in spite of / despite / although

in spite of / despite / although

In spite of, despite and although are all used to show a contrast but there are differences in the
structures used with them.
In spite of / despite
After in spite of and despite we use a noun or a pronoun.

We enjoyed our camping holiday in spite of the rain.

Despite the pain in his leg he completed the marathon.

Despite having all the necessary qualifications, they didnt offer me the job.

Remember that the gerund (-ing form) is the noun form of a verb.
The only difference between in spite of and despite is the of.

Despite of the bad weather, there was a large crowd at the match.

Although
After although we use a subject and a verb.

We enjoyed our camping holiday although it rained every day.

Although he worked very hard, he didnt manage to pass the exam.

The holiday was great although the hotel wasnt very nice.

We can use in spite of and despite with a subject and verb if we include the expression the fact
that.

In spite of the fact that he worked very hard, he didnt manage to pass the exam.

Despite the fact that he worked very hard, he didnt manage to pass the exam.

Even though
Even though is a slightly stronger form of although.

We decided to buy the house even though we didnt really have enough money.

You keep making that stupid noise even though Ive asked you to stop three times.

Like although, even though is followed by a subject and a verb.

Although and though meaning in spite of
Although and though both mean in spite of something. They are subordinating conjunctions.
This means that the clause which they introduce is a subordinate clause, which needs a main
clause to make it complete:
[main clause]Everyone enjoyed the trip to the final although [subordinate clause]we lost the
match!
[subordinate clause]Though it was rainy, [main clause]we put on our jackets and went for a
walk.
Spoken English:
Though is more common than although in general and it is much more common than although in
speaking. For emphasis, we often use even with though (but not with although).
Warning:
When the though/although clause comes before the main clause, we usually put a comma at the
end of the clause. When the main clause comes first, we dont need to use a comma:
Even though I earn a lot of money every month, I never seem to have any to spare!
I still feel hungry even though I had a big lunch.
See also:

Even if

Although and though with -ing clauses

In formal situations, we can use although and though to introduce an -ing clause:
[a teacher talking about a student]
Peter, although working harder this term, still needs to put more work into mathematics.
[a doctor talking about a patient]
The patient, though getting stronger, is still not well enough to come off his medication.
Although and though with reduced clauses
In formal speaking or writing, we can use although, though and even though to introduce a
clause without a verb (a reduced clause):
Raymond, although very interested, didnt show any emotion when she invited him to go for a
walk.
[referring to a car]
Though more expensive, the new model is safer and more efficient.
Although and though meaning but
When the although/though clause comes after a main clause, it can also mean but it is also true
that :
Karen is coming to stay next week although Im not sure what day she is coming.
We didnt make any profit though nobody knows why.
Though meaning however
Spoken English:
Especially in speaking, we can use though (but not although or even though) with a meaning
similar to however or nevertheless. In these cases, we usually put it at the end of a clause:
A:

You have six hours in the airport between flights!

B:
I dont mind, though. I have lots of work to do. Ill just bring my laptop with me.
A:
Its expensive.
B:
Its nice, though.
A:
Yeah, I think Ill buy it.
As though
As though has a meaning very similar to as if. As if is much more common than as though:
You look as though/as if you have seen a ghost!
He looks as though/as if he hasnt slept.
(Although or though ? from English Grammar Today Cambridge University Press. Need
grammar practice? Try English Grammar Today with Workbook.)
Already: meaning
We use already to emphasise that something was completed before something else happened. It
is often used with the present perfect or past perfect:
The plane had already landed when the pilot announced that there would be a delay in getting to
the gate.
Already is also used to show surprise about things that have happened or will have happened
earlier than we expected.

Compare

Its twelve oclock.

I am not surprised that its twelve oclock.

Its twelve oclock already.

Im surprised. I thought it was earlier.

We use it in affirmative sentences and questions but not usually in negatives:

There are already about ten people here. (thats more than were expected at this time)
Not: There arent already any people here.
A:
Are you back already? (A is surprised that B has returned so soon.)
B:
Yeah.
Already: position
Mid position
We usually put already in the normal mid position for adverbs (between the subject and the main
verb, or after the modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb):
We already knew that he was coming to visit.
His family had already heard the news.
Joes already here, so we can begin.
Warning:
We dont use already between a verb and a direct object:
Ive already made the coffee.

Not: Ive made already the coffee.

End position
We can use already at the end of a sentence for greater emphasis or to show greater surprise. This
is especially common in informal speaking:
Gosh, hes finished painting the kitchen already! (end position is more emphatic)
Have you booked a flight already?
Front position
Less often, we put already in front position (before the subject). This is usually more formal:
Already more than fifty thousand tickets have been sold for Saturdays cup final match.
We dont often put already in front position in informal speaking.
Already: typical errors

We dont use the past simple with already for something which was completed before
something else happened. Instead, we use the past perfect.

Their wedding in Rome was cancelled but we had already booked our flights and hotel, so we
decided to go.
Not: but we already booked our flights and hotel
You may hear American English speakers using already with the past simple.

We dont use already between the verb and its object.

Ive already [verb]drunk [object]three coffees today!

