ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

FUNCTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Sensory input
Integration
Homeostasis
Mental activity
Control of muscles and gland

DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Brain & spinal cord

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Outside the CNS; consist of nerves & ganglia

With 2 divisions:
1. SENSORY/AFFERENT
Conducts action potentials from sensory receptors to the CNS (sensory
neurons)
2. MOTOR/EFFERENT
Conducts action potentials from the CNS to effector organs such as
muscles and glands (motor neurons)
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM which transmits action potentials
from CNS to cardiac muscles, smooth muscles and glands.
1. Sympathetic
2. Parasympathetic

CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Neurons & neuralgia
NEURONS
Nerve cells
Receive stimuli and transmit action potentials to the neurons or to effector
organs.
Consist of cell body and 2 types of processes: dendrites & axon
Contains a single nucleus source of information for protein synthesis
Extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus and mitochondria
surround the nucleus
NISSL BODIES areas of rough ER concentration, when stained with a specific
dye, appear as microscopic granules.
DENDRITES
Short, often highly branching cytoplasmic extensions that are tapered from their
bases at neuron cell body to their tips.
Function to receive information from other neurons or from sensory inputs and
transmit the information toward the neuron cell body.
AXON
Long process extending from the neuron cell body.
Axon Hillock area where the axon leaves the neuron cell body.
May remain branched or unbranched to form COLLATERAL AXONS.
SCHWANN CELLS surrounds axon, which form a highly specialized insulating
layer of cells called myelin sheath.
TYPES OF NEURONS

1.

MULTIPOLAR NEURONS
Have many dendrites and a single axon
2. BIPOLAR NEURON
Have two processes : one dendrite, one axon.
Located in some sensory organs: retina of the eye, nasal cavity
3. UNIPOLAR NEURONS
Have a single process extending from the cell body
One process extends to the periphery, and the other process extends to the
CNS.

NEUROGLIA
Nonneuronal cells of CNS & PNS.
Far more numerous than neurons: Most neuralgia retain the ability to divide.
TYPES:
1. ASTROCYTES serve as the major supporting tissue in the CNS and participate
with the blood vessel endothelium to form a permeability barrier called the bloodbrain barrier, between the blood and the neurons.
2. EPENDYMAL cells line in the fluid cavities within the CNS. Produce CSF and others,
with cilia on the surface, help move the CSF through the CNS.
3. MICROGLIA help remove bacteria and cell debris from the CNS.
4. OLIGODENDROCYTES cells with many dendiritic processes in the CNS and
Schwann cells in the PNS surround axons.
Schwann cells are also called neurolemmocytes, neurolemma cells
MYELIN SHEATHS
UNMYELINATED AXONS - rest in indentations of the oligodendrocytes in the CNS and the
Schwann cells in the PNS
MYELINATED AXONS have specialized sheaths, called myelin sheaths
NODES OF RANVIER gaps in the myelin sheath
ELECTTRIC SIGNALS AND NEURAL PATHWAYS
THE RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

All cells exhibit electrical properties

Outside of most cell membranes is positively charged compared with the inside of the
cell membrane, which is negatively charged.
This charge difference across the membrane of an unstimulated cell is called the resting
membrane potential, the call is said to be polarized.
The resting membrane potential results from differences in the concentration of ions
across the cell membrane and the permeability characteristics of the cell membrane.
At equilibrium, there is a net positive charge outside the cell and a net negative charge
inside the cell.

ACTION POTENTIALS

Muscle and nerve cells are excitable.

When a stimulus is applied to a muscle cell or nerve cell, some Na channels open for a
very brief time, and Na diffuse quickly into the cell.
The movements of Na into a cell is called a local current.
The positively charged Na entering into a cell cause the inside of the cell membrane to
become more positive, a change called depolarization, this results in local potential.

SALTATORY CONDUCTION action potentials jump from one node of ranvier to the next
along the length of the axon. This greatly increases the conduction velocity.

THE SYNAPSE
A junction where the axon of one neuron interacts with another neuron or an effector
organ.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
SUBSTANCE
Acetylcholine

Norepinephrine

Serotonin

Dopamine

Gamma-aminobutyric
acid (GABA)

Glycine

LOCATION
Many nuclei scattered
throughout the brain
& spinal cord. Nerve
tracts from the nuclei
extend to many areas
of the brain and
spinal cord. Also
found in the
neuromuscular
junction of skeletal
muscle and many
ANS synapse
A small number of
small sized nuclei in
the brainstem. Nerve
tracts extend from
the nuclei to many
areas of the brain and
spinal cord. Also in
some ANS synapses.
A small number of
small sized nuclei in
the brainstem. Nerve
tracts extend from
the nuclei to many
areas of the brain and
spinal cord.

Confined to a small
number of nuclei and
nerve tracts.
Distribution is more
restricted than that of
NE or serotonin. Also
found in some ANS
synapses.

