Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Definitions
Series
f (n) = (g(n))
f (n) = o(g(n))
lim an = a
sup S
inf S
lim inf an
i=1
n(n + 1)
,
2
n
X
i2 =
i=1
n
X
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
,
6
i3 =
i=1
n2 (n + 1)2
.
4
In general:
n
n
X
X
1
(n + 1)m+1 1
(i + 1)m+1 im+1 (m + 1)im
im =
m+1
i=1
i=1
n1
m
X
1 X m+1
Bk nm+1k .
im =
k
m
+
1
i=1
om
i=
k=0
Geometric series:
n
X
cn+1 1
,
ci =
c1
i=0
n
X
ici =
i=0
c 6= 1,
ci =
i=0
ncn+2 (n + 1)cn+1 + c
,
(c 1)2
Harmonic series:
n
X
1
,
Hn =
i
i=1
n
X
c 6= 1
ci =
i=
i=
.c
f (n) = (g(n))
n
X
ici =
i=0
ce
f (n) = O(g(n))
c
,
1c
c
,
(1 c)2
|c| < 1,
|c| < 1.
n
n(n
n(n 1)
n(
( + 1)
Hn
.
2
4
lim sup an
lim sup{ai | i n, i N}.
i=1
i
=1
n
n
n
n
X
X
i
n+1
1
n
Combinations:
Size
k
subHi =
Hn+1
.
Hi = (n + 1)H
1)Hn
k
m
m+1
m+1
sets of a size n set.
i=1
i=1
n
n
X
Stirling numbers (1st kind):
n!
n
n!
n
n
n
k
n
,
=2 ,
=
=
,
2.
1.
3.
Arrangements of an n elenk
k
k
k
((n
n k)!k!
k)!
k
)!k
k!!
k=0
ment set into k cycles.
n1
n n1
n1
n
n
n
,
+
=
=
4.
,
5.
Stirling
numbers
(2nd
kind):
k1
k
k
k
k k1
k
n
Partitions of an n element
X
nk
n
m
n
r+n+1
r+k
,
7.
=
6
,
=
set into k non-empty sets.
mk
k
k
m
n
k
n
k=0
n
n
1st order Eulerian numbers:
X
X
k
r+s
n+1
s
k
r
,
8.
,
9.
=
=
Permutations 1 2 . . . n on
n
m+1
nk
m
k
k=0
k=0
{1, 2, . . . , n} with k asce ts.
n
n
n
kn1
n
= (1)k
= 1,
10.
=
,
11.
2nd order Eulerian n mbers.
k
k
n
1
k
Cn
Catalan Numbers: Binary
n
n1
n1
n
n1
=
2
,
12.
+
=
k
1,
13.
trees with n + 1 vertices.
2
k1
k
k
n
n
n
n
n
,
= (n 1)!Hn1 ,
= (n 1)!,
15.
= 1,
17.
14.
16.
k
2
k
1
n
n
X
n
n
n
n1
n1
n
2n
n
1
,
20.
=
=
,
19.
+
= (n 1)
18.
,
= n!,
21. Cn =
2
n1
n1
k1
k
k
k
n+1 n
k=0
n1
n1
n
n
n
n
n
,
+ (n k)
= (k + 1)
,
24.
=
23.
= 11,
=
22.
k1
k
k
n1k
k
n
0
n
0
n
n
n+1
1 if k = 0,
=
= 2n n 1,
25.
26.
= 3n (n + 1)2n +
,
27.
k
1
2
2
0 otherwise
X
X
n
m
n
X
n
x+k
k
n
n+1
n
n
=
,
29.
,
(m + 1 k)n (1)k ,
=
28. xn =
30. m!
m
n
nm
k
k
k
m
k=0
k=0
k=0
X
n
n
nk
n
n
n
nkm
=
31.
(1)
= 0 for n 6= 0,
= 1,
33.
k!,
32.
m
m
n
k
0
k=0
n
X
n1
n1
n
(2n)n
n
,
35.
+ (2n 1 k)
= (k + 1)
34.
=
,
k1
k
k
k
2n
k=0
X X
X
n
n
n+1
x+n1k
k
x
n
n
k
=
,
37.
=
=
(m + 1)nk ,
36.
m+1
2n
m
xn
k
k
m
n
iH
.e
xa
ra
k=0
k=0
40.
42.
44.
46.
48.
Trees
X n k
om
38.
aand
nd equality holds
only if every internal node has 2
sons.