Not: Ive drunk already three coffees
See also:

Already, still or yet?

Almost or nearly?
from English Grammar Today
We use almost and nearly to refer to the progress of things, especially if we are measuring and
counting things. In these examples, almost and nearly can both be used:
[someone has been running five miles on a running machine in a gym]
Dont give up! Youre almost there.
Its time for bed. Its nearly 10 oclock.
Their CD has sold almost 90,000 copies in the last week.
Nearly all my friends were in the photograph.
We also use almost and nearly with extreme adjectives such as perfect, impossible or frozen:
That guy is almost impossible.
The chicken is still nearly frozen. I thought youd taken it out of the freezer.
We use almost (but not nearly) to soften statements:
I almost wish I hadnt offered to pay his fine.
We use almost before any and before negative words such as no, none, never, nobody, nothing.
We dont use nearly in this way:
[describing computer software which traces the history of towns]
Using this special software, you can find the history of almost any building.
Theyve almost no confidence that they can use the new phone properly.
She almost never raises her voice.
Not: She nearly never raises her voice.

All or every?
from English Grammar Today
All and every are determiners.
We use both all and every to refer to the total number of something. All refers to a complete
group. Every refers to each member of a complete group:
The questionnaire was sent to all employees.
The questionnaire was sent to every employee.
We can use every to focus on each individual member.
Compare

All passengers must turn off their mobile phones.

refers to the whole group

Every passenger must turn off their mobile phone.

(We use their instead of his or her to refer back to a singular noun
(passenger) because we are referring to both male and female
passengers.)

focuses on each individual

member of the whole
group

We can use all, but not every, on its own without a noun. We use everyone/everybody/everything
instead:
The meeting is at Oriel Hall. It begins at 8 pm and all are welcome.
Not: every is welcome
Everyone is welcome to join the village social club.
See also:

Every

All and every + nouns

The meaning of all and every is very similar but we use them in different ways. We use all with
plural and uncountable nouns and every with singular nouns:
All donations will be sent to the earthquake relief fund.
All equipment must be returned by the end of June. (uncountable)
Every donation is appreciated.
We can use all and all of before determiners, but we dont use every before determiners:
I invited all (of) my friends.
Not: every my friends
All (of) the
We can use all and all of before articles (the, a/an), demonstratives (this, that) and possessives
(our, his) but we cant use every before them:
[talking about a library]
It has got all (of) the books that have ever been published.
Not: It has got every the book or It has got the every book
Shes gone to all (of) their concerts this year. She hasnt missed one.
Not: every their concerts
See also:

All of

All without of

All day, every day

We use all day, all week, all month to mean one entire day/week/month:
We spent all day at the beach yesterday.

Every day (week/month) focuses on each individual day (week/month):

We spent every day at the beach in the holidays.
Not: We spent all days at the beach
Fuel prices are rising every week.
Not: Fuel prices are rising all weeks.
All or every: typical errors

We dont use every before determiners:

He sold all (of) his books.

Not: every his books.

We dont use every with uncountable nouns:

All (the) information can be saved in the computer memory.

Not: Every information can be saved

We dont use every with plural nouns:

We should organise a trip for all students.

Not: for every students

We dont use every on its own without a noun; we use everyone, everybody or everything
instead:

He suggested cancelling the trip and everyone agreed.

Not: every agreed
See also:

Every

Everyone, everybody, everything, everywhere

All or whole?
from English Grammar Today
All and whole are determiners.
We use them before nouns and with other determiners to refer to a total number or complete set
of things in a group.
Compare

All the cast had food poisoning. They were forced to cancel the show.

all + determiner + noun

The whole cast had food poisoning. They were forced to cancel the
show.

determiner + whole +
noun

All my family lives abroad. or My whole family lives abroad.

We often use all and the whole with of the:
She complains all of the time. or She complains the whole of the time.
We use a/an with whole but not with all:
I spent a whole day looking for that book and eventually found it in a little old bookshop on the
edge of town.
Not: all a day
All or whole for single entities
We use the whole or the whole of to refer to complete single things and events that are countable
and defined:
The whole performance was disappointing from start to finish. (or The whole of the
performance was disappointing )
When we can split up a thing into parts, we can use either whole or all with the same meaning:

You dont have to pay the whole (of the) bill at once.
You dont have to pay all (of) the bill at once.
She ate the whole orange.
She ate all of the orange.
We often use the whole of with periods of time to emphasise duration:
We spent the whole (of the) summer at the beach.
All the with uncountable nouns
We use all the and not the whole with uncountable nouns:
She was given all the advice she needed.
Not: She was given the whole advice
All the equipment is supplied.
All and whole with plural nouns
We usually use all the and all of the with plural nouns:
Its funny when all the actors come in dressed up in their costumes.
She opens all the cupboard doors and doesnt close them after her.
You have to try all of the activities.
When we use whole with plural nouns, it means complete or entire.
Compare

Whole families normally shared one room in the nineteenth century.

entire families

All families normally shared one bedroom in the nineteenth century.

each and every

family
All and whole: typical errors

We dont use all before a and an:

She ate a whole bar of chocolate in one go.

Not: She ate all a bar

We cant omit the before whole with a singular noun:

We travelled throughout the whole country.