Mostly control
activities In their own
area and are not

EFFECT
Excitatory or
inhibitory

Excitatory or
inhibitory

Generally inhibitory

Generally excitatory

Generally inhibitory

CLINICAL EXAMPLE
Alzheimers disease
(a type of senile
dementia) is
associated with a
decrease in
acetylcholine
secreting neurons.
Myasthenia gravis
(weakness of skeletal
muscle) results from a
reduction in
acetylcholine
receptors.
Cocaine and
amphethamines
increase the release
and block the
reuptake of NE,
resulting in
overstimulation of
postsynaptic neurons.

Involved with mood,

anxiety, and sleep
induction. Levels of
serotonin are
elevated in
schizophrenia
(delusions,
hallucinations and
withdrawal)
Parkinsons disease
(depression of
voluntary motor
control) results from
destruction of
dopamine-secreting
neurons. Drugs used
to increase dopamine
production induce
vomiting and

usually involved in
with transmission
from one part of the
CNS to another. Most
neurons of the CNS
have GABA receptors.

schizophrenia
Generally inhibitory
Drugs that increase
GABA function have
been used to treat
epilepsy (excessive
discharge of
neurons).

Spinal cord and brain.

Like GABA, glycine
predominantly
produces local
effects.
Endorphins
Generally inhibitory

Widely distributed in
the CNS & PNS

Glycine receptors are

inhibited by the
poison strychinine.
Strychnine increases
the excitability of
certain neurons by
blocking their
inhibition. Strychnine
poisoning results in
the powerful muscle
contractions and
convulsions. Tetanus
of respiratory muscles
can cause death.
The opiates morphine
and heroin bind to
endorphin receptors
on presynaptic
neurons and reduce
pain by blocking the
release of
neurotransmitter.

REFLEXES
Involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus applied to periphery and transmitted to
the CNS.
REFLEX ARC neuronal pathway which a reflex occurs.
COMPONENTS:
1. Sensory receptors
2. Sensory neuron
3. Interneuron
4. Motor neuron
5. Effector organ
NEURONAL PATHWAYS
CONVERGING PATHWAYS have two or more neurons that synapse with (converge on) the
same neuron. This allows information transmitted in more than one neuronal pathway to
converge into a single pathway.

DIVERGING PATHWAYS the axon from one neuron divides (diverges) and synapses with more
than one other neurons. This allows information transmitted in one neuronal pathway to
diverge into two or more pathways.

SPINAL CORD
Extends from the foramen magnum at the base of the skull to the 2 nd lumbar vertebra.
Cauda equina inferior end of spinal cord.

PLEXUS OF THE SPINAL NERVES

PLEXUSES
Cervical

ORIGIN

MAJOR NERVES

C1-C4
Phrenic

BRACHIAL

C5-T1

MUSCLES
INNERVATED
Several neck
muscles
Diaphragm

Axillary
Radial

Musculocutaneo
us
Ulnar

Median

Lumbosacral

L1-S4
Obturator
Femoral
Ischiadic (sciatic)
tibial

Common fibular

SKIN
INNERVATED
Neck & posterior
head
Part of shoulder

Two shoulder
muscles
Posterios arm
and forearm
muscles
(extensors)
Anterior arm
muscles (flexors)
Two anterior
forearm muscles
(flexors), most
intrinsic hand
muscle
Most anterior
forearm muscles
(flexors), some
intrinsic hand
muscles
Medial thigh
muscles
(adductors)
Anterior muscles
(extensions)
Posterior thigh
muscles
(flexors), anterior
and posterior leg
muscles, most
foot muscles
Lateral thigh and
leg, some foot
muscles

Posterior arm,
forearm and
hand
Radial surface of
forearm
Ulnar side of
hand

Radial side of
hand

Medial thigh
Anterior thigh
Posterior leg &
sole of feet

Anterior and
lateral leg, and
dorsal (top) part
of foot

BRAIN
BRAINSTEM
Connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the brain.
Consists of medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
Most inferior portion of brainstem & is continuous with the spinal cord.
Extends from the level of foramen magnum to the pons.
Functions such as regulation of heart rate and blood vessel diameter, breathing,
swallowing, vomting, coughing, sneezing, balance & coordination.
PONS
Superior to medulla oblongata
Relay information between cerebellum and cerebrum
Functions such as breathing, swallowing and balance are controlled in the lower pons,
as well as in the medulla oblongata.
Other nuclei in pons functions such as chewing and salivation.
MIDBRAIN

Just superior to the pons

Smallest region of brainstem
Dorsal part of the midbrain consists of four mounds called the colliculi.
2 inferior colliculi are major relay centers for the auditory nerve pathways in the CNS.
2 other involved in visual reflexes.
With substantia nigra regulation of body movements

RETICULAR FORMATION
Scattered throughout the brainstem of group of nuclei
Plays important regulatory functions in the brain
Regulates cyclical motor functions: respiration, chewing, walking
RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM arousing and maintaining consciousness and in
regulating the sleep-wake cycle.
Damage to cells of the reticular formation can result in coma.

CEREBELLUM
Little brain
Cerebellar peduncles provide routes of communication between the cerebellum and
other parts of the CNS.
Coordination of muscular contraction maintenance of balance
DIENCEPHALON
Between brainstem and cerebrum
Main components: thalamus, epithalamus, hypothalamus
1. THALAMUS
Largest part of diencephalon
consists