Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Proceedings of the
56th Reciprocal
Meat Conference
JUNE 15-18, 2003
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI
RMC 2003
Proceedings of the
56th Reciprocal
Meat Conference
JUNE 15-18, 2003
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI
2002-2003
American Meat Science Association
Board of Directors
OFFICERS
DIRECTORS
President
Joseph G. Sebranek
Iowa State University
Elizabeth A. E. Boyle
Kansas State University
President Elect
Craig D. Bacon
Tyson Foods
Past President
Jeff W. Savell
Texas A&M University
Secretary Treasurer
C. Ann Hollingsworth
Better Built Foods
Casey Frye
Burke Corporation
RMC Chair
Dan S. Hale
Texas A&M University
D. Dwain Johnson
University of Florida
Collette M. Schultz Kaster
Premium Standard Farms
Wesley N. Osburn
Michigan State University
EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
Thomas H. Powell
American Meat Science Association
Achievement Award
E. J. Huff-Lonergan
S. Barbut
D. H. Beermann
D. C. Beitz
K. L. Kotula
W.G. Moody
Archives/Historical
D. H. Kropf
T. R. Dockerty
K. J. Fromme
C. L. Knipe
Auditing
C. L. Kastner
W. R. Henning
M. L. Kreul
T. J. Rourke
Budget
C. A. Hollingsworth
R. J. Delmore
D. J. Meisinger
L. C. Faustman
ii
Continuing Education
D. B. Griffin
E. P. Berg
D. E. Burson
C. R. Calkins
J. G. Gentry
N. G. Marriott
D. M. Wulf
Educational Materials
M. L. Rossman
P. T. Berg
J. C. Forrest
R. M. Harp
J. M. Hochstetler
J. M. Leheska
L. E. Mease
R. A. Nold
A. E. Reynolds
Emeritus Membership
D. M. Allen
J. A. Boles
Z. L. Carpenter
T. R. Dockerty
L. E. Orme
R. Steiner
Foundation Trustees
R. B. Sleeth
L. L. Borchert
J. J. Harris
H. K. Johnson
C. L. Kastner
D. J. Meisinger
W. G. Moody
Intercollegiate Meat
Coaches Executive Board
H. G. Dolezal, President
C. D. Alexander
T. R. Carr
K. B. Bullock
R. C. Hines
W. B. Mikel
J. B. Morgan
International Award
W. R. Usborne
J. C. Acton
H. R. Cross
E. Puolanne
M. H. Stromer
G. K. Williams
J. B. Wilson
International
J. W. Cravens
R. P. Clayton
D. J. Hanson
E. J. Huff-Lonergan
W. R. Lloyd
M. K. McMindes
T. H. Montgomery
E. Puolanne
K. K. Scheller
D. L. Seman
W. R. Usborne
Newsletter
M. L. Scaggs
B. Booren
C. Grimes
M. Hardin
R. J. Maddock
K. W. McMillin
W. B. Mikel
C. Quinlan
M. Sutton-Vermeulen
J. W. Wise
Nominations
J. W. Savell
J. C. Acton
H. R. Cross
L. W. Hand
R. A. Hendricks
K. Mastracchio
L. R. Miller
Parliamentary
G. Schmidt
D. W. Henderson
T. D. Schnell
Professional Membership
T. H. Montgomery
E. Boyd
R. G. Cassens
D. L. Engeljohn
L. E. Jeremiah
S. L. Martin
E. S. Troutt
RMC Program
D. S. Hale
D. R. Buege
C. M. Calhoun
S. J. Eilert
L. C. Faustman
M. Koohmaraie
C. L. Lorenzen
E. L. Rubendall
J. N. Sofos
T. L. Wheeler
Y. L. Xiong
H. N. Zerby
Recognition
H. K. Johnson
D. M. Allen
S. G. Campano
T. R. Carr
J. T. Keeton
R. W. Mandigo
Research Award
M. B. Solomon
S. K. Beals
D. R. Campion
M. C. Cassens
T. A. Houser
E. J. Huff-Lonergan
D. K. Larick
R. M. Robson
Research Protocol
C. L. Lorenzen
S. K. Beals
A. M. Booren
J. E. Cannon
D. E. Carpenter
E. A. Decker
J. S. Dickson
M. E. Doumit
J. R. Stouffer
Scientific Information
K. E. Belk
M. J. De La Zerda
L. R. Graves Delmore
S. K. Duckett
T. Hively
J. H. Hodges
M. C. Hunt
A. King
W. F. Pinkerton
A. E. Rasor
J. M. Regenstein
R. R. Timm
N. C. Tipton
A. T. Waylan
Student Board
J. Leheska
J. M. Behrends
T. A. Houser
C. Quinlan
J. R. Ransom
J. Stephens
A. T. Waylan
Student Membership
C. L. Knipe
G. A. Barkocy-Gallagher
R. J. Delmore
R. L. Dickson
R. A. Hendricks
R. C. Person
D. L. Seman
G. G. Hilton
C. L. Armstrong
P. K. Bates
J. M. Behrends
M. A. Carr
B. Covington
A. King
D. McKenna
Special Appointments
Sustaining Membership
M. S. Franzreb
P. W. Hall
R. D. Huffman
K. L. Kotula
M. T. Lesiak
Teaching Award
S. J. Jones
E. P. Berg
J. C. Brooks
L. C. Faustman
R. M. Harp
M. C. Hunt
N. G. Marriott
F. K. Ray
Web Site
S. J. Jones
S. J. Boleman
J. R. Claus
M. J. De La Zerda
C. Jolley
J. Sindelar
iii
iv
Officers of the
American Meat Science Association
PRESIDENT
PRESIDENT-ELECT
SECRETARY-TREASURER
W. C. Sherman, National Live Stock and Meat Board....................................................................... 1965-1975
H. K. Johnson, National Live Stock and Meat Board/National Cattlemens Beef Association ............ 1975-1996
D. J. Meisinger, National Pork Producers Council/National Pork Board............................................ 1996-2002
C. A. Hollingsworth, Better Built Foods ............................................................................................ 2002-
Proceedings of the
56th Reciprocal Meat Conference
Table of Contents
2002-2003 American Meat Science Association Board of Directors .............................................................................i
2003 Committees of the American Meat Science Association......................................................................................ii
American Meat Science Association Conference Chairs .............................................................................................iv