Recurrences
logb a
4) = n/2
n/2
3 T (n/2) 3T (n/4)
..
..
..
.
.
.
log2 n1
3
T (2) 3T
T (1 = 2
ra
1 T (n) 3T (n/2) = n
ce
a 1, b > 1
xa
m1
X
X i
n i
3
3 =n
.
2
2
=0
i=0
Master method:
T (n) = aT (n/b) + f (n),
ii=1
=1
.c
3
2 Then
m1
m
X
i
Let c =
.e
i=0
Multiply
X
X
X and sum:
gi+1 xi =
2gi xi +
xi .
we have
m
c 1
c =n
c1
i0
= 2n(clog2 n 1)
= 2n(c(k1) logc n 1)
= 2nk 2n,
and so T (n) = 3n 2n. Full history recurrences can often be changed to limited
history ones (example): Consider
i1
X
Tj , T0 = 1.
Ti = 1 +
j=0
Ti+1 = 1 +
i
X
Tj .
j=0
Subtracting we find
i
i1
X
X
Tj 1
Tj
Ti+1 Ti = 1 +
j=0
= Ti .
And so Ti+1 = 2Ti = 2i+1 .
i0
i0
Note that
Generating functions:
1. Multiply both sides of the equation by xi .
2. Sum both sides over all i for
which the equation is valid.
3. Choose a generatingPfunction
j=0
Simplify:
1
G(x)
= 2G(x) +
.
x
1x
Solve for G(x):
x
.
G(x) =
(1 x)(1 2x)
Expand this
using partial fractions:
2
1
G(x) = x
1 2x 1 x
X
X
2i xi
xi
= x 2
=
i0
i+1
(2
i0
So gi = 2i 1.
i0
1)x
i+1
0.57721,
1+ 5
2
2i
pi
General
1
2
2
4
2
3
3
4
8
16
5
7
5
6
32
64
11
13
7
8
9
128
256
512
17
19
23
b b2 4ac
loga x
,
.
logb x =
loga b
2a
Eulers number e:
1
1
e = 1 + 12 + 16 + 24
+ 120
+
n
x
= ex .
lim 1 +
n
n
n
n+1
1 + n1 < e < 1 + n1
.
11e
e
1
n
1 + n1 = e
+
.
O
2
2n 24n
n3
Harmonic numbers:
25 137 49 363 761 7129
1, 32 , 11
6 , 12 , 60 , 20 , 140 , 280 , 2520 , . . .
14
15
16,384
32,768
43
47
16
17
18
65,536
131,072
262,144
53
59
61
19
20
524,288
1,048,576
67
71
21
22
2,097,152
4,194,304
73
79
23
24
8,388,608
16,777,216
83
89
25
26
27
33,554,432
67,108,864
134,217,728
97
101
103
28
29
30
268,435,456
536,870,912
1,073,741,824
31
32
2,147,483,648
4,294,967 296
Expectation: If X is discrete
X
g(x) Pr[X = x].
[g(X)]
[g((X
X)]
)]
E[g
.c
37
41
.61803
Continuous distributions: If
Z b
Pr[a < X < b] =
p(x) dx,
I X continuous
Z
Z then
g(x)p(x)
dx
=
[g
[
g(
(X
X)]
)]
[g(X)]
=
E
ce
4,096
8,192
ln n < Hn < ln n + 1,
1
.
Hn = ln n + + O
n
Factorial, Stirlings approximation
ra
12
13
29
31
...
n
1
n
.
1+
e
n
Ackermann
s fun tion and inverse:
i=1
2j
a( , j)
j) = a
a(
a(
(ii 1, 2)
a(i
j=1
2n
2
n
xa
1,024
2,048
1 5
2
Probability
.e
10
11
1.61803,
om
3.14159,
107
109
113
27
131
Pasca s Triangle
1
11
121
1331
14641
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
(i)
((ii)) = min{j
Binomial distribution:
n k nk
p q
Pr[X
Pr[ = k] =
,
q = 1 p,
k
n
X
n k nk
p q
k
= np.
[X]
=
E
k
k=1
Poisson distribution:
e k
, E[X] = .
Pr[X = k] =
k!
Normal (Gaussian) distribution:
2
2
1
e(x) /2 , E[X] = .
p(x) =
2
The coupon collector: We are given a
random coupon each day, and there are n
different types of coupons. The distribution of coupons is uniform. The expected
number of days to pass before we to collect all n types is
nHn .
g(x) dP (x).
