video image can prove useful in noting time intervals. Videotaping is not a
cost-effective option in most situations. Few small jurisdictions have access to this
equipment.

There are three steps to a traffic volume study using automatic counting equipment:

1. Prepare. Coordinate data activities with appropriate state and local officials. For
example, you may need to coordinate traffic control activities. Assemble and
inspect tools, supplies, and equipment. Test all equipment.
2. Deploy and calibrate data collection equipment. Provide traffic control to protect
workers in lanes of traffic. After the equipment is placed, make sure it is
functioning properly. Secure it in place.
3. Check data and retrieve equipment.

4.3 Methodology:
There are two ways of counting system
Long term count
Short term count
We use the short term method in this traffic study. This method also divided into two
methods

Direct Method.
Indirect method.

We use the direct method dummy on the traffic volume study survey. We were divided in
two group. One were counting the vehicles which were passing upward direction i.e.,
from Bhongir to Pragnapur road and that is from 8.30 am to 7.30 pm and the other group
is that the vehicles passing in downward direction i.e., from Pragnapur to Bhongir road
and that is from 8.30 am to 7.30 pm.

CHAPTER 5
LEVELLING
Levelling: Levelling is a branch of surveying the object of which is
1) To find the elevations of given points with respect to given or assumed
datum, and
2) To establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with
respect to a given or a assumed datum. The first operation is required
to enable the works to be designed while the second operation is
required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works. Levelling
deals with measurements in a vertical plane.
Datum: Datum is any surface to which elevations are referred. The mean sea level
affords a convenient datum world over, and elevations are commonly given as so much
above or below sea level. It is often more convenient, however, to assume some other
datum, especially if only the relative elevations of points are required.
Elevation: The elevation of a point on or near the surface of the earth is its vertical
distance above or below an arbitrarily assumed level surface or datum. The difference in
the elevation between two points is the vertical distance between the two level surfaces in
which the two points lie.
Mean sea level: Mean sea level is the average height of the sea for all stages of the tides.
At any particular place it is derived by averaging the hourly tide heights over a long
period of 19 years.

Bench mark: Bench mark is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation
with respect to some assumed datum is known. It is used either as a starting point for
levelling or as a point upon which to close as a check.

5.1 METHODS OF LEVELLING

Barometric levelling: Barometric levelling makes use of the phenomenon that difference
in elevation between two points is proportional to the difference in atmospheric pressures
at these points. A barometer, therefore, may be used and the readings observed at different
points would yield a measure of the relative elevations of those points.
At a given point, the atmosphere does not remain constant in the course of the day,
even in the course of an hour. T he method is, therefore, relatively inaccurate and is little
used in surveying work except on reconnaissance or exploratory surveys.
Trigonometric levelling(Indirect levelling): Trigonometric levelling or indirect levelling
is the process of levelling in which the elevations of points are computed from the vertical
angles and horizontal distances measured in the field, just as the length of any side in any
triangle can be computed from proper trigonometric relations. In a modified form called
stadia levelling, commonly used in mapping, both the difference in elevation and the
horizontal distance between the points are directly computed from the measured vertical
angles and staff readings.
Spirit levelling( Direct levelling): It is that branch of levelling in which the vertical
distances with respect to a horizontal line ( perpendicular to the direction of gravity ) may
be used to determine the relative difference in elevation between two adjacent points. A
horizontal plane of sight tangent to level surface at any point is readily established by
means of a spirit level or a level vial. In spirit levelling, a spirit level and a sighting device
( telescope ) are combined and vertical distances are measured by observing on graduated

rods placed on the points. The method is known as direct levelling. It is the most precise
method of determining elevations and the one most commonly used by engineers.

5.2 LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS

The instruments commonly used in direst levelling are
1. A level
2. A levelling staff
1.LEVEL
The purpose of a level is to provide a horizontal line of sight. Essentially, a level
consists of the following 4 parts:
a.
b.
c.
d.

A telescope to provide line of sight

A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal
A levelling head( tribrach & trivet stage) to bring the bubble in its center of run.
A tripod to support the instrument.

There are the following chief types of levels

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Dumpy level.
Automatic level.
Y or Wye level.
Reversible level.
Tilting level.