Not: throughout whole country.

Allow, permit or let?

from English Grammar Today
Allow, permit and let are verbs that all have a similar meaning: give permission or make it
possible for somebody to do or have something.
Permit is more formal than allow. Allow is more formal than let:
The University has established a Museums Committee to permit more formal discussion of
common problems amongst its museums.
The plan for Heathrow will allow airport operator BAA to build a third, shorter runway.
Will you let me pay for the meal?
Let me show you how to open it. Its a bit tricky.
Permit/allow someone + to do something
We use a direct object + to-infinitive after permit and allow:
[from a newspaper report about a rugby player]

He has not decided yet whether his leg injury will permit him to play this weekend.
I would not allow a child to have a TV or a computer in their room.
Let someone + do something
We use an infinitive without to after let:
[child to parent]
Why dont you let me go? All my friends are going.
We dont let employees use the office telephone for personal calls.
Passive with permit and allow
We often use the passive with permit and allow. Permit is often used for official public notices:
Photography is permitted for non-commercial use only.
[talking about a diet]
Youre allowed to eat as much fruit as you like.
Were not allowed to put posters on the walls.
Warning:
We dont usually use the passive with let:
The children were allowed to do whatever they wanted.
Not: The children were let do
See also:

Make

Permit or permission?

All right and alright

from English Grammar Today
All right is an adjective or adverb.
All right as an adjective
We use all right as an adjective after verbs such as be, feel, seem or look, but not before a noun
(predicative adjective). It means well, OK, satisfactory:
A:
How are you?
B:
Im all right.
A:
Is everything all right?
B:
Yes, fine thanks.
Was your meal all right?
Not: Was it an all right meal?
All right may be written as alright, but all right is more common:
There was an accident and the bus driver was injured, but all the passengers were alright.
All right as an adverb
We use all right as an adverb to mean well, OK, satisfactorily:
Jill is really worried about her driving test, but I think shes doing all right.

A:
Is everything going all right for you these days?
B:
Yes, business is good.
All right as a discourse marker
We use all right to show that we want to begin a new topic or a new action:
All right, can we start the music now please?
We also use all right to show that we accept a point of view, or agree with what needs to be
done:
All right, you have a point but I still think we need to get more advice.
We can also use all right as a question to follow up a statement. This is informal:
A:
I think Ill leave at 5. All right?
B:
Yes, thats okay with me.
See also:

Right or rightly?

Discourse markers (so, right, okay)

Alone, lonely, or lonesome?

from English Grammar Today
Alone or lonely?

Alone is an adjective and an adverb meaning that no other person is with you. When we use
alone as an adjective, it never comes before the noun (predicative adjective):
She was alone when she heard the sad news. (adjective)
Its impossible to discuss as a committee. The chairman alone will decide. (adverb)
Did they travel alone or did they take the children with them? (adverb)
Do you live alone? (adverb)
Lonely means that no other person is with you and that you are sad and unhappy as a result. We
may choose to be alone but generally we do not choose to be lonely:
Without her friends, it was a long and lonely journey.
She says she feels very lonely and depressed living in that big house.
We dont use lonely as an adverb:
I prefer going to lunch alone.
Not: I prefer going to lunch lonely.
Lonesome
In American English, lonesome means the same as lonely:
If theyre away from home, they get lonesome. (If theyre away from home, they get lonely).

Along or alongside?
from English Grammar Today
Along and alongside are prepositions or adverbs.
Along
As a preposition, along means in a line next to something long and thin, e.g. a road, a path:
There were lots of shops along the main street.

I saw three different boats along the bank of the river.

We use along as an adverb with verbs of motion meaning together with:
Why dont you come along with us to the party?
They said theyd bring the bikes along and we can ride to the swimming pool.
Alongside
As a preposition, alongside means close beside, next to or together with:
The trees alongside the fence have all been damaged by the wind. (near)
Put your bike alongside mine. (next to)
I find it difficult to cope with this illness alongside all my other problems. (together with)
We also use alongside as an adverb, meaning along the side of or next to something:
I parked my car in the drive and William parked his alongside.

Alone, lonely, or lonesome?

from English Grammar Today
Alone or lonely?
Alone is an adjective and an adverb meaning that no other person is with you. When we use
alone as an adjective, it never comes before the noun (predicative adjective):
She was alone when she heard the sad news. (adjective)
Its impossible to discuss as a committee. The chairman alone will decide. (adverb)
Did they travel alone or did they take the children with them? (adverb)
Do you live alone? (adverb)
Lonely means that no other person is with you and that you are sad and unhappy as a result. We
may choose to be alone but generally we do not choose to be lonely:

Without her friends, it was a long and lonely journey.

She says she feels very lonely and depressed living in that big house.
We dont use lonely as an adverb:
I prefer going to lunch alone.
Not: I prefer going to lunch lonely.
Lonesome
In American English, lonesome means the same as lonely:
If theyre away from home, they get lonesome. (If theyre away from home, they get lonely).