Officers of the American Meat Science Association.....................................................................................................v
Proceedings of the 56th Reciprocal Meat Conference Table of Contents .....................................................................vi
GENERAL SESSION I
Preparing Undergraduate and Graduate Students to Meet Meat Industry Career Challenges, G. Smith ........................1
GENERAL SESSION II
MEAT QUALITY
Biological Basis for Pale, Soft and Exudative Pork, M. Doumit*, C. Allison, E. Helman, N. Berry and M. Ritter ...........9
Genetic Basis for Pale, Soft and Exudative Turkey Meat, G. Strasburg*, and W. Chiang ............................................17
Pork Quality: Current and Future Needs of Industry and Academia, E. Huff-Lonergan, J. Melody*, R. Klont, and
A. Sosnicki .................................................................................................................................................................23
SENSORY EVALUATION
FOOD SAFETY
Current Issues Related to Meatborne Pathogenic Bacteria, J. Sofos*, P. Skandamis, J. Stopforth, and T. Bacon ..........33
Postharvest Pathogen Interventions for Meat and Poultry, F. Pohlman*, and K. McElyea ...........................................39
RECIPROCATION SESSIONS
Livestock and Poultry Care and Welfare, J. Swanson .................................................................................................49
Pork Muscle Profiling, D. Buege*, J. Sebranek, M. Doumit, D. Marple, D. Ahn, E. Huff-Lonergan, S. Lonergan, C.
Fedler, K. Prusa, E. Helman, and D. Meisinger......................................................................................................51
Cow Muscle Profiling, C. Calkins*, D. Johnson, and B. Gwartney .............................................................................53
Beef Muscle Profiling Research, D. Johnson*, K. Johnson*, C. Calkins, and B. Gwartney ..........................................55
Soy Protein Ingredient Technology, L. Hand..............................................................................................................57
Computer Assisted Meat Science Education, S. Jones, V. Singh, and B. Franklin ........................................................59
More Than Words, Tips on Professional Speaking, B. Morgan ...................................................................................63
So You Want to Go to Graduate School: What to Consider, S. Lonergan*, J. Leheska, and D. McKenna ...................65
The Facts About Beef Cattle Growth Enhancement Technology, J.Lauderdale ...........................................................67
The National Pork Quality Benchmarking Study, D. Meisinger..................................................................................71
Enhancing Meat Color Stability, D. Kropf ..................................................................................................................73
Carcinogens Formed When Meat is Cooked, J. Felton*, C. Salmon, M. Knize............................................................77
vi
INGREDIENT TECHNOLOGY
Microbial Problems, Causes, and Solutions in Meat and Poultry Processing Operations, H. Brown.......................... 89
Natural Antioxidants Review, J. Haworth.................................................................................................................. 95
TEACHING
Teaching Strategies for Preparing Students for the Meat Industry, M. Miller .............................................................. 99
Teaching Strategies for Preparing Students for the Meat Industry, T. Carr ................................................................ 103
POSTER ABSTRACTS
vii
debate.
My take on what Dean J.R. Weir was saying suggests this:
Is that not the essence of the teaching/learning process
Put em in a room, buy em a book and get em pencils
and paper; what follows will astound youbut it will
come at a price and one we can ill affordit takes too long
and the targets are too obscure. And, so, in our wisdom, we
seek more highly structured thinking and communication
and we sacrifice the opportunity to allow the students to
learn to lead.
It was from such thoughts, and fromby that time28
years of university teaching experience, that I concluded
(Smith, 1989) that To meet employer expectations, to
compete in the workplace and to be perceived as an educated person, the animal science graduate must be able:
(a) to think critically,
(b) to communicate effectively, and
(c) to lead.
By 2001, andby that time40 years of experience as a
teacher of meat, animal and food sciences at three landgrant universities, I expanded my list of skills expected of
graduates (Smith, 2001) to include:
(a) thinking critically,
(b) comparing logically,
(c) deciding independently,
(d) solving problems rationally,
(e) communicating effectively, and
(f)
leading decisively.
Conclusion
Knowledge, Yes, But Other Things Too.