2.LEVELLING STAFF
A levelling staff is a straight rectangular rod having graduations, the foot of the
staff representing zero reading. The purpose of a level is to establish a horizontal line of

sight. The purpose of the levelling staff is to determine the amount by which the station
(i.e., foot of the staff) is above or below the line of sight. Levelling staff may be dividen
into two classes.
a. Self reading Staff.
b. Target Staff.
A Self reading staff is the one which can be read directly by the instrument man
through the telescope. A target staff on the other hand, contains a moving target
against which the reading is taken by staff man.
5.3 DIRECT LEVELLING (SPIRIT LEVELLING)
A level provides horizontal line of sight i.e., a line tangential to a level surface at
the point where the instrument stands. The difference in elevation between two points
is the vertical distance between two level lines. Strictly speaking, therefore, we must
have a level line of sight and not a horizontal line of sight, but the distinction between
a level surface and a horizontal plane is not an important one in plane surveying.
Neglecting the curvature of the earth and refraction, therefore, the theory of direct
levelling is very simple. With a level set up at any place, the difference in elevation
between the rod readings taken on these points. By a succession of instrument
stations and related readings, the difference in elevation between widely separated
points is thus obtained.
5.4 SPECIAL METHODS OF SPIRIT LEVELLING
1. Differential Levelling:
It is a method of direct levelling the object of which is solely to determine the
difference in elevation of two points regardless of the horizontal positions of the
points with respect to each other. When the points are apart, it may be necessary to
set up the instruments several types. This type of levelling is known as Fly Levelling.
2.Profile Levelling:
It is the method of direct levelling of object of which is to determine the elevation
of points at measured intervals along a given line in order to obtain a profile of the
surface along that line.

3. Cross Levelling:
It is a process of taking levels on each side of a main line at right angles to that
line, in order to determine a vertical cross section of the surface of the ground or
of underlying strata or of both.
4. Reciprocal Levelling:
It is a method of levelling in which the difference in elevation between two points
is accurately determine by two sets of reciprocal observations when it is not
possible to set up the level between the two points.
5. Precise Levelling:
It is the levelling in which the degree of precision required is too great to be
attained by ordinary methods, and in which, therefore, a special equipment or
special precautions or both necessary to eliminate, as far as possible, all sources of
error.
5.5 TERMS AND ABBREVATIONS
1. Station:
In levelling, a station is that point where the level rod is held and not where level
is set up. It is the point whose elevation is to be ascertained or the point that is to be
established at a given elevation.
2. Height of Instrument:
For any set up of the level, the height of instrument is the elevation of plane of
sight( Line of sight) with respect to the assumed datum. It does not mean the height of the
telescope above the ground where the level stands.
3. Back Sight:
It is sight taken on a rod held at a point of known elevation, to ascertain the
amount by which the line of sight is above that point and thus to obtain the height of
instrument. Back sighting is equivalent to measuring up from the point of known
elevation to the line of sight. It is also known as a plus sight as the back sight reading is
always added to the level of datum to get the height of the instrument. The object of back
sighting is, therefore, to ascertain the height of the plane of the sight.
4. Fore Sight:

It is a sight taken on a rod held at a point of unknown elevations, to ascertain the

amount by which the point is below the line of sight and thus to obtain the elevation of
the station. Fore sighting is equivalent to measuring down from the line of sight. It is also
known as Minus Sight as the Fore Sight reading is always subtracted( except in special
cases tunnel survey) from the height of instrument to get the elevation of the point. The
object of fore sighting is, therefore, to ascertain the elevation of the point.

5.Turning Point/ Change point:

It is a point on which both minus sight and plus sight are taken on a line of direct
levels. The minus sight is taken on the point in one set of instruments to ascertain the
elevation of the point while the plus sight is taken on the same point in other set of the
instrument to establish the new height of the instrument.
6.Intermediate sight:
It is a point, intermediate between two turning points, on which only sight( minus
sight) is taken to determine the elevation of the station.
7.Formation Level:
Formation level is British term for what Civil Engineers in the US term as Top
of Sub grade. Top of sub grade is elevation at which earth work ends and pavement
layers begin. Pavements layers may include sub-base, base course, and Portland cement
concrete or asphaltic concrete.
8.Exsiting Level:
It is the actual level of the ground surface that is naturally existing.
5.6 STEPS IN LEVELLING
There are two steps in levelling.
a. To find by how much amount the line of sight is above the bench mark, and
b. To ascertain by how much amount the next point is below or above the line of
sight.