E[cX] = c E[X].
Bayes theorem:
Pr[B|Ai ] Pr[Ai ]
.
Pr[Ai |B] = Pn
j=1 Pr[Aj ] Pr[B|Aj ]
Inclusion-exclusion:
n
n
i X
h_
Xi =
Pr[Xi ] +
Pr
i=1
i=1
n
X
(1)k+1
k=2
ii <<ik
Pr
k
h^
i
Xij .
j=1
Moment inequalities:
1
Pr |X| E[X] ,
h
i
1
Pr X E[X] 2 .
Geometric distribution:
Pr[X = k] = pq k1 ,
q = 1 p,
X
1
kpq k1 = .
E[X] =
p
k=1
Matrices
More Trig.
C
Multiplication:
(0,1)
(-1,0)
(0,-1)
i=1
2 2 and 3 3 determinant:
a b
c d = ad bc,
a b c
d e f = gb c ha c + ia b
e f
d f
d e
g h i
Definitions:
sin a = A/C,
csc a = C/A,
A
sin a
= ,
tan a =
cos a
B
Area, radius of inscribed
cos a = B/C,
sec a = C/B,
cos a
B
cot a =
= .
sin a
A
circle:
AB
.
A+B+C
ce
Permanents:
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1,
.e
tan(x y) =
Definitions:
e e x
sinh x =
2
x
e x
tanh x = x
,
e + ex
1
,
sec x =
cosh x
e +e
,
2
1
,
csch x =
sinh x
1
coth x =
.
tanh x
2 =
sin 2x
cos 2x =
1 tan2 x
,
1 + tan2 x
2 tan x
cot2 x 1
,
tan 2x =
cot 2x =
2 ,
2 cot x
1 tan x
sin(x + y) sin(x y) = sin2 x sin2 y,
cos(x + y) cos(x y) = cos2 x sin2 y.
Eulers equation:
eix = cos x + i sin x,
dentities:
cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1,
tanh2 x + sech2 x = 1,
coth2 x csch2 x = 1,
sinh(x) = sinh x,
tanh(x) = tanh x,
cosh(x) = cosh x,
2 tan x
,
1 + tan2 x
cos 2x = 2 cos2 x 1,
cosh x =
xa
a ,
,(i) .
ii=1
=1
1 + cot2 x = csc2 x,
n
XY
ra
1
cos x =
,
sec x
1 + tan2 x = sec2 x,
sin x = cos 2 x ,
cos 2x = 1
aei + bf g + cdh
ceg f ha ibd.
perm A =
Identities:
1
,
sin x =
csc x
1
,
tan x =
cot x
1
2 AB,
ai,k bk,j .
k=1
(1,0)
a
B
Pythagorean theorem:
C 2 = A2 + B 2 .
ci,j =
.c
C = A B,
(cos , sin )
= 1.
c
v2.02
1994
by Steve Seiden
sseiden@acm.org
http://www.csc.lsu.edu/~seiden
cosh x sinh x = ex ,
= cosh x 1,
sin
1
2
2
2
3
2
cos
1
tan
0
3
2
2
2
1
2
3
3
A
c
B
Law of cosines:
c2 = 2 b2 2ab cos C.
Ae
om
n
X
2 cosh2 x2
n Z,
= cosh x + 1.
. . . in mathematics
you dont understand things, you
just get used to
them.
J. von Neumann
A = 12 hc,
= 12 ab sin C,
c2 sin A sin B
.
2 sin C
Herons formula:
=
A = s sa sb sc ,
s = 12 (a + b + c),
sa = s a,
sb = s b,
sc = s c.
More identities:
r
1 cos x
x
,
sin 2 =
2
r
1 + cos x
cos x2 =
,
2
r
1 cos x
,
tan x2 =
1 + cos x
1 cos x
=
,
sin x
sin x
,
=
1 + cos x
r
1 + cos x
,
cot x2 =
1 cos x
1 + cos x
=
,
sin x
sin x
,
=
1 cos x
eix eix
sin x =
,
2i
eix + eix
cos x =
,
2
eix eix
tan x = i ix
,
e + eix
e2ix 1
,
= i 2ix
e +1
sinh ix
sin x =
,
i
cos x = cosh ix,
tanh ix
.
tan x =
i
Graph Theory
i=1
om
xa
d|x
.c
.e
Perfect Numbers: x is an even perfect number iff x = 2n1 (2n 1) and 2n 11 is prime.