Along or alongside?
from English Grammar Today
Along and alongside are prepositions or adverbs.
Along
As a preposition, along means in a line next to something long and thin, e.g. a road, a path:
There were lots of shops along the main street.
I saw three different boats along the bank of the river.
We use along as an adverb with verbs of motion meaning together with:
Why dont you come along with us to the party?
They said theyd bring the bikes along and we can ride to the swimming pool.
Alongside
As a preposition, alongside means close beside, next to or together with:
The trees alongside the fence have all been damaged by the wind. (near)

Put your bike alongside mine. (next to)

I find it difficult to cope with this illness alongside all my other problems. (together with)
We also use alongside as an adverb, meaning along the side of or next to something:
I parked my car in the drive and William parked his alongside.

Already, still or yet?

from English Grammar Today
Already or yet?
We use already to refer to something which has happened or may have happened before the
moment of speaking. Already can sometimes suggest surprise on the part of the speaker, that
something is unexpected:
Is it seven oclock already? (The speaker didnt expect it to be so late.)
We use yet most commonly in questions and negatives, to talk about things which are expected
but which have not happened:
Is it seven oclock yet? (The speaker thinks that probably its almost seven oclock.)
A:
Where will you be staying?
B:
I havent decided yet, but somewhere in the city centre.
Already refers to things which have happened or which people think may have happened. Yet
refers to things which have not happened or which people think may not have happened.
Already, yet or still?
We use still not yet or already to refer to the continuation of a situation:

I still meet my friends from my schooldays now and then. (I continue to meet my friends)
Not: I already meet my friends or I yet meet my friends
Compare

A:
Is your sister still at university?
B:

I know she was at university. Does that continue to

be true?

Yes. Shes got one more year to do.

A:
Is your sister at university yet?
B:

I expect that she will go to university. Is she there

now?

No. Shes only 17. Shell go next year.

A:
Is your sister already at university? Shes
only 17!
B:

Im surprised if your sister is at university. I did

not expect it to happen until later.

Yes. She started this year. Shes so clever they

let her enter a year early.
Negatives with already, still, yet
Negatives with yet mean that something has not happened up to now:

I havent spoken to Henry about the car yet.

Negatives with still suggest that the situation should have changed, but it has not:
I still havent found my passport. I know its here somewhere. (Ive been looking for it for a long
time. I should have found it by now)
Warning:
We usually put yet after the main verb, whereas we usually put still after the subject.
Compare

I havent finished yet.

I still havent finished.

You know, its dark now and she hasnt arrived You know, its dark now and she still hasnt
yet.
arrived.
Negatives with already are far less common than negatives with yet and still. They usually refer
to things which should have happened before they did happen:
If youve already registered, the price is 50 pounds. If you havent already registered, its 75
pounds for late registration.
I was surprised that they hadnt already told me the news.
See also:

Already

Still

Yet

Also, as well or too?

from English Grammar Today
Also, as well and too are adverbs and mean in addition.

Also
Also is commonly used in writing, but is less common in speaking. Also occupies different
positions in a sentence.
We use also in front position to emphasise what follows or to add a new point or topic:
Its very humid. Also, you can easily get sunburnt.
[on the telephone]
OK, Ill phone you next week and we can discuss it then. Also, we need to decide who will be
going to Singapore.
We use also in the normal mid position for adverbs, between the subject and main verb, or after
the modal verb or first auxiliary verb, or after be as a main verb. In this position, the meaning of
also usually connects back to the whole clause that comes before:
She works very hard but she also goes to the gym every week.
Ive been working in the garden this week, and Ive also been reading a lot.
In end position, also normally connects two phrases. We use as well and too instead of also, in
end position, especially in speech:
She contacted him in the office but he didnt answer the phone. His mobile phone was silent also.
(or His mobile phone was silent too. or was silent as well.)
As well
Spoken English:
As well is much more common in speaking than in writing, and is more common in speaking
than also.
As well almost always comes in end position:
[In a restaurant. Customer (A) is ordering from a waiter (B)]
A:

Ill have steak please.

B:
Yes.
A:
And Ill have the mixed vegetables as well.
See also:

As well (as)

Too
We usually put too in end position:
Gills having chicken. Ill probably have chicken too.
She looks really tired and she must be really hungry too.
Too can occur immediately after the subject, if it refers directly to the subject. It does not
normally occur after a modal or auxiliary verb. We sometimes write commas before and after
too:
I too thought she looked unwell.
We, too, have been very pleased to receive the prize on her behalf.
Not: We have too been very pleased
Too is especially common in responses to fixed expressions such as giving good wishes, and in
responses consisting of a single object pronoun:
A:
Enjoy the play.
B:

Thanks. You enjoy your evening too. (preferred to You enjoy your evening as well. or You also
enjoy your evening.)
A:
I need to go to the gym.
B:
Yeah, me too. (preferred to Yeah, me also. or Yeah, me as well.)
In imperative clauses, as well and too are normally preferred to also:
[customer in a post office, buying books of first and second class stamps]
Give me a book of ten first and a book of ten second as well then please. (preferred to and a
book of ten second also then please.)
Linking negatives
We use either not also, as well or too to connect two negative ideas:
Bills not here. I dont think Dave is either, is he?
Not: I dont think Dave is also/as well/too.
A:
Thats not in paperback yet. Its not been in any book clubs either, has it?
B:
No.
Not: Its not been in any book clubs also/as well/too, has it?
Also, as well and too: typical error

We dont use as well at the beginning of a clause. As well usually comes at the end of a
clause:

I just ignored it. I think everybody else did as well.