A level is set up approximately mid-way between the bench mark (or a point of
known elevation) and the point, the elevation of which is to be ascertain by direct
levelling. A back sight is taken on the rod held at the bench mark. Then
H. I. = Elevation of B.M. + B.S.
Turning the telescope to bring into view the rod held on point B, a fore sight is taken.
Then
Elevation = H.I. F.S.
5.7 DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING
The operation of levelling is to determine the elevation of points at some distance
a part is called Differential Levelling and is usually accomplished by direct levelling.
When two points are at such a distance from each other that they cannot both be within
range of level at the same time, the difference in elevation is not found by single setting
but the distance between the points is divided into two stages by turning points on which
the staff is held and the difference of elevation of each of succeeding pair of such turning
points is found by separate setting of the level.

CHAPTER 6
HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT METHOD
(COLLIMATION METHOD)
In this method, the height of the instrument (H.I.) is calculated for each setting of the
instrument by adding back sight (plus sight) to the elevation of the B.M. (first point).
The elevation or R.L. of the turning point is then calculated by subtracting from H.I.
the foresight (minus sight). For the next setting of the instrument, the H.I. is obtained
by adding the B.S. taken on T.P.1 to its R.L. The process continues toll the R.L. of the
last point (a foresight) is obtained by subtracting the staff reading from height of the
last setting of the instrument. If there are some intermediate points, the R.L. of those
points is calculated by subtracting the intermediate sight (minus sight) from the
height of the instrument for instrument for that setting.
The following is the specimen page of a level field book illustrating the method of
booking staff readings and calculating reduced levels by height of instrument
method.

CHAPTER 7
ROAD MAP

7.1 PROFILE LEVELLING ( LONGITUDINAL SECTION)

Profile levelling is a process of determining the elevations of points at short
measured intervals along a fixed line such as the centre line of a railway, highway,
canal or sewer. The fixed line may be single straight line or it may be composed of
succession of straight lines or of a series of straight lines connected by curves. It is
also known as longitudinal sectioning. By means of such sections the engineer is
enabled to study the relationship between the existing ground surface and the levels
of proposed construction in the direction of its length. The profile is usually plotted

on specially prepared paper, on which vertical scale is much larger than the
horizontal, and on this profile, various studies relating to the fixing of grades and the
estimating of costs are made.
Field Procedure:
Profile levelling, like differential levelling, requires the establishment of turning
points on which both back and foresights are taken. In addition, any number of
intermediate sights may be obtained on points along the line from each set up of the
instrument. In fact, points on the profile line are merely intermediate stations. It is
generally best to set up level to one side of the profile line to avoid too short sights on
the points near the instruments. For each set up, intermediate sights should be taken
after the foresight on the next turning station has been taken. The level is an set up in
an advanced position and a back sight is taken on the turning point. The position of
the intermediate points on the profile is simultaneously located by chaining along the
profile and noting their distances from the point of commencement. When the
vertical profile of the ground is regularly or gradually curving, levels are taken on
points at equal distances apart and generally at intervals of a chain length. On
irregular ground where abrupt changes of slope occur, the point should be chosen
nearer. For purpose of checking and for future reference, temporary bench mark
should be established along the section.
Plotting the Profile:
The horizontal distances are plotted along the horizontal axis to some convenient
scale and the distances are also marked. The elevations are plotted along the vertical
axis. Each ground points is thus plotted by the two coordinates ( i.e., horizontal
distance and vertical elevation). The various points thus obtained are joined by
straight lines.
Generally, the horizontal scale is obtained as 1 cm= 10m. The vertical scale is not
kept same but it is exaggerated so that the inequalities of the ground appear more
apparent. The vertical scale is kept 10 times less (i.e., 1 cm= 1m). The reduced levels
(R.L.) of the points are also written along with the horizontal distances.
7.2 CROSS SECTIONING

Cross sections are run at right angles to the longitudinal profile and on either side
of it for the purpose of lateral outline of the ground surface. They provide the data foe
estimating quantities of earth work and for other purposes. The cross sections are
numbered consecutively from the commencement of the centre line and are set out at
right angles to the main line of the section with the chain and tape, the cross staff or
the optical square and the distances are measured left and right from the centre peg.
Cross sections mat be taken at each chain. The length of cross section depends upon
the nature of work.
The longitudinal and cross sections may be worked together or separately. In the
former case, two additional columns are required in the level field book to give the
distances, left and right of the centre line.
Plotting the Cross Sections:
Cross sections are plotted almost in the same manner as the longitudinal sections.
The point along the longitudinal section is plotted at the centre of the horizontal axis.
The points to the left of centre point are plotted to the left and those to the right are
plotted to the right. The points so obtained are joined by straight lines.