Wilsons theorem: n is a prime iff
(n 1)! 1 mod n.
If
Mobius
inversion:
1
if i = 1.
0
if i is not squ re-free.
(i) =
r
if i is th product f
(1)
r distin t prim s.
a)) =
a
G(a)
F (d),
((d
d))
d|a
d|
d
|a
a
then
F (a)
((a
a)) =
X
d|a
a
.
(d)G
d
Prime numbers:
ln ln n
pn = n ln n + n ln ln n n + n
ln n
n
,
+O
ln n
n
n
2!n
+
(n) =
+
ln n (ln n)2
(ln n)3
n
.
+O
(ln n)4
Notation:
E(G) Edge set
V (G) Vertex set
c(G)
Number of components
G[S]
Induced subgraph
deg(v) Degree of v
(G)) Maximum degree
(G))
Minimum degr e
(G)) Chromatic number
E (G)) Edge hroma ic number
Complement graph
Gc
Comp ete graph
Kn
K 1 ,n2 Complete bipartite graph
r k, `)
`) Ramsey number
Geometry
ce
mod m1
..
.
C rn mod mn
ra
C r1
.. ..
. .
Definitions:
Loop
vV
If G is planar then n m + f = 2, so
f 2n 4, m 3n 6.
Any planar graph has a vertex with degree 5.
(x, y)
(x, y, 1)
y = mx + b (m, 1, b)
x=c
(1, 0, c)
Distance formula, Lp and L
metric:
p
(x1 x0 )2 + (y1 y0 )2 ,
1/p
|x1 x0 |p + |y1 y0 |p
,
1/p
lim |x1 x0 |p + |y1 y0 |p
.
p
(x1 , y1 )
`1
(0, 0)
(x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 )
cos =
.
`1 `2
Line through two points (x0 , y0 )
and (x1 , y1 ):
x y 1
x0 y0 1 = 0.
x1 y1 1
Area of circle, volume of sphere:
V = 43 r3 .
A = r2 ,
If I have seen farther than others,
it is because I have stood on the
shoulders of giants.
Issac Newton
Calculus
1
7
1
9
4.
d(un )
du
= nun1 ,
dx
dx
7.
d(cu )
du
= (ln c)cu ,
dx
dx
9.
du
d(sin u)
= cos u ,
dx
dx
Newtons series:
1
1
1
1
+ 2
3
+
= 1 1
3 3 3 5 3 7
3
Eulers series:
2
6
2
8
2
12
=
=
=
1
12
1
12
1
12
+
+
1
22
1
32
1
22
+
+
+
1
32
1
52
1
32
1
42
1
72
1
42
+
+
+
+
+
1
52
1
92
1
52
+
+
Partial Fractions
d(tan u)
du
= sec2 u ,
dx
dx
13.
du
d(sec u)
= tan u sec u ,
dx
dx
14.
1
d(arcsec u)
du
=
,
2
dx
u 1 u dx
du
d(sinh u)
= c sh u ,
21.
dx
dx
23.
(tanh u)
u)
d(tanh
du
= s ch2 u ,
dx
dx
N ((x
(x)
x))
A=
D(x)
D(
D
(x
x))
25.
du
d(sec u)
u)
d(sec
= sech u tanh u ,
dx
dx
1
d(arcsinh u)
d(arcsinh
du
=
,
2
dx
1 + u dx
1 du
d
d(arctanh
u)
=
,
9.
dx
1 u2 dx
k=0
where
3.
x=a
1
xn+1 ,
x dx =
n+1
Z
Z
8.
20.
d(arccsc u)
1
du
=
,
2
dx
u 1 u dx
d(cosh u)
du
22.
= sinh u ,
dx
dx
Z
n 6= 1,
d(coth u)
du
= csch2 u ,
dx
dx
d(csch u)
du
= csch u coth u ,
dx
dx
d(arccsch u)
1
du
=
.
dx
|u| 1 + u2 dx
4.
Z
(u + v) dx =
v dx,
Z
tan x dx = ln | cos x|,
11.
Z
sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x|,
Z
14.
Z
u dx +
Z
1
dx = ln x,
5.
ex dx = ex ,
x
Z
Z
du
dv
7.
u dx = uv v dx,
dx
dx
Z
9.
cos x dx = sin x,
12.
d(cot
d(cot u)
du
= csc2 u ,
dx
dx
Z
2.
sin x dx = cos x,
10.
d cos u
u))
du
= sin u ,
dx
dx
d(arccos u)
1 du
=
,
dx
1 u2 dx
d(arccot u)
1 du
18.