Not: As well I think everybody else did.
See also:

Either

Alternate(ly), alternative(ly)
from English Grammar Today
Alternate(ly)
The adjective alternate and the adverb alternately mean first one thing, then another thing and
then the first thing again. When we refer to time, we can also use the phrase every other day,
every other week, etc.
The trouble is you can only park in the hospital on alternate days. (or in the hospital every
other day.)
Not: on alternative days
She was alternately pleased and angry.
See also:

Every

Alternative(ly)
Alternative(ly) means something that is different and unusual and offers a possible choice:
We cant use that room for meetings. Theyll have to find us an alternative room.
Not: an alternate room
Alternatively, we could just stay in.
Not: Alternately, we could

Can, could or may?

from English Grammar Today
Possibility
When we talk about possibility, we use can, could and may, but they are different in meaning.
Compare

It can be dangerous to cycle in the city.

This expresses what the speaker believes is a general

truth or known fact, or a strong possibility.

It could/may be dangerous to cycle in

the city.

This does not express a general truth. The speaker is

only expressing a weak possibility.

Its dangerous to cycle in the city.

This expresses a real fact using the present simple. The

speaker is certain and no modality is used.

See also:

Could

May

Permission
We use can, could and may to ask for permission. We use can and may, but not could, to give
permission. May is less common:
Compare

asking for permission

formal/polite?

giving permission

formal/polite?

Can I ask you a question?

informal

Yes, you can.

informal

asking for permission

formal/polite?

giving permission

Could I use your phone?

more formal/polite

Yes, you may.

formal/polite?

formal/polite
May I use your phone?

even more formal/polite

Yes, you could.

See also:

Might

Requests
When we make requests, we can use can or could (but not may). Could is more polite than can:
Can you call back later? Im busy now.
Could you call back later? Im busy now.
Teachers and parents often use can and could in requests:
Can you open you books at page 34, please.
Can you please refrain from chewing gum.
Could you just sit down and listen!
See also:

Requests

Politeness

Can, could or may: typical errors

Could in the present only expresses weak possibility. Can expresses strong possibility:

I can travel in July because my exams will definitely be finished at the beginning of that month.
(strong possibility)

I could travel in July because my exams will probably be finished at the beginning of that month.
(weak possibility)

We dont normally use could to talk about general truths which refer to the present time.
We use can instead:

Not everyone can afford to buy organic food.

Not: Not everyone could afford

We use could, not can, to express future possibility. Can expresses that we are certain of
something:

Working in London next summer could be a great experience. (The speaker thinks this is
possible, in particular circumstances)
Not: can be a great experience.

Politeness
from English Grammar Today
Politeness is about keeping good relations with your listener or reader. There are two types of
politeness
1. showing the listener or reader that you value and respect them.
2. changing or softening what you say so as not to be too direct or forceful.
Politeness: showing respect
There are many ways in which we can show that we value and respect our listener or reader. In
more formal situations, we are especially careful to use certain polite phrases:
[addressing an audience]
Ladies and gentlemen, please welcome Mr Patrick Murphy
[a waiter in a restaurant]
May I take your plate, sir?

[a message in a thank-you card]

Thank you for your wonderful gift.
[asking a stranger for directions]
Excuse me, Im looking for Cathedral Street.
Not: Wheres Cathedral Street?
In formal contexts when we dont know people and we want to show respect, we use titles such
as Mr + family name, Ms + family name, sir, madam, doctor (Dr), professor (Prof.):
[checking out at a hotel reception desk]
A:
Heres your credit card, Mr Watts. Have a safe trip.
B:
Thank you.
[at a restaurant]
Shall I take your coat, Madam?
[emailing a professor that you dont know]
Dear Prof. Kinsella
Not: Hi John
See also:

Names and titles: addressing people

Politeness: making what we say less direct

When we speak and write, we usually try not to be too direct. There are a number of ways in
which we can do this.

Softening words (hedges)

We can use softening words or hedges to make what we say softer.
Compare

softer

more direct

Its kind of cold in here, isnt it? Could we

Its cold in here. Lets close the window.
close the window?
Could you just turn the radio down a little, Turn down the radio. (The imperative is very direct
please?
when used in requests.)
Your playing could possibly be improved.
[giving someone criticism on their musical
You must improve your playing. You need to spend
performance]
more time working on the rhythm.
You may need to spend more time working
a little bit on the rhythm.
See also:

Requests

Hedges (just)

Vague language
We use vague language to make times and quantities sound less direct and more approximate:
A:
Are you coming for dinner tomorrow night?
B:

Absolutely. What time is best for you?