7.3 FORMATION LEVEL DETAILS AND CUT/FILL

CHAPTER 8
PAVEMENT TYPES
8.1 FLEXIBLE PAVEMETNS
Flexible pavements can be analysed by Burmisters Layered Theory. A major
limitation of the theory is assumption of a layered system infinite in areal extent. This
assumption makes the theory in applicable to rigid pavements with transverse joints.
Nor can the layered theory be applied to rigid pavements when the wheel loads are
less than two or three feet (0.6 or 0.9m) from the pavement edge, because

discontinuity causes a large stress at the edge. Its application to flexible pavements is
validated by the limited area of stress distribution through flexible materials. As long
as wheel load is more than two feet (0.6m) from the edge, the discontinuity at the
edge has very little effect on the critical stresses and strains obtained.
8.2 CONVENTIAL FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS:
Conventional flexible pavements are layered figure1 shows the cross section of a
conventional flexible pavement. Starting from the top, the pavement consists of seal
coat, surface course, tack coat, binder course, prime coat, sub base course, compacted
sub grade, and natural sub grade. The use of the various courses is based on either
necessity or economy, and some of the courses may be omitted.
8.3 SEAL COAT:
Seal coat is a thin asphalt surface treatment used to waterproof the surface or to
provide skid resistance where the aggregates in the surface course could be polished
by traffic and become slippery. Depending on the purpose, seal coats might or might
not be covered with aggregate. Systems with better materials on top, where the
intensity of stress is high and inferior materials at the bottom, where the intensity is
low. Adherence to this design principle makes possible the use of local materials and
usually results in almost economical design. This is particularly true in regions where
high-quality materials are expensive but local materials of inferior quality are readily
available.

8.4 SURFACE COURSE

The surface course is the top course of an asphalt pavement, sometimes called the
Wearing course. It is usually constructed of dense graded HMA. It must be tough to
resist distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid resistant riding surface.
It must be waterproof to protect the entire pavement and sub grade from the
weakening effect of water. If the above requirements cannot be met, the use of a seal
coat is recommended.
8.5 BINDER COURSE:

The binder course, sometimes called the asphalt base course, is the asphalt layer
below the surface course. There are two reasons that a binder course is used in
addition to the surface course. First, the HMA is too thick to be compacted in one
layer, so it must be placed in two layers. Second, the binder course generally consists
of larger aggregates and less asphalt and does not require as high quality as the
surface course, so replacing a part of the surface course by the binder results in a
more economical design. If the binder course is more than three inches (76mm), it is
generally placed in two layers.
8.6 TACK COAT AND PRIME COAT:
A tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted
with water, used to ensure a bond between the surface being paved and the overlying
course. Pavement be bonded to the layer below. Tack coats are also used to bond the
asphalt layer to a PPC base or an old asphalt pavement. The three essential
requirements of a tack coat are that it must be very thin, it must uniformly cover the
entire surface to be paved, and it must be allowed to break or cure before the HMA is
laid.
A prime coat is an application of low viscosity cut back asphalt to an absorbent
surface, such as an untreated granular base on which an asphalt layer will be placed.
Its purpose is to bind the granular base to the asphalt layer. The difference between a
tack coat and a prime coat is that a tack coat does not require the penetration of
asphalt into the under lying layer, whereas a prime coat penetrates into the under
lying layer, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface. Although the type and
quantity of asphalt used are quite different, both are spray applications.
8.7 BASE COURSE AND SUB BASE COURSE:
The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface or binder
course. It can be composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, or other untreated or
stabilized materials. The sub base course is the layer of material beneath the base
course. The reason that two different granular materials are used is for economy.
Instead of using the more expensive base course material for the entire layer, local
and cheaper materials can be used as a sub base course on top of the sub grade. If the