Albert Einstein said (Gallagher, 2003) A person who devotes all his strength to objective matters will develop into
an extreme individualist who, at least in principle, has faith
in nothing but his own judgment. A.W. Griswold said,
(Campbell, 1972) What is a college education? A college
education is not a quantitative body of memorized knowledgesalted away in a card file. It is a taste for knowledge,
a taste for philosophy, if you willa capacity to explore, to
question, to perceive relationships between fields of knowledge and experience.
References
American Meat Science Association. 2001. Meat Evaluation: Introduction.
pp. 6-8. In: Meat Evaluation Handbook. Copyright 2001; ISBN: 09704378-0-3. AMSA, Savoy, IL.
Campbell, John. 1972. In Touch With StudentsA Philosophy For Teachers. page 63. Copyright 1972; ISBN 0-9600470-1-8. Kelly Press, Inc.
Columbia, MO.
Gallagher, R. 2003. So, you think youre a scientist? The Scientist (April 21
Issue). page 18.
Gerber, Robin. 2003. Team sports create leaders. USA Today (February 26
Issue). page 13A.
Smith, G.C. 1989. Developing critical thinking, communication skills and
leadership in animal science students. pp. 1-6. Presented in a Teaching
Symposium at the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Animal
Sciences (Lexington, KY). Mimeograph Report, Department of Animal
Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX.
Smith, G.C. 2001. Preparing animal science graduates to think critically,
compare logically, decide independently, solve problems rationally,
communicate effectively and lead decisively. pp. 1-8. Presented at the
AMSA Meat Coaches & Administrators Lunch, Reciprocal Meat Conference of the American Meat Science Association (Indianapolis, IN).
Mimeograph Report, Department of Animal Sciences, Colorado State
University, Fort Collins, CO.
Challenges
One of the major challenges facing us at that time was
the lack of applied research information that is critical to
the support of any viable extension program. Remember
that in the early 1950s Meat Science, as a distinct discipline, was in its infancy. Most of the research was centered
Robert E. Rust
Iowa State University
118 East 16th Street
Ames, IA 50010
rrust@iastate.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 5-8)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org
Industry Activities
Industry was working hard to fill the information gap.
Perhaps one of the most notable programs was the oneweek short course offered by the Films Packaging Division
of the Union Carbide Corporation (now Viskase) under the
able leadership of Warren Tauber. This proved to be an
excellent program to emulate.
The American Meat Institute offered a series of correspondence courses for industry. After revising the text for
the course on Sausage and Processed Meats Manufacturing,
I convinced them to use this text as the basis for a series of
two and one-half day seminars to be presented at various
venues throughout the country. These were a lecture format
using a mix of speakers from industry and academia. These
proved to be popular with the meat industry and usually
played to capacity audiences. Eventually, Iowa State inherited these courses from AMI as they directed their activities
elsewhere.
The one drawback to a lecture type program is the restriction on audience participation. If the audience comes
largely from production operations, these people are not
used to sitting for prolonged periods taking notes. Some
form of hands on activity is far more appealing.
Industry Cooperation
Industry cooperation in our extension programs has
proven to be essential. Many of the activities that we included in our short courses could not have happened without the help of the supplier industry and the participation of
experts from the supplier and the meat processing industry
itself. The early development of Iowa States one-week short
course (now in its 25th year) was helped tremendously by
participation in planning and program development from
people like Hans Schneider of Teepak and consultants like
Erwin Waters and Bill Shannon. The danger in using persons from the supplier industry is one of commercialization
of the program. Nothing can destroy the credibility of a
program, as well as the credibility of the speaker and the
company he/she represents, faster than overt commercialization. This has come through loud and clear when participants turned in their evaluations of the program. Needless
to say, it did not take long to uninvite an industry speaker
who used this as an opportunity to commercialize. Fortunately we have a number of industry representatives who
are thoroughly professional and objective in their approach.
I wont mention them by name here for fear of omitting
someone.
Perhaps one of the prime examples of industry cooperation was the relationship we established that aided in the
development of a Spanish language version of our Sausage
and Processed Meats Short Course. Early on we began to
have a number of Latin American visitors to our regular
summer short course. Some of these even went to the extent
of bringing their own translator along. With this evident
need for a course in Spanish, we made a try at organizing
one. Attempting to market this course was a failure and we
abandoned the idea. We just did not have the contacts in
the Latin American market to secure the required minimum
audience.
Then, along came the late Dr. Abraham Saloma of Protein Technologies International, now Solae, who agreed to
cooperate with us in conducting the course. The result was
successful and this cooperation continues on a more or less
6
annual basis to this day. I should add here that Dr. Saloma
was one of the chief proponents of the AMSA International
Award. I remember talking to him about the award, never
dreaming at the time that I would one day be the recipient.
Translation
Working with technical programs in another language
presents its own set of challenges. There is always the problem of finding translators who are familiar with the technology. Good translators in the Meat Science area are few and
far between. There is an amusing story that goes with this.
For several years we hosted a group from the Czech Republic and Slovakia as part of a US-AID program. The best
translator that we found turned out to be a vegetarian!
We can often find technically competent translators who
can handle alternate translation but finding those that can
handle simultaneous translation is another story. Simultaneous translation is an art in itself. A word or two of caution
when using translators: never trust one that does not keep a
note pad handy. This is how important facts can be lost in
translation. Also, it is always helpful if there is someone in
the audience that knows both languages and can alert you if
the translator goes off course. I have been in a situation
where the translator, who was knowledgeable in the technical area, began to editorialize.