A:
Any time around eight would be perfect.
Its about seven oclock so I think we should be leaving soon. (less direct than Its seven oclock
so we should be leaving now.)
A:
What colour is your dress?
B:
Its kind of green and brown, with a few gold buttons on the front.
See also:

Vague expressions

Modal expressions
We can use certain modal verbs, especially the past forms of the modal verbs can, may, shall and
will (could, might, should and would), to be more polite or less direct. We can also use other
modal expressions (certainly, possibility, be likely to, be supposed to be). We often do this when
we ask for something or ask someone to do something:
Might I ask if you are related to Mrs Bowdon? (rather formal and more polite/less direct than
May I ask ?)
Would you follow me, please, sir? (more polite/less direct than Will you follow me ?)
Would you mind moving your car, please?
A:
Could you take a look at my laptop? Its taking so long to start up.
B:

Well Ill certainly take a look. Is there a possibility that it might have a virus?
A:
Well, the anti-virus is supposed to be up to date.
You are likely to feel stressed before your exam. (less direct than You will feel stressed before
your exam.)
See also:

Modality: introduction

Modal expressions with be

Please and thank you

Requests

Changing tenses and verb forms

Sometimes we use a past verb form when we refer to present time, in order to be more polite or
less direct. We often do this with verbs such as hope, think, want and wonder. The verb may be
in the past simple, or, for extra politeness, in the past continuous:
A:
Wheres the key to the back door?
B:
I was hoping you had it. (less direct than I hope you have it.)
I thought you might want to rest for a while since its been a long day.
I wanted to ask you a question.
I am having problems with my internet connection and I was just wondering if you could tell me
how to fix it. (less direct and forceful than I have a problem with my internet connection and I
wonder if you could tell me how to fix it.)

Warning:
In formal contexts, we sometimes use past forms in questions, invitations and requests in the
present so as to sound more polite:
Did you want another coffee?
I thought you might like some help.
We were rather hoping that you would stay with us.
In shops and other service situations, servers often use past verb forms to be polite:
Assistant:
What was the name please?
Customer:
Perry, P-E-R-R-Y.
Assistant:
Did you need any help, madam?
Customer:
No, thanks. Im just looking.
See also:

Past verb forms referring to the present

If and politeness
In speaking, we often use if followed by will, would, can or could to introduce a polite request:
If we can move on to the next point for discussion. (more polite than Can we move on )
If I could just say one more thing (more polite than Listen to me, I want to say something.)

If you will follow me, please. (more polite than Follow me, please.)
We use other expressions with if to express politeness: if you dont mind, if its OK with you, if I
may say so, if itll help:
If you dont mind, I think I need that cup of tea.
Ill stay here, if its OK with you.
Two-step questions
In speaking, we sometimes ask two questions rather than one so as to be less direct. The first
question is an introduction for the listener and the second one asks a more specific question:
A:
Do you like sport? I mean, do you play sport?
B:
Yeah. I play basketball. Im on the school team.
The first question introduces the topic of sport; the second one asks a more specific question
about it. The listener answers the second question.
We sometimes use yes-no questions one after the other:
A:
Is this your pen?
B:
Yes, thats mine.
A:
Do you mind if I borrow it for a minute?
B:

Not at all.
This is less direct than asking Can I borrow this pen? as a question on its own.
See also:

Questions: two-step questions

Using names
We can make what we say more polite and less direct by using a persons name:
Whats the time, John? (less direct than Whats the time?)
Im not sure I agree with you, Liam. (less direct than Im not sure I agree with you.)
See also:

Names and titles: addressing people

Politeness: what is impolite?

Being direct is impolite so we need to be careful when using direct forms.
The imperative form
In most contexts, the imperative is very direct and is usually impolite when used outside of
family and friends:
[in a caf]
Give me a coffee.
Polite form: Could I have a coffee, please?
[asking the time]
Tell me the time.
Polite form: Would you mind telling me the time, please?
However, it is acceptable to use an imperative in warnings, offers, written requests and when
giving directions or instructions:

Mind your step!

Have another coffee.
Turn left once you get past the cinema. Then take a right along a narrow road
To stop in an emergency, press this button.
See also:

Imperatives as offers and invitations

Imperative clauses (Be quiet!)

Telling the time

Warnings

Using titles inappropriately

We use titles before names, for example Mr Oakley, Dr Morrison:
[in a letter or email to Professor Harry Murray]
Polite form: title + family name: Dear Prof. Murray
Not: Dear Prof. Harry
See also:

Names and titles: addressing people

Using very familiar terms of address inappropriately

When people know each other very well, for example, couples or very close friends, parents and
their children, they may address each other using terms such as love, honey, darling, pet. In
certain dialects, you may also hear people use these terms in shops and cafs, for example. It is
impolite to use these terms in formal contexts:
[in an interview]
Where do you come from, love?

[in a restaurant]
Mr Kane, pet, your table is ready.
See also:

Sexist language

Requests
from English Grammar Today
When we make a request, we ask someone for something, or we ask someone to do something.
Asking for something
There are different ways of asking for something. We usually ask for something in a polite and
indirect way, for example, using can, could, would you mind if and may:
A:
Can I have the salt?
B:
Of course, here you are.
A:
Could I ask you the time, please?
B:
No problem. Its quarter past four.
A:
Would you mind if I borrowed your pen, please?