base course is open graded, the sub base course with more fines can serve as a filter
between the sub grade and the base course.
8.8 SUB GRADE:
The top six inches (152mm) of sub grade be scarified and compacted to the
desirable density near the optimum moisture content. This compacted sub grade may
be the in-situ soil or a layer of selected material.
Full-Depth Asphalt Pavements Full-depth asphalt pavements are constructed by
placing one or more layers of HMA directly on the sub grade or improved sub grade.
This concept was conceived by the Asphalt Institute in 1960 and is generally
considered the most cost effective and dependable type of asphalt pavement for
heavy traffic. This type of construction is quite popular in areas where local materials
are not available. It is more convenient to purchase only one material, i.e., HMA,
rather than several materials from different sources, thus minimizing the
administration and equipment costs.
Figure shows the typical cross section for a full depth asphalt pavement. The
asphalt base course in the full depth construction is the same as the binder course in
conventional pavement. As with conventional pavement, a tack coat must be applied
between two layers to bind them together.
Typical cross section of a full-depth asphalt
Pavement (1 inch=25.4mm)
Asphalt base
Prepared sub grade
According to the Asphalt Institute (AI, 1987), full-depth asphalt pavements have
the following advantages:
1. They have no permeable granular layers to entrap water and impair
performance.
2. Time required for construction is reduced. On widening projects, where
adjacent traffic flow must usually be maintained, full-depth asphalt can be
especially advantageous.

3. When placed in a thick lift of 4 inches (102mm) or more, construction seasons

may be extended.
4. They provide and retain uniformity in the pavement structure.
5. They are less affected by moisture or frost.
6. According to limited studies, moisture contents do not build up in sub grades
under full-depth asphalt pavement structures as they do under pavements with
granular bases. Thus, there is little or no reduction in sub grade strength.

CHAPTER 9
LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF CALIFORNIA
BEARING RAYIO STANDARD
DEFINATION:

California bearing ratio is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate into a soil
mass with a circular plunger of 50mm diameter at the rate of 1.25mm/minute.
APPARATUS:

Moulds 2250cc capacity with base plate, stay rod and wing nut confirming to 4.1,

4.3, and 4.4 of IS: 9669-1980.

Collar confirming to 4.2 of IS: 9669-1980.
Spacer Disc confirming to 4.4 of IS: 9669-1980.
Metal rammer confirming to IS: 9189-1979.
Expansion measuring apparatus with the adjustable stem, perforated plates, tripod

confirming and to weights confirming to 4.4 of IS: 9669-1980.

Loading machine having a capacity of at least 5000kg and equipped with a
movable head or base that travels at a uniform rate of 1.25mm/minute for use in

forcing the penetration plunger into the specimen.

Penetration plunger confirming to 4.4 of IS: 9669-1980.
Dial gauge two numbers reading to 0.01mm.
IS sieves 4.75mm.
Miscellaneous apparatus such as mixing bowl, straight edge, scales, soaking tank,
drying oven, filter paper, dishes and calibrated measuring jar.

PROCEDURE:

There are two types of methods in compacting soil specimen in the CBR moulds.
i.
Static Compaction method
ii.
Dynamic Compaction method
The material used in the above two methods shall pass 1.9mm sieve for fine grained

soils and 3.75mm sieve for coarse materials up to 3.75mm.

Replace the material retained on 1.9mm sieve by an equal amount of material passing

1.9mm sieve and retained on 4.75mm sieve.

Replace the material retained on 3.75mm sieve by an equal amount of material
passing 3.75mm sieve retained on 4.75mm sieve.

Static Compaction:

In this method calculate the mass of wet soil at required moisture content to give a
desired density when compacted in a standard test mould.

Volume of mould=
Weight of dry soil (W) =

Weight of wet soil =

Weight of water = Weight of wet soil Weight of dry soil
m= Optimum moisture content obtained from the laboratory compaction test.

Take oven dried soil sample of calculated weight and thoroughly mix with water

(OMC) as obtained from the above equation.

Record the empty weight of the mould with base plate, with extension collar

removed (ml).
Place the correct mass of the wet soil into the mould in five layers.
Gently compact each layer with the spacer disc.
Place a filter paper on top of the soil followed by a 5cms displacer disc.
Compact the mould by pressing it in between the platens of the compression
testing machine until the top of the spacer disc comes flush with the top of the

mould.
Held the load for about 30 seconds and then release.
In some soil types where a certain amount of rebound occurs, it may be necessary
to reapply load to force the displacer disc slightly below the top of the mould so

that on rebound the right volume is obtained.

Remove the mould from the compression testing machine.
Remove the spacer disc and weigh the mould with compacted soil (m2).
Replace the extension collar of the mould.
Prepare two more specimens in the same procedure as described above.

Dynamic Compaction:

Take representative sample of soil weighing approximately 6kg and mix

thoroughly at OMC.
Record the empty weight of the mould with base plate, with extension collar

removed (m1).
Replace the extension collar of the mould.
Insert a spacer disc over the base plate and place a coarse filter paper on the

top of the spacer disc.