If you have the equipment and the facilities, I would
much rather work with simultaneous translation. It doubles
the amount of material you can cover. The effectiveness of
simultaneous translation is reduced however, when it involves a hands-on demonstration. It does take a good deal
of coordination between presenter and translator. I like to
spend some time with the translator going over the details
of a presentation, particularly if a demonstration is involved.
Demonstrations
As much as I like hands-on demonstrations as a teaching
tool and as much as I enjoy doing them, I try to stay away
from them unless I am thoroughly familiar with the venue. I
have been burned too many times when I was assured that
the facilities were complete and fully operational only to
find, on the day of the program, that half of the stuffer parts
were missing or that nobody in the organization had the
faintest idea how the equipment went together. This even
happened in a well-known meat research institute! After too
many of these fiascoes, I insist on having a day prior to a
demonstration type program for a dress rehearsal.
This same philosophy also applies to visual aids. I recall
one instance where a colleague of mine and I were assured
that PowerPoint projection equipment would be available.
It was available all right but in one program the projector
wasnt compatible with the computer, in the next the projector would not function at all and in a third we were
greeted with We thought that you were bringing the projector. Fortunately, we had our overhead transparencies as
a backup, something I wont leave home without. Relying
on one medium for presentation is always a risky business.
One of the things that I have tried to avoid is a meat cutting demonstration. Generally the cutting pattern used in
another country really does not match ours although it
seems to adequately satisfy the local market. In fact, in
many cases, I have found that cutting systems in use in
some other countries make more sense than some of ours.
Too often the audience gets caught up in technique and, as
a result, loses the message that you are trying to convey. I
recall the days when representatives from the National Livestock and Meat Board would cut up a beef or hog carcass
while wearing a tuxedo and never even got their shirt cuffs
dirty. It wowed the audience but did it really convey any
critical technology?
Safety v. Technology
This is an interesting challenge that is facing us with the
ever-increasing demand for food safety and HACCP related
programs. I have talked with many of my former colleagues
and find that they are devoting the larger share of extension
time and effort toward supporting their clienteles needs in
developing and maintaining a viable HACCP program. I
would hope that we, meaning Extension, would not abandon the area of processing technology. If we do, someone
will fill that void, most likely the supplier industry. While
many members of the supplier industry can do an excellent
job, lets face it. They do have a vested interest and it would
be a shame if we deprived the processors of a truly
independent source of information. I hope that we will
continue to maintain good processing technology as one of
our objectives.
Selling a Program
The idea that, If you build it they will come, may have
worked in the movie Field of Dreams but my experience
is that it doesnt work in extension programs. A former
professor of mine that taught adult education, used to say
that there is no felt need for continuing education. The
need or interest must be driven by some outside force such
as economics, the need to comply with regulations, etc. It is
important to be cognizant of these driving forces and to
capitalize on them when promoting a program. A lot of
good programs have died because they were not properly
promoted to the potential audience.
Professionalism
Given my age, experience, white hair and the fact that I
am more than 50 miles away from home, I consider this a
license to philosophize. More and more we find ourselves
caught between the scientific truths and a position that is
politically correct. With our muckraking friends in the
popular news media stirring the spark of a smoldering
breach in meat safety into a full-scale conflagration, someone has to stand for the scientific truth. I have been stuck in
that position many times. It ranged from the trivial like
should we base the ultimate superiority of a meat animal on
performance and carcass value or the opinion of some guru
MEAT QUALITY
Figure 1. Multihormonal Control of the Stress Response. Hypothalamic stimulation results in the release of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), vasopressin (V) and vasoactive intestinal peptide. Each of
these factors induces the anterior pituitary to release adrenocorticotropin (ACTH). ACTH stimulates the synthesis of glucocorticoids in
the adrenal cortex. Glucocorticoids can have a stimulatory effect on
the adrenal medulla and result in the synthesis of epinephrine. Glucocorticoids can also act directly on the anterior pituitary to inhibit
ACTH mRNA formation or inhibit ACTH release. The secretion of
epinephrine can have inhibitory effects on the hypothalamus. Additionally, epinephrine and norepinephrine can stimulate the anterior
pituitary to release ACTH. Somatostatin (SRIF) has been shown to
block the ACTH releasing ability of the anterior pituitary. (adapted
from Axelrod and Reisine, 1984)
phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase, which is ratelimiting in epinephrine synthesis from norepinephrine (reviewed by Wurtman, 2002). In turn, epinephrine stimulates
glycogenolysis and is more potent than norepinephrine in
raising body temperature and increasing heart rate and cardiac output. Chronic increases in epinephrine may be expected to reduce adrenomedullary norepinephrine secretion. However, this may be compensated for by the stressinduced increase in the quantity of norepinephrine released
from sympathetic nerve terminals, which may actually increase plasma norepinephrine and subsequently increase
peripheral resistance and raise blood pressure (Wurtman,
2002). Collectively, the release of these hormones serves to
adapt the body to stressors ranging from mildly psychological to intensely physical by affecting cardiovascular, energy
producing, and immune systems (Axelrod and Reisine,
1984). Antemortem activation of the HPA axis and the
plethora of related catabolic biochemical events also increase heat production and the likelihood of producing PSE
pork (Schaefer et al., 2001).