=
,
dx
1 + u2 dx
32.
dx
= arctan x,
1 + x2
6.
1 du
d(ln u)
d(ln
=
,
dx
u dx
d(arccosh u)
1
du
=
,
2
dx
u 1 dx
d(arccoth u)
1 du
30.
= 2
,
dx
u 1 dx
1
d(arcsech u)
du
=
,
dx
u 1 u2 dx
Integrals:
Z
Z
1.
cu dx = c u dx,
n
d(ecu )
du
= cecu ,
dx
dx
28.
31.
6.
16.
26.
27
d(uv)
dv
du
=u
+v ,
dx
dx
dx
du
d csc u)
= cot u csc u ,
dx
dx
24.
.e
where
12.
1
d(arcsin u)
du
=
,
2
dx
1 u dx
1 du
d(arctan u)
=
,
17.
dx
1 + u2 dx
19.
dv
dx
10.
11.
15.
3.
8.
xa
d(u + v)
du dv
=
+
,
dx
dx dx
v du
d(u/v)
dx u
5.
=
dx
v2
1
1
13
6 = 2 + 2 3 23 + 2 4 5 25 +
Sharps series:
2.
om
1
5
72
2+
du
d(cu)
=c ,
dx
dx
.c
Gregrorys series:
1
4 =1 3 +
2+
1.
ce
2+
Derivatives:
ra
Wallis identity:
2 2 4 4 6 6
=2
1 3 3 5 5 7
Brounckers continued fraction expansion:
12
4 =1+
32
2+
52
arcsin xa dx = arcsin xa +
p
a2 x2 ,
13.
a > 0,
arccos
Z
17.
Z
19.
Z
x
a dx
= arccos
sin2 (ax)dx =
1
2a
x
a
Calculus Cont.
a2
x2 ,
16.
a > 0,
arctan xa dx = x arctan xa
Z
ax sin(ax) cos(ax) ,
18.
20.
Z
29.
Z
33.
om
Z
26.
sinh x dx =
1
4
sinh(2x)
arcsinh
x
a dx
= x arcsinh
x
a
1
2 x,
Z
36.
csc2 x dx = cot x,
.c
Z
25.
34.
ce
23.
a > 0,
Z
Z
Z
sinn1 x cos x n 1
cosn1 x sin x n 1
2
+
sinn2 x dx,
+
cos
22.
cosn x dx =
x dx,
n
n
n
n
Z
Z
Z
tann1 x
cotn1 x
n
n2
n
tan
otn 2 x dx, n 6= 1,
x dx, n 6= 1,
24.
cot x dx =
tan x dx =
n1
n1
Z
tan x secn1 x n 2
+
secn2 x dx, n 6= 1,
secn x dx =
n1
n1
Z
Z
Z
cot x cscn1 x n 2
+
cscn2 x dx, n 6= 1,
27.
sinh x dx = cosh x,
28.
cosh x dx = sinh x,
cscn x dx =
n1
n1
Z
Z
Z
tanh x dx = ln | cosh x|, 30.
coth x dx = ln | sinh x|, 31.
sech x dx = arct n sinh x, 32.
csch x dx = ln tanh x2 ,
cosh x dx =
1
4
sinh(2x)
sinh(2x
sinh(2
x)) +
1
2x
Z
35.
sech2 x dx = tanh x,
x2
a2 ,
a > 0,
ra
ln(a2 + x2 ),
ax + sin(ax) cos(ax) ,
1
2a
sec2 x dx = tan x,
sinn x dx =
21.
cos2 (ax)dx =
a
2
37
arctanh xa dx = x arctanh xa +
a
2
ln |a2 x2 |,
x p
x arccosh x2 + a2 , if arccosh xa > 0 nd > 0,
a
38.
arccosh xa dx =
p
x arccosh x + x2 + a2 , if arcc h x < 0 and a > 0,
a
a
Z
p
dx
= ln x + a2 + x2 , a > 0,
39.
a2 + x2
Z p
Z
p
2
dx
1
x
=
arctan
,
a
>
0,
41.
a2 x2 dx = x2 a2 x2 + a2 arcsin xa , a > 0,
40.
a
a
2
2
a +x
Z
p
4
2
x2 + 33aa8 arcsin xa , a > 0,
42.