Place the mould on a solid base such as a concrete floor or plinth and compact
the wet soil into the mould in five layers of approximately equal mass each
layer being given 25 blows with 4.90kg hammer equally distributed and
dropped from a height of 450mm above the soil.

The amount of soil used shall be sufficient to fill the mould, leaving not more

than about 6mm to be struck off when the extension collar is removed.
Remove the extension collar and carefully level the compacted soil to the top

of the mould by means of a straight edge.

Remove the spacer disc by inverting the mould and weigh the mould with

compacted soil (m2).

Place a filter paper between the base plate and the inverted mould.
Replace the extension collar of the mould.
Prepare two more specimens in the same procedure as described above.
In both the cases of compaction, if the sample is to be soaked, take
representative samples of the material at the beginning of compaction and
another sample of remaining material after compaction for the determination

of moisture content.
Each sample shall weigh not less than 100g for fine grained soils and not less

than 500g for granular soils.

Place the adjustable stem and perforated plate on the compacted soil specimen

in the mould.
Place the weights to produce a surcharge equal to the weight of base material
and pavement to the nearest 2.5kg on the perforated plate.

TESTING FOR CBR SPECIMEN:

Place the mould on the lower plate of testing machine with top face exposed.
To prevent upheaval of soil into the hole of surcharge weights, place 2.5kgs
annular weights on the soil surface prior to seating the penetration plunger after

which place the reminder of the surcharge weights.

Set the plunger under a load of 4kgs so that full contact is established between
the surface of the specimen and the plunger.
Set the stress and strain gauges to zero.
Consider the initial load applied to the plunger as the zero load.
Apply the load at the rate of 1.25mm/minute.
Take the readings of the load at penetration of:
0,0.5,1,1.5,2,2.5,3,4.5,4.5,7.5,10 and 12.5.
Raise the plunger and detach the mould from the loading equipment.
Collect the sample of about 20 to 50gms of soil from the top 30mm layer of
specimen and determine the water content in accordance with IS: 2720 (part 4)
1973.

Examine the specimen carefully after the test is completed for the presence of
any over size soil particles, which are likely to affect the results if they happen
to be located directly below the penetration plunger.

CALCULATION OF CBR FROM LOAD PENETRATION CURVE:

Plot the load penetration curve in natural scale, load on Y-axis and penetration on X-axis
If the curve is uniformly convex upwards although the initial portion of the curve may be
concave upwards due to surface irregularities make correction by drawing a tangent to the
upper curve at the point of contra flexure as below
Take the intersection point of the tangent and the X-axis as the origin. Calculate the CBR
values for penetration of 2.5mm and 5mm.
Corresponding to the penetration value at which CBR is to be desired, take the corrected
load values from the load penetration curve and calculate the CBR from the equation

PT x Cf
CBR= 100 x
PS
PT = Corrected unit test load corresponding to the penetration from load penetration
curve.
PS = Total standard load for the same depth of penetration, which can be taken from the T
able
Cf = Proving ring correction factor.
Standard loads at specified penetrations
REPORT:

Report the CBR value to the nearest second decimal.

Take the average of three test specimens as the CBR value of the test.
Generally, the CBR value for 2.5mm penetration will be greater than that at 5mm
penetration and in such case take the value at 2.5mm as the CBR value,

If the CBR value corresponding to a penetration of 5mm exceeds the of 2.5mm,

repeat the test.

If the identical results follow, take the value corresponding to 5mm as the CBR
value.

Precautions:

Clean the holes of the base plate and that of perforated disc thoroughly.
Align the surcharge weight with the plunger so that the plunger penetrates freely
into the soil.

CHAPTER 10
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Properties
Design Principle

Flexible
Empirical method based on load distribution characteristics of the

components.
Material
Granular material
Flexural Strength Low or negligible flexible strength
Normal Loading
Elastic deformation
Excessive Loading Local depression
Stress
Transmits vertical and compressive stresses to the lower layers
Design Practice
Constructed in number of layers
Temperature forces No stress is produced. Less deformation in the sub grade is not
of Friction
Opening to Traffic
Surfacing

transferred to the upper layers

Road can be used for traffic within 24 hours
Rolling of the surfacing is needed

10.1 Function and significance of sub grade properties

Basement soil of road bed.

Important for structural and pavement life.
Should not deflect excessively due to dynamic loading.
May be in fill or embankment.