B:
Of course, here you are.
A:
May I have the bill, please? (May is more formal.)
B:
Certainly, Madam.
I need is very direct and is usually used for urgent requests:
I need a doctor.
I need the fire extinguisher. Fast!
I want is very direct and can sound impolite. We dont normally use it to make requests unless
we want to be very direct:
I want to speak to the manager right now. I am not leaving here until I get my money back.
Asking someone to do something
There are a number of ways of asking someone to do something in a polite and indirect way. We
often use please to make our requests more polite:
Could you call a taxi for me, please?
Would you ask Rose whether she has signed the card, please?
Would you mind collecting my suit from the dry cleaners, please?
Do you think you could come in ten minutes early tomorrow, before the presentation?
We sometimes use can you and will you to make requests but they are more informal:
Mum, can you wake me at seven oclock?
Will you send me an email tomorrow just to remind me to book a hotel?

We need is often used in work contexts by a boss or manager to ask for something to be done in a
polite way:
We need to email the contract to Peter immediately.
We need someone to go to the meeting in Paris on Wednesday. Bill cant go.
When we are not sure if someone will be able to do what we ask, we sometimes use you
wouldnt , would you? or you couldnt , could you?:
You wouldnt drop this into the post office for me, would you?
You couldnt stop at a bank machine, could you?
In formal letters and formal emails, we can use the following expressions:
I would be grateful if you could send me more information about the course.
We would be most grateful if you could send someone to meet us at the airport as we do not
speak Japanese.
See also:

Please and thank you

Might
from English Grammar Today
Might: forms
Affirmative (+) form
Might comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another verb):
She might sell her house.
This might be true.
Not: That might can be true. or That can might be true.

Negative () form
The negative form of might is might not or mightnt. We dont use dont/doesnt/didnt with
might:
There might not be anyone in the house. (or There mightnt be )
Not: There doesnt might be anyone in the house.
See also:

Modal verbs

Question (?) form

The subject and might change position to form questions.
Warning:
We dont use do/does/did:
Might this be the key?
Not: Does this might be the key?
Mightnt this be the key?
Not: Doesnt might this be the key?
We can use might and mightnt in question tags, but theyre not very common:
That might not be a bad idea, might it?
That plant might do better by the window, mightnt it?
Might: uses
Possibility
We use might most often to refer to weak possibility:
I might go to Japan for a month to study Japanese.

The dog might bark when we pass by the gate.

They might not like very hot food.
Permission
We use might to refer to permission. It is very formal and is not used very often:
Might I ask your name?
Might I interrupt you for a moment?
Warning:
The reply to these will not contain might:
A:
Might I ask your address?
B:
Yes. Its 41 Ross Avenue.
A:
Might I ask you a question?
B:
Yes. Of course.
Not: Yes. You might.
Suggestions
We can use might to give advice or make a suggestion sound more polite or less direct, especially
when used together with like, prefer or want:
[A waiter politely suggesting a dessert to a customer.]

You might like to try one of our wonderful desserts.

See also:

Declarative clauses

Suggestions

Criticism
We often use might have + -ed form to express disapproval or criticism:
You might have told me you werent coming home for dinner. (you didnt tell me)
You might have tidied your room.
Might: reporting may
We use might as the past form of may in indirect reports:
That may not be true, she said.
She said that it might not be true.
See also:

Reported speech

Might: typical error

We dont use might for ability; we use can or could:

Although you can visit these places, if you are tired, youre welcome to stay in the hotel.
Not: Although you might visit these places
I could hear the noise of an engine.
Not: I might hear the noise of an engine.
See also:

Can

Could

May
from English Grammar Today
May: forms
Affirmative (+) form
May comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another verb):
It may be possible for him to get home tonight.
May cant be used with another modal verb:
This may hurt you.
Not: This may could hurt you. or This could may hurt you.
Negative () form
The negative form of may is may not. We dont use dont/doesnt/didnt with may:
We may not have enough information at the moment.
Not: We dont may have enough information at the moment.
Warning:
We dont use maynt as the contracted form of may not:
We may not yet know what is safe to eat.
Not: We maynt yet know what is safe to eat.
See also:

Modal verbs

Question (?) form

Warning:
The subject and may change position to form questions. We dont use do/does/did:
May we drop you at your hotel?
Not: Do we may drop you at your hotel?
May I leave the room, please?
Not: Do I may leave the room please?
May: uses
Permission
We use may to ask for, give and refuse permission. It is quite formal.
asking for permission

giving permission

refusing permission

May I leave the room?

Yes, you may.

No, you may not.

May we use your phone?

Yes, you may.

No, you may not.

Can, could and may are all used to ask for permission. May is the most formal/polite and could is
more formal and polite than can.
See also:

Can, could or may?

Requests

Possibility
We use may to refer to weak possibility in the present and future:

The economy may go up or down in the next year. (I think both are possible, the economy going
up or the economy going down. I am not making either one a strong possibility.)
I think I may go to the doctor today and try to get some antibiotics. (I am not very sure yet if I
will go to the doctor.)
General truths
We use may in formal writing, especially academic English, to describe things which the speaker
thinks are generally true or possible. In this case, it is a more formal equivalent of can.
Compare

A typical farmers cottage can be

seen in the Ulster Folk Museum.
A typical farmers cottage may be
seen in the Ulster Folk Museum.