(a2 x2 )3/2 dx = x8 (5a2 2x2 )
Z
Z
Z
a + x
1
x
dx
dx
dx
x
,
ln
= arcsin a , a > 0
0,,
44.
=
=
,
43.
45.
2
2
2
2
3/2
2
2
2
a x
2a
ax
(a x )
a x
a a2 x2
Z
Z p
p
p
p
2
dx
a2 x2 dx = x2 a2 x2 a2 ln x + a2 x2 ,
= ln x + x2 a2 , a > 0,
47.
46.
x2 a2
Z
Z
1 x
2(3bx 2a)(a + bx)3/2
dx
=
,
49.
x a + bx dx =
ln
,
48.
2
ax + bx
a + bx
15b2
Z
Z
Z
a + bx a
a+ x
1
1
x
dx = 2 a + bx + a
50.
dx,
51.
dx = ln
, a > 0,
x
x a + bx
a + bx
a + bx + a
2
Z p
Z 2
a + a2 x2
p
a x2
2
2
dx = a x a ln
53.
x a2 x2 dx = 13 (a2 x2 )3/2 ,
52.
,
x
x
Z
Z
a + a2 x2
p
p
4
dx
54.
x2 a2 x2 dx = x8 (2x2 a2 ) a2 x2 + a8 arcsin xa , a > 0,
55.
= a1 ln
,
2
2
x
a x
Z
Z
2
p
p
2
x dx
x dx
x
= a2 x2 ,
57.
= x2 a2 x2 + a2 arcsin a,
a > 0,
56.
2
2
2
2
a x
a
Z
Z
a + a2 + x2
p
p
a2 + x2
x2 a2
a
dx = a2 + x2 a ln
dx = x2 a2 a arccos |x|
, a > 0,
58.
59.
,
x
x
x
Z
Z p
dx
x
,
61.
= a1 ln
60.
x x2 a2 dx = 13 (x2 a2 )3/2 ,
x x2 + a2
a + a2 + x2
.e
xa
64.
Z
66.
Z
67.
Z
68.
Z
b
ax2 + bx + c
dx
,
69.
2
a
2a
ax + bx + c
1 2 c ax2 + bx + c + bx + 2c
,
Z
c ln
x
dx
=
70.
x ax2 + bx + c
bx + 2c
1
arcsin
,
c
|x| b2 4ac
Z
p
2 2
a )(x2 + a2 )3/2 ,
71.
x3 x2 + a2 dx = ( 13 x2 15
x dx
=
2
ax + bx + c
Z
73.
xn sin(ax) dx = a1 xn cos(ax) +
n
74.
xn eax dx =
Z
75.
n
a
n
a
xn11 os(
os(ax)
os(ax
ax)) dx,
n
a
f (x)x =
b1
1
X
1
ln ax
ax))
n+1
((n + 1)2
m
x
ax)m
(ln ax
n+1
n+1
xn (ln ax)m dx =
n+1
n
+1
sin ax)
ax) dx,
Differences:
(cu) = cu,
u,
(u
(u
u + v,
v) =
v)
u
u
vv + E v
v u,
u,
(uv) = uv
vu,
1
1
(xn ) = nxnn1
1
1
(H
(
Hx ) = x
(2x ) = 2x ,
x
x
= m1
.
m
(c ) = ( 1)cx ,
(c
Sums:
P
P
cu x = c u x,
P
P
P
(u + v) x =
u x + v x,
P
P
uv x = uv E vu x,
n+1
P 1
P n
x x = Hx ,
x x = xm+1 ,
P x
P
x
x
x
c
c x = c1
,
m x = m+1 .
Falling Factorial Powers:
xn = x(x 1) (x n + 1), n > 0,
x0 = 1,
1
,
(x + 1) (x + |n|)
n < 0,
xn+m = xm (x m)n .
Rising Factorial Powers:
xn = x(x + 1) (x + n 1),
n > 0,
x0 = 1,
xn =
xn (ln ax)m1 dx.
x1
x2 + x1
=
=
x1
x2 x1
x3 =
x4 =
x3 + 3x2 + x1
4
x + 6x3 + 7x2 + x1
=
=
x3 3x2 + x1
4
x 6x3 + 7x2 x1
x5 =
x1 =
x2 =
x1
x + x1
x1 =
x2 =
x1
x x1
x3 =
x4 =
x3 + 3x2 + 2x1
x4 + 6x3 + 11x2 + 6x1
x3 =
x4 =
x3 3x2 + 2x1
x4 6x3 + 11x2 6x1
x5 =
x5 =
f ((i
(i)
i))
i=a
ii=
=a
a
xn =
n1
1
1 ax
xnn
e dx,
x1 =
x2 =
xn eax
xn ln(ax) dx = xn+1
Z
76.
sin(ax)
Z
if c < 0,
.e
x cos(ax) dx =
Z
1 n
ax
i c>0
xa
Z
72.
ra
Finite Calculus
om
x2 a2
dx
dx
1
a
,
= a arccos |x| , a > 0,
63.