10
activated protein kinase (AMPK; Milan et al., 2000). Activated AMPK turns on ATP-producing pathways, inhibits
ATP-consuming pathways, and can inactivate glycogen
synthase (Hardie et al., 1998). The RN- allele results from
an R200Q substitution in AMPK. This modification has little
effect on early postmortem pH values, but the inferior color
and water-holding capacity of RN- pork are associated with
lower 24-hour pH values. The reduced water-holding capacity of pork with low ultimate pH has been attributed to a
reduced net protein charge that decreases repulsion between myofilaments (Hamm, 1994), as well as a more pronounced denaturation of myosin tails and sarcoplasmic
proteins (Deng et al., 2002). Conversely, Ciobanu et al.
(2001) reported the presence of important alleles of the
gene encoding AMPK that are associated with low glycogen
content and improved pork quality. These findings demonstrate that additional alleles of genes involved in major
mutations may be important contributors to pork quality.
(Rasmussen et al., 1996). These authors speculated that exoNADH oxidase activity might help sustain accelerated glycolysis by re-oxidizing the cytosolic NADH as an alternative to NADH shuttle activity. This process would be expected to result in production of heat, but not ATP. Whether
or not differences in exo-NADH oxidase contribute to variation in heat production and pork quality in muscle of normal pigs is currently unknown.
Poulanne et al. (2002) indicated that heat production accounts for 69% of the energy produced during the splitting
of ATP to yield ADP and Pi. Thus, the activity of the myosin
and/or calcium ATPases (Figure 2) during the antemortem
and early postmortem periods are likely to play an important role in determining pork quality due to the heat production and glycolytic stimulation associated with ATP
utilization. Although myosin ATPase activity is associated
with specific myosin heavy chain (MyHC) isoforms, the
relationships between MyHC isoforms and pork loin drip
loss or color are generally low (Eggert et al., 2002; HuffLonergan et al., 2002; Ritter, 2002). Our attempts to explain
harvest day effects on pork loin fluid loss revealed that a
lower proportion of type IIA MyHC and a higher proportion
of type IIB and/or IIX MyHC appear to contribute to accelerated pH decline and increased fluid loss when less favorable antemortem or early postmortem conditions are encountered (Ritter, 2002).
Relatively low pH combined with high muscle temperature during the early postmortem period causes denaturation and reduced solubility of sarcoplasmic proteins (Sayre
and Briskey, 1963; Scopes, 1964; Joo et al., 1999) and myosin (Offer, 1991; Warner et al., 1997). Pale color and reduced water-holding capacity associated with PSE pork
have been primarily attributed to denaturation of sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar proteins, respectively (Joo et al.,
1999). However, Wilson and van Laack (1999) demonstrated that when myofibrils from either PSE or normal pork
were combined with sarcoplasmic extract from PSE meat,
the water-holding capacity of the myofibrils was lower than
when combined with extract from normal pork. These authors concluded that sarcoplasmic proteins also influence
water-holding capacity, through as yet undefined mechanisms. One possibility is that denatured sarcoplasmic proteins adsorb onto the surface of myofibrils, thereby shielding the charged groups available for fluid binding (Bendall
and Wismer-Pedersen, 1962; Boles et al., 1992). Additional
research is required to elucidate the mechanisms whereby
sarcoplasmic proteins may influence water-holding capacity
of meat.
Since the rate and extent of hydrogen ion accumulation
have profound effects on pork quality, and hydrogen ion
accumulation results from anaerobic glycolysis, regulation
of glycogenolysis and glycolysis are important aspects of
pork quality development. Muscle glycogen stores at the
time of slaughter have long been recognized to influence
meat quality (Briskey et al., 1966).
12
been considered to catalyze rate-determining steps of glycogenolysis and glycolysis in skeletal muscle, since the reactions are far from equilibrium and reactions catalyzed by
PFK and PK also proceed with a large decrease in free energy.
Phosphofructokinase has been regarded as the primary
regulatory enzyme of glycolysis. It was on this premise that
Sayre et al. (1963) investigated PFK activity in porcine muscle extracts. These authors determined that in vitro PFK and
phosphorylase activities were not associated with the rate of
pH decline in longissimus muscle of Hampshire, Poland
China and Chester White pigs. Surprisingly, Allison et al.
(2003) found that maximal in vitro PFK activity extracted
from longissimus samples obtained at 20 minutes postmortem was inversely correlated with loin chop fluid loss. This
observation may reflect early postmortem inactivation of the
acid labile PFK enzyme in muscle undergoing rapid glycolysis.
Schwgele et al. (1996) demonstrated that muscle from
halothane-sensitive pigs had four times more total PK activity than control pigs. Additionally, PK isolated from muscle
of halothane-sensitive pigs lost only 30% of its activity
when assayed at pH 5.5 rather than pH 7.0. In contrast, PK
from control pig muscle lost >90% of its activity when assayed at pH 5.5. The higher activity and pH stability of PK
from muscle of halothane-sensitive pigs were attributed to
the presence of a more highly phosphorylated enzyme
(Schwgele et al., 1996). These enzyme properties may allow continued rapid accumulation of lactate and hydrogen
ions in PSE muscle under conditions that would result in
slow glycolysis in muscle producing higher quality pork.