10.2 Desirable properties of soil as sub grade material:

Stability

Incompressibility
Permanency of strength
Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse condition of weather and

ground water.
Good drainage.
Ease of compaction.

10.3 Sub grade performance:

Load bearing capacity: Affected by degree of compaction, moisture content, and

soil type.
Moisture content: Affects sub grade properties like load bearing capacity,
shrinkage and swelling. Influenced by drainage, ground water table elevation,
infiltration, or pavement porosity (which can be assisted by cracks in the

pavement).
Shrinkage and swelling: Shrinkage, swelling and frost heave will be deform and
crack any pavement type constructed over them.

10.4 sub grade soil strength:

Assessed in terms of CBR of sub grade for most critical moisture condition:

Soil type
Moisture content
Dry density
} IS 2720 Part 8
Internal structure of the soil
Type and mode of stress application

10.5 Flexible Pavement Design:

IRC 37-2001
Basic Principles:

Vertical stress or strain on sub grade

Tensile stress or strain on surface course

10.6 Factors for design of pavements:

Design wheel load:

Static load on wheels
Contact pressure

 Load repetition

Sub grade soil:

Thickness of pavement required
Stress-strain behaviour under load
Moisture variation
Climatic factors
Pavement component materials
Environment factors
Traffic characteristics
Required crass sectional elements of the alignment

10.7 Standard Axle:

Single axle dual wheels carrying a load of 80KN (8 tonnes) is defined as standard axle.
10.8 Evaluation of pavement component layers:

Sub grade
To receive layers of pavement materials placed over it
Plate Bearing Test
CBR Test
Triaxial Compression
Sub base and base course
To provide stress transmitting medium
To distribute wheel loads
To prevent shear and consolidation, deformation

10.9 Wearing Course:

High resistance to Deformation

High Resistance to Fatigue, ability to withstand high strains - flexible
Sufficient Stiffness to reduce stresses in underlying layers
High resistance to environmental degradation, durable
Low permeability Water Tight Layer against ingress of surface water
Good Workability Allow Adequate Compaction
Sufficient Surface Texture Good Skid Resistance in wet weather

10.10 Flexible Pavement Design using CBR values of sub grade soil:

California State Highways Department Method

Required data

Design traffic in terms of:

Cumulative number of standards
Axles(cumulative standard axles)
CBR value of sub grade

10.11 Traffic Data:

Initial data in terms of number of commercial vehicles per day (CVPD).

Traffic growth rate during design life in percentage.
Design life in number of years.
Distribution of commercial vehicles over the carriage way.

10.12 Traffic In terms of CSA (8160 Kg) during design life:

Initial traffic
In terms of Cumulative Vehicles/day
Based on 7 days 24 hours classified traffic
Traffic Growth Rate

Establishing models based on anticipated future development or based on past trends

Growth rate of two wheelers, three wheelers, four wheelers, six wheelers
are different.
10.13 Design Life:

National Highways 15 years

Expressways and Urban Roads 20 years
Other Category Roads 10 to 15 years

10.14 Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF):

Multiplier to convert number of commercial vehicles of different axle loads and

axle configurations to the number of standard axle load repetitions indicate VDF

values
Normally = (Axle Load/8.2)^n
n=4 to 5

10.15 Vehicle Damage Factor:

Axle Load, t

No. of axles

Total axles

Eq. Factor

Damage
Factor

0-2
2-4
4-6
6-8
8-10

30
366
1412
1362
98

34
291
204
287
513

64
657
1616
1649
611

0.0002
0.014
1616
1649
1.044

0.0128
9.198
213.312
857.48
637.884

10.16 Indicative VDF values:

Initial Traffic in terms of

Terrain

CV/PD
Plain/Rolling

Hilly

0-150

1.5

0.5

150-1500

3.5

1.5

>1500

4.5

2.5

10.16 Distribution of traffic:

Single lane roads:

Total no. of commercial vehicles in both the directions
Two lane single carriageway roads:
75% of total no. of number commercial vehicles in both the directions
Four lane single carriageway roads:
40% of the total no. of commercial vehicles in both the directions
Dual carriageway roads:
75% of the no. of commercial vehicles in each direction

10.18 Computation of traffic for use of pavement thickness design chart:

N = 365*[(1+r)^n-1]*A*D*F
r
where,
N = Cumulative no. of standard axles to be catered for the design in terms of msa
D = Lane distribution factor
A = Initial traffic, in the year of completion of construction, in terms of number of
commercial vehicles per day