Both sentences express what the speaker believes to be a

general truth about where the cottage is located. The
speaker knows that there is a cottage in the museum and a
visitor is able to see them there if they want to. May is
more formal.

See also:

Hedges (just)

Accepting a different view or opinion

We often use may to accept a different view or opinion, especially with well, and/or followed by
but:
One month may well be too long to go away on holiday.
I may be wrong but I am going to tell the police about it.
The couch may well cost more but its going to be different.

Could
from English Grammar Today
Could: form

Affirmative (+) form

Could comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another verb):
We could have lunch early.
Could cannot be used with another modal verb:
We could drive to France
Not: We could might drive to France. or We might could drive to France.
Negative () form
The negative form of could is couldnt. We dont use dont/doesnt/didnt with could:
He couldnt lift that. Its too heavy.
Not: He didnt could lift that
We can use the full form could not in formal contexts or when we want to emphasise something:
Fabio was frightened. He could not move his arm. It was stuck.
Question (?) form
The subject and could change position to form questions. We dont use do/does/did:
Could I pay by credit card?
Not: Do I could pay by credit card?
We use could and couldnt in question tags:
I could come back tomorrow, couldnt I?
Could: uses
Possibility
We often use could to express possibility in the present and the future.
Compare

Its blue.

It could be blue. (present)

I am certain that it is blue. Its a fact.

Im not certain that it is blue.

The storm will get worse.

The storm could get worse. (future)

Im certain that the storm will get worse.

Im not certain that the storm will get worse.

See also:

Can: uses

Suggestions
We often use could to make suggestions:
A:
Wills party is fancy-dress.
B:
Its Halloween.
C:
Oh right. I could go as Julius Caesar.
B:
Again? How many times have you done that?
A:
Ive got to be in the meeting at 10 and the train doesnt get in until 10.15.
B:

Could you get an earlier train?

Permission
We use could to ask for permission. Could is more formal and polite than can:
Could I ask you a personal question?
Warning:
We dont use could to give or refuse permission. We use can:
A:
Could I leave early today?
B:
Yes, you can./No, you cant.
Not: Yes, you could./No, you couldnt.
See also:

Can

Could: past
We dont usually use could to talk about single events that happened in the past.
Past achievement
When actual past achievements are mentioned, we usually use was/were able to or managed to
but not could in affirmative clauses. This is because they are facts, rather than possibilities:
I was able to/managed to buy a wonderful bag to match my shoes.
Not: I could buy a wonderful bag to match my shoes.
We hired a car and we were able to/managed to drive 1,000 miles in one week.

Not: We hired a car and we could drive 1,000 miles in one week.
Ability
We use could to talk about past ability:
When I was young, I could easily touch my toes.
Possibility
We use could have + -ed form to talk about possibility in the past:
I could have been a lawyer.
They could have taken a taxi home instead of walking and getting wet.
Janette couldnt have done any better.
Guessing and predicting: couldnt as the negative of must
When we want to guess or predict something, we use couldnt as the negative form of must. We
use couldnt have + -ed form as the negative form of must have + -ed. Couldnt and couldnt
have + -ed form express strong possibility:
She must have made a mistake. It couldnt be true.
A firework couldnt have done all that damage.
See also:

Can

Could + smell, taste, think, believe, etc.

We use could to refer to single events that happened in the past, with verbs of the senses (smell,
taste, see, hear, touch, etc.) and mental processes (think, believe, remember, understand etc.):
The food was terrible. I could taste nothing but salt.
We knew they were in there. We could hear voices inside.
He came and spoke to me, but I couldnt remember his name.

See also:

Be able to

Reporting can
We use could when reporting clauses with can as past events:
They told us we could wait in the hallway. (The original words were probably: You can wait in
the hallway.)
She said we could book the tickets online. (The speaker remembers hearing You can book the
tickets online.)
Criticism
We often use could have + -ed form to express disapproval or criticism:
You could have called to say you would be late. (You didnt call I think you should have
called.)
You could have tidied your room.
Regret
We use could have + -ed form to talk about things that did not happen and sometimes to
expresses regret:
He could have been a doctor.
I could have been famous.
We often use the expression how could you/she/he/they? to show disapproval (to show that we
dont like what someone has done):
Grandfather, how could you? How could you leave me?
How could you have gone without telling me?
A:
We had to give away our dog when we moved to England.

B:
Oh, how could you?
Could' is used to make polite requests. We can also use 'can' for these but 'could' is more polite.

Could you help me, please?

Could you lend me some money?

Could I have a lift?

Could I bother you for a moment?

If we use 'could' in reply to these requests, it suggests that we do not really want to do it. If you
agree to the request, it is better to say 'can'.

Of course I can.

I could help you if it's really necessary but I'm really busy right now.

I could lend you some money but I'd need it back tomorrow without fail.

I could give you a lift as far as Birmingham.

'Could' is used to talk about theoretical possibility and is similar in meaning to 'might'.

It could rain later. Take an umbrella.

He could be there by now.

Could he be any happier?

It could be Sarah's.