We recently reported that differences in PK capacity do not
explain variation in color and water-holding capacity of
pork loin muscle from HAL-1843-negative pigs (Allison et
al., 2003). Additionally, when we measured PK activity at
pH 5.5, we observed a loss of >88% activity in all loin
muscle samples at this pH compared to activity measured at
pH 7.0. Thus, factors that contribute to the PSE condition of
pork from halothane-sensitive pigs may not be broadly applicable to pigs that do not possess the HAL-1843 polymorphism.
Xu et al. (1995) suggested that ATP may be functionally
compartmentalized in both skeletal and cardiac muscle
cells. These authors demonstrated that the entire chain of
glycolytic enzymes from aldolase onward are bound to SR
membranes from cardiac and skeletal muscle. Additionally,
immunogold labeling of ultrathin sections revealed that
pyruvate kinase was located on SR vesicles immediately
adjacent to the calcium ATPase (Xu and Becker, 1998). Aldolase and glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase were
also found in close proximity to the calcium ATPase (Xu
and Becker, 1998). ATP produced via SR associated glycolytic enzymes was shown to be preferentially used to fuel
the calcium ATPase ion pump, suggesting that this ATP is
transferred to the calcium pump in a protected microenvironment and is functionally coupled to calcium transport
(Xu et al., 1995). How (or if) the functional coupling of gly56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference
colytic enzymes to the major sites of energy utilization (myosin ATPase and calcium ATPase) affects pork quality is
currently unknown. However, this coupling may influence
glycolytic rate, ultimate enzyme location and the degree of
denaturation of sarcoplasmic proteins, which, in turn, may
influence the color (Joo et al., 1999) and water-holding capacity of pork (Wilson and van Laack, 1999).
Postmortem muscle glycolysis is frequently monitored by
measuring pH at specified times. This measurement undoubtedly reflects the pH of tissue, as opposed to that of
individual muscle fibers, and may not accurately reflect the
nature of postmortem glycolysis in individual muscle fibers.
Oscillatory behavior of the glycolytic pathway has been
well documented (reviewed by Smolen, 1995; Tornheim,
1979). In cell-free extracts of skeletal muscle, glycolytic
oscillations are generated by repeated bursts of PFK activity.
When the [ATP]/[ADP] ratio decreases to a trigger level, this
initiates a sudden increase, or burst, in glycolytic flux that
restores a high [ATP]/[ADP] ratio. In postmortem tissue,
glycolytic bursts may also result in rapid and localized
acidification, which could exacerbate protein denaturation.
Using a protocol adapted from Tornheim et al. (1991), we
have observed oscillatory behavior of glycolysis in
sarcoplasmic protein extracts from porcine longissimus
muscle (unpublished observations). The potential
contribution of these oscillations to the development of PSE
pork warrants further investigation.
Conclusions
The complexity of the PSE pork problem is highlighted by
the fact that removal of genetic polymorphisms known to be
associated with a higher incidence of PSE pork has not reduced the incidence of the problem. Providing biological
explanations for conditions that result in production of PSE
pork is essential for development of new strategies to improve the quality and consistency of pork. Calcium ions
play a key role in regulating skeletal muscle metabolism
and function, and much remains to be resolved regarding
the regulation of calcium signaling. Additional information
is also required to identify factors that contribute to rapid
postmortem glycolysis. A detailed understanding of factors
that regulate postmortem glycolysis in porcine skeletal muscle will improve efforts to control the rate of muscle pH
decline, and reduce the incidence of PSE pork.
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15
16
MEAT QUALITY
DHPR
RYR
Ca2+
cytoplasm
Ca2+
Ca2+ Ca2+
Sarcoplasmic
Reticulum
Ca2+
Ca2+
Ca2+
t-tubule
Ca2+
Ca2+
Ca2+ Pump
RYR
Figure 2. Schematic Diagram of E-C Coupling in Avian Skeletal Muscle. During E-C coupling, depolarization of the t-tubule triggers Ca2+release via the RYRs (blue), which are physically coupled to the
voltage-sensing DHPR (red). The local increase in Ca2+ concentration
results in Ca2+-induced-Ca2+-release from RYRs (white), which are
located at the periphery of the t-tubule/SR junction. Ca2+ is resequestered during relaxation by the Ca2+ pump (yellow).
20
Kd
16 2 nMa
8 1 nMb
19 2 nMa
Conclusions
The genetic basis for PSE turkey meat is still not clear, but
advances in our understanding of ryanodine receptor activity and variation make it likely that one or more mutations
in turkey skeletal muscle RYR predispose birds to the development of PSE. Mutations could exist in either the RYR or
RYR isoform or in both isoforms. Here we have presented
evidence of genetic differences in both isoforms, which
might be related to the occurrence of PSE turkey. Future
research will focus on the correlation of the genotypes of
turkey with their phenotypes including meat quality traits.
The ultimate goal of our research is to provide reliable genetic tests for breeding stock that will yield optimal quality
turkey meat.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
Dr. Todd Byrem, Dr. Al Booren, Dr. John Linz, Dr. Li-Ju
Wang, Dr. Kevin Roberson, Ms. Haiyan Zhang, Mr. Chuck
Allison and Mr. Mike Maile to the work reported here. This
work was supported by the USDA National Research Initiative, the Michigan Animal Industry Coalition, and the
Michigan Agriculture Experiment Station.