=
a2 x
x x2 a2
x2 x2 a2
Z
p
(x2 + a2 )3/2
x2 a2
x dx
= x2 a2 ,
65.
dx
=
,
x4
3a2 x3
x2 a2
2ax + b b2 4ac
ln
, if b2 > 4ac,
2
2
dx
b 4ac
2ax + b + b 4ac
=
ax2 + bx + c
2ax + b
2
arctan
,
if b2 < 4ac,
4ac b2
4ac b2
p
1
a
dx
=
2ax b
1
ax2 + bx + c
arcsin
,
if a < 0,
a
b2 4ac
Z
p
2ax + b p 2
4ax b2
dx
ax2 + bx + c dx =
ax + bx + c +
,
2
4a
8a
ax + bx + c
Z
.c
62.
Calculus Cont.
ce
1
,
(x 1) (x |n|)
n < 0,
xn+m = xm (x + m)n .
Conversion:
xn = (1)n (x)n = (x n + 1)n
= 1/(x + 1)n ,
xn = (1)n (x)n = (x + n 1)n
= 1/(x 1)n ,
n
n
X
n k X n
x =
(1)nk xk ,
xn =
k
k
k=1
k=1
n
X
n
(1)nk xk ,
xn =
k
k=1
n
X
n k
n
x .
x =
k
k=1
X (x a)i
(x a)2 00
f (a) + =
f (i) (a).
f (x) = f (a) + (x a)f (a) +
2
i!
i=0
Expansions:
X
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 +
=
xi ,
1x
i=0
X
1
= 1 + cx + c2 x2 + c3 x3 +
=
ci xi ,
1 cx
i=0
X
1
n
2n
3n
=
1
+
x
+
x
+
x
+
=
xni ,
1 xn
i=0
X
x
2
3
4
= x + 2x + 3x + 4x +
=
ixi ,
(1 x)2
i=0
X
1
dn
= x + 2n x2 + 3n x3 + 4n x4 + =
in xi ,
xk n
dx
1x
i=0
X
xi
,
= 1 + x + 12 x2 + 16 x3 +
=
ex
i!
i=0
i
X
+ x
=
(1)
((
1)
1)ii+
ln(1 + x)
= x 12 x2 + 13 x3 14 x4
i
i=1
=1
i
Xx
1
= x + 12 x2 + 13 x3 + 14 x4 +
ln
=
1x
i
i 1
X
x2i+1
1 3
1 5
1 7
,
sin x
= x 3!
x + 5!
x 7!
x + =
((1)i
(2i + 1)!
ii=0
=0
2i
X
i x
1 2
1 4
6
,
cos x
= 1 2!
x + 4!
x
x
+
=
(1)
6!
(2i)!
i=0
X
x2i+1
,
tan1 x
= x 13 x3 + 15 x5 7 7 +
=
(1)i
(2i + 1)
i=0
X
n i
n(n1)
(n
n
1)
1) 2
x,
(1 + x)n
= 1 + nx + nn(
x
+
=
2
i
i=0
X
i+n i
1
n+2 2
x,
= 1 + (n
(n + 1)x
1) + 2 x + =
i
(1 x)n+1
i=0
X
x
Bi xi
1
1 2
1
4
=
1
,
x
+
x
x
+
=
2
12
720
x
e 1
i!
i=0
2i i
1
1
2
3
x,
(1 1 44x
4x)
x))
= 1 + x + 2x + 5x +
=
2x
i+1 i
i=0
X
2i i
1
x,
=
= 1 + x + 2x2 + 6x3 +
i
1 44x
x
i=0
n
X
2i + n i
1
1
1 4x
4+n 2
x,
= 1 + (2 + n)x + 2 x + =
i
2x
1 4x
i=0
X
1
1
25 4
3
ln
= x + 32 x2 + 11
x
+
x
+
=
Hi xi ,
6
12
1x 1x
i=1
2
X
1
Hi1 xi
1
4
,
ln
= 12 x2 + 34 x3 + 11
x
+
=
24
2
1x
i
i=2
X
x
2
3
4
= x + x + 2x + 3x +
=
Fi xi ,
1 x x2
i=0
X
Fn x
2
3
=
F
x
+
F
x
+
F
x
+
=
Fni xi .
n
2n
3n
1 (Fn1 + Fn+1 )x (1)n x2
i=0
X
ai xi .