F = Vehicle damage factor

n = Design life in years
r = Annual growth rate of commercial vehicles
A = P(1+r)^x

CHAPTER 11
PAVEMENT DESIGN CATALOGUE
RECOMMENDED DESIGNS FOR TRAFFIC RANGE 1-10 msa
CBR 5%
Cumulative

Total pavement

traffic (msa)

thickness (mm)

PAVEMENT COMPOSITION
Bituminous
Granular
Granular
surfacing
Wearing Binder
course

course

430

(mm)
20PC

(mm)

1
2

490

20PC

530

580

base (mm)

sub base
(mm)

225

205

50BM

225

215

20PC

50BM

250

230

25SDBC

55DBM

250

250

10

660

40BC

70DBM

250

300

10.2 RECOMMENDED DESIGNS FOR TRAFFIC RANGE 10-150msa

Cumulative

Total Pavement

traffic

Thickness(mm

(msa)

CBR 5%
Pavement Composition
Bituminous Surfacing
BC (mm)

DBM (mm)

Granular base
&

sub-base

(mm)
10
20
30
50
100
150

660
690
710
730
750
770

40
40
40
40
50
50

70
100
120
140
150
170

Base= 250
Subbase=300

11.3 Flexible Pavement Layers (IRC)

Sub-base:

Material- Natural sand, Moorum, Gravel, Laterite, kankar, Brick metal, Crushed
stone, Crushed slag, Crushed concrete.
GSB- Close graded/ Coarse graded
Parameters- Gradation, LL, PI,CBR
Stability and drainage requirements
Minimum CBR 20% - Traffic up to 2msa
Minimum CBR 30% - Traffic > 2msa
If GSB is costly, adopt WBM,WMM
Should extend for the full width of the formation
Minimum thickness 150mm - <10msa
Minimum thickness 200mm- >10msa
Minimum CBR 2%
If CBR < 2% - Pavement thickness for 2% CBR + Capping layer of 150mm
with minimum CBR 10% (in addition to sub base)
In case of stage construction Thickness of GSB for full design life

Base course:

Unbound granular bases WBM/WMM or any other granular construction

Minimum thickness 225mm - < 2msa
Minimum thickness 250mm - > 2msa
WBM Minimum 300mm (4 layers 75mm each)

Bituminous surfacing:

Wearing course Open graded PMC,MSS, SDBC,BC

Binder course BM, DBC
BM Low binder, more voids, reduced stiffness, provides 75mm BM before

laying DBM
Reduce thickness of DBM layer, when BM is provided (10mm BM = 7mm DBM)
Choice of wearing course Design traffic, type of base/binder course, rainfall, etc

11.3 CHOICE OF WEARING COURSES:

BASE/BINDER

WEARING

ARF

TRAFFIC

WBM, WMM, CRM,

COURSE
PMC+SC(B)
PMC+SC(A)

L and M
L, M, H

< 10

BUSG
BM
DBM

MSS
SDBC
PMC(A)
MSS
BC 25mm
BC 40mm
BC 50mm

L, M, H
L, M,H
L, M,H

11.4 APPRAISAL OF CBR TEST AND DESIGN:

Strength number and cannot be related fundamental properties

Material should pass through 20mm sieve
Surcharge weights to simulate field condition
Soaking for four days Unrealistic
CBR depends on density and moisture content of sub grade soil
Design based on weakest sub grade soil encountered

11.5 DATA:
Two lane flexible pavement

< 10
>5<10
> 10
> 100

CONCLUSION
The objective of our project is to DESIGN OF TWO LANE FLEXIBLE
PAVEMENT.
The existing level of the college road has been obtained using Automatic
level. Longitudinal Sectioning has been done at every 30.00m chainage up to the
length of 2000m.
After plotting the profile levelling and cross-sections using some
convenient scale the Formation Level has been prepared.
For profile levelling the formation level has been prepared economically
that is to avoid excess cutting or filling and soil samples are collected and tested,
CBR value is obtained and further design is done by using IRC 37-2001 code
book. Hence design of Bitumen road from college campus to main road
completed.

REFERENCES:

SURVEYING
VOLUME- 1
By B. C.Punmia, Ashok K. Jain & Arun K. Jain.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
By S. K. Khanna & C. E. G. Justo
Textbook of SURVEYING
SECOND EDITION
By C. VENKATRAMAIAH
IRC: 37-2001, Guidelines of Design of Flexible Pavements

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