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21
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MEAT QUALITY
vided.
23
26
Implementation
Below we listed conceivable steps that the pork industry
should consider to guarantee that pork has a fresh appearing reddish-pinkish color, is high in water holding capacity,
and it is consistently tender and juicy.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Procedures should be put in place to electronically identify and evaluate individual groups of
pigs slaughtered for carcass weight, leanness,
and quality;
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29
30
SENSORY EVALUATION
31
one of the meats because they dont like the gravy with that
meat.
Identifying the optimum formulation and optimum process is only part of creating a successful product. Packaging
also plays a key role in marketing to the consumer, and in a
products success. By testing the product with the package
with the consumer, you can determine if you have the optimum packaging. Packaging tests can be done through
Central Location tests (CLTs), Home-Use tests, focus groups
or observational research, depending on what it is you want
to know about the packaging. Not only does the package
convey the perception of quality and food safety, it also
offers consumer convenience through easy open features or
cook and serve features. Observing your target consumers
interacting with the package and product can offer valuable
insight into how effective the easy open features are to
use. These observations can also offer valuable insight into
how they prepare and eat the products.
Prior to launching a new product, the shelf life must be
determined. Sensory shelf life can be determined using
trained assessors, consumer panelists, or a combination of
both. Trained assessors will be able to detect subtle changes
in the sensory attributes that untrained, consumer assessors
may not be able to detect and would therefore be the most
sensitive tool in protecting product quality. As these
changes become more pronounced, the products will need
to be assessed by consumers to understand the point at
which these changes result in a significant drop in acceptability.
After the product is launched and is on shelf, the product
maintenance phase of the product life cycle begins. In the
product maintenance phase, the goal is to gain or sustain a
competitive edge. Brand maintenance objectives include
ingredient substitutions and formulation/process/package
changes. These changes can be for product improvement or
cost reduction initiatives.
The specific test method and test parameters are determined by the test objectives. Key points to consider when
deciding what and how to test include:
Should you be testing among your heavy users or the
general population? Testing among heavy users is
much more sensitive than testing among the general
population, which would be preferable in a costreduction test. However, product improvements and
32
References
Gacula, M.; Singh, J. 1984. Statistical Methods in Food and Consumer
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Lawless, H.T.; Heymann, H. 1998. Sensory Evaluation of Food: Principles
and
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Chapman
&
Hall,
New
York,
NY.
FOOD SAFETY
Food animals may be infected, contaminated or be asymptomatic carriers of pathogenic microorganisms and together with the environment they serve as sources of contamination for carcasses during the slaughtering process and
for meat products during processing, storage and handling,
or for water and other foods through contaminated manure
(Sofos, 2002a). Foodborne microbial hazards have a devastating impact on human suffering because they are estimated to cause approximately 76 million cases of illness,
325,000 hospitalizations, and 5,000 deaths in the United
States each year (Mead et al., 1999). It is estimated that bacterial agents are responsible for only 30% of the total foodborne illnesses; however, 72% of total deaths are due to
consumption of foods contaminated with bacteria (Mead et
al., 1999). The United States National Health Objectives for
2010 aim at reducing the incidence of illness caused mainly
by four foodborne pathogens, namely Campylobacter, Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes, to 12.3, 6.8, 1.0, and 0.25 cases per 100,000 population, respectively (DHHS, 2000). According to the latest
(2002) surveillance data (CDC, 2003), Salmonella are responsible for causing the highest total number of cases of
gastrointestinal illness among bacteria; however, despite the
high incidence of illness, the case-fatality rate is <0.05%.
Campylobacter is responsible for the second highest total
number of gastrointestinal illnesses and like Salmonella, it
has a case-fatality rate of <0.05% (CDC, 2003). Although E.
coli O157:H7 has a much lower rate of incidence compared to Salmonella and Campylobacter, this organism has
a higher case-fatality rate (0.1%). Compared to the abovementioned pathogens, L. monocytogenes has the lowest rate
of incidence but a significantly higher (approximately 20%)
fatality rate (Mead et al., 1999). Thus, there is a need to
control pathogenic microorganisms in animals and their
J.N. Sofos
Department of Animal Sciences, Room 7B
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1171 USA
E-mail: John.Sofos@colostate.edu
th
The following sections provide brief information on general characteristics of the bacterial pathogens of most concern in recent years (Bacon and Sofos, 2003), brief summaries of current research activities and interventions to control bacterial pathogens in meat products, and an introduction to certain concerns associated with efforts to control
pathogens.