A(x) =
i=0
X
xi
ai .
A(x) =
ii!
ii=0
=0
Dirichlet power s ies:
X
i
A
((x
x))
A(x)
.
x
i
=1
=
1
om
.c
Binomia theor m:
n
X
n nk k
x
y .
(x
(x + yy))n =
k
k=0
k=0
X
(ai + bi )xi ,
A(x) + B(x) =
i=0
xk A(x) =
A(x)
.e
xa
ra
ce
Pk1
i=0
xk
aik xi ,
i=k
i
ai x
A(cx) =
ai+k xi ,
i=0
ci ai xi ,
i=0
X
(i + 1)ai+1 xi ,
A0 (x) =
i=0
xA0 (x) =
iai xi ,
i=1
Z
A(x) dx =
X
ai1
i=1
A(x) + A(x)
=
2
A(x) A(x)
=
2
xi ,
a2i x2i ,
i=0
a2i+1 x2i+1 .
i=0
Pi
Summation: If bi = j=0 ai then
1
A(x).
B(x) =
1x
Convolution:
i
X
X
aj bij xi .
A(x)B(x) =
i=0
j=0
n
tan x
1
(x)
(x)
2
(x)
(x)(x 1)
X
d(i)
i=1
where d(n) =
xi
S(i)
xi
where S(n) =
d|n
1,
P
d|n
d,
i=1
2n1
|B2n | 2n
, n N,
=
(2n)!
X
(4i 2)B2i x2i
=
,
(1)i1
(2i)!
i=0
x
sin x
n
1 1 4x
2x
e sin x
X
n(2i + n 1)!
i=0
i!(n + i)!
i/2
i=1
1x
x
2
arcsin x
x
1
X
i=0
x,
(4i)!
ii)!
)!
x,
i
16 2(2
2(2i)!(2i
2(2i
i)!(2
)!(2ii + 1)!
4i i 2
x2i .
((ii + 1)(2i
1)(2i + 1)!
sin
i!
i
4
.e
xi ,
i=0
=0
x cot x
i=0
X
i=0
Cram rs R
If we have equations:
a1,1 x1 + a 2 x2 + + a1,n xn = b1
a2,1
,,1
1 x1 + a2
2,2
2,
,2
2 x2 + + a2,n xn = b2
..
..
..
.
.
.
an,11 x1 + an,2 x2 + + an,n xn = bn
i!
X
1
=
,
x
i
i=1
X
(i)
=
,
ix
i=1
(x)
(x 1)
(x)
Stieltjes Integrat on
Z
c G(x) dF (x) =
G(x) dF (x) +
G(x) d F (x) + H(x) =
G
G(x) dF (x).
b
xa
(2n)
X
i n!xi
i=0
xi ,
(e 1)
x
om
1
1x
X
i
.c
ln
n
1
x
ra
n+i i
x,
=
(Hn+i Hn )
i
i=0
X
n i
x,
=
i
i=0
X
i n!xi
,
=
n i!
i=0
X
22i (22i 1)B2i x2i1
,
=
(1)i1
(2i)!
i=1
X
(i)
=
,
ix
i=1
Y
1
=
,
1 px
p
ce
Expansions:
1
1
ln
n+1
(1 x)
1x
Eschers Knot
G(x) d c F (x) = c
G(x) dF (x) +
a
H(x) dF (x),
G(x) dF (x) +
G(x) dH(x),
a
Z b
G(x) dF (x),
a
b
F (x) dG(x).
a
Fibonacci Numbers
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, . . .
Definitions:
Fi = Fi1 +Fi2 ,
F0
i1
= F1 = 1,
Fi = (1) Fi ,
Fi = 15 i i ,
Cassinis identity: for i > 0:
Fi+1 Fi1 Fi2 = (1)i .
Additive rule:
Fn+k = Fk Fn+1 + Fk1 Fn ,
F2n = Fn Fn+1 + Fn1 Fn .
Calculation by matrices:
n
Fn2 Fn1
0 1
=
.
Fn1
Fn
1 1