33
of diarrheal illness (Bacon and Sofos, 2003). Strains producing Shiga-like toxins (SLT), also known as verotoxins (VT),
are associated with hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome in humans and are regarded as enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC). The predominant EHEC serotype associated with foodborne illness is E. coli O157:H7. Escherichia coli O157:H7 are gram-negative, facultatively
anaerobic, nonspore-forming rods that are mostly motile,
and grow at temperatures ranging from 7 to 46C, with an
optimum between 35 and 40C. Escherichia coli O157:H7
require a water activity (aw) of at least 0.95 and are able to
grow in the presence of 6.5% sodium chloride. Although
they grow best at pH 6.0 to 7.0, they can also grow at pH
4.4 to 9.0 and, unlike most foodborne pathogenic bacteria,
they are tolerant to acidic environments. Illness associated
with E. coli O157:H7 results through fecal-oral transmission
by contaminated hands or consumption of contaminated
foods or water. Between 1993 and 1998, most (72%) of the
E. coli O157:H7 outbreaks were foodborne and of the foods
implicated in the outbreaks, beef was responsible for 45%
of the cases and 90% of the time the beef product was
ground. Following ingestion (>101 cells) and a 3 to 9 day
incubation period, E. coli O157:H7, can cause a wide range
of symptoms including mild or severe bloody diarrhea
(hemorrhagic colitis), hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS)
and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) (Bacon
and Sofos, 2003).
Listeria monocytogenes: They are nonspore-forming,
aerobic, microaerophilic or facultatively anaerobic, grampositive rods that are motile by means of peritrichous flagella (Bacon and Sofos, 2003). This organism is ubiquitous
in the environment and is harbored in approximately 11 to
52% of animals. Listeria monocytogenes has become a concern to the industry as it has been isolated from an extensive range of meat plant environments including floors,
drains, condensed and standing water, and food residues on
processing equipment. It is notable that L. monocytogenes
forms resistant biofilms on equipment surfaces under conditions of limited nutrient availability. Listeria monocytogenes
have also been isolated from <1-70% of whole and processed red meats, up to 60% of ready-to-eat poultry and 80
to 90% of raw or processed poultry. Listeria monocytogenes
is psychrotrophic and can grow at temperatures as low as
0.4C and up to 45C (optimum of 30 to 37C). Growth of
L. monocytogenes occurs in environments of pH 4.4 to 9.4,
at aw levels above 0.92, and survives at sodium chloride
levels of up to 30%. Listeriosis is mainly an infection of the
central nervous system (meningitis and meningoencephalitis), bacteremia and resulting in stillbirth, fetal death or
spontaneous abortion in pregnant woman. The infectious
dose of listeriosis is speculated to be as low as 100 cells/g,
and the illness has an incubation period of a few days to 2
to 3 months (Bacon and Sofos, 2003).
Salmonella: They are gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, nonspore-forming rods. The only two species recognized are S. enterica, possessing six subspecies, and S.
bongori. There are approximately 2,600 Salmonella sero34
35
36
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pp. 155-193.
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G. C. 2000. Microbial populations on animal hides and beef carcasses
at different stages of slaughter in plants employing multiple-sequential
interventions for decontamination. Journal of Food Protection 63:10801086.
Bacon, T.R.; Sofos, J.N.; Belk K.E.; Hyatt, D.R.; Smith, G.C.. 2002. Prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility of Salmonella isolated from beef
animal hides and carcasses. Journal of Food Protection 65:284-290.
Bedie, G.K.; Samelis, J.;Sofos, J.N.; Belk, K.E.; Scanga, J.A.; Smith, G.C.
2001. Antimicrobials in the formulation to control Listeria monocytogenes post-processing contamination on frankfurters stored at 4C in
vacuum packages. Journal of Food Protection 64:1949-1955.
Bell, B.P.; Goldoft, M.; Griffin, P.M.; Dans, M.A.; Gordon, D.C.; Tarr, P.J.;
Bartleson, C.A.; Lewis, J.H.; Barret, T.J.; Wells, J.W.; Baron, R.; Kobayashi, J. 1994. A multistate outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7- associated bloody diarrhea and hemolytic uremic syndrome from hamburgers, the Washington experience. Journal of the American Medical Association. 272:1249-1353.
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strategies are needed. Food Technology 53:124.
Calicioglu, M.; Sofos, J.N.; Samelis, J.; Kendall, P.A.; Smith, G.C. 2002a.
Inactivation of acid-adapted and nonadapted Escherichia coli O157:H7
during drying and storage of beef jerky treated with different marinades.
Journal of Food Protection 65:1394-1405.
Samelis, J.; Sofos, J.N.; Kendall, P.A.; Smith, G.C. 2001c. Influence of the
natural microbial flora on the acid tolerance response of Listeria monocytogenes in a model system of fresh meat decontamination fluids. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 67:2410-2420.
Calicioglu, M.; Sofos, J.N.; Samelis, J.; Kendall, P.A.; Smith, G.C. 2002b.
Destruction of acid- and non-adapted Listeria monocytogenes during
drying and storage of beef jerky. Food Microbiology 19:545-559.
Samelis, J.; Sofos, J.N.; Kain, M.L.; Scanga, J.A.; Belk, K.E.; Smith, G.C.
2002a. Control of Listeria monocytogenes with combined antimicrobials following post-process contamination and extended storage of
frankfurters at 4C in vacuum packages. Journal of Food Protection
65:299-307.
Calicioglu, M.; Sofos, J.N.; Kendall, P.A. 2003. Fate of acid-adapted and
non-adapted Escherichia coli O157:H7 inoculated post-drying on beef
jerky treated with marinades before drying. Food Microbiology 20:169177.
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Mortality Weekly Report 47:1117-1118.
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Mortality Weekly Report 51:950-951.
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United States, 2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 52:340343.
DHHS (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). 2000. Healthy
people 2010 (conference ed., 2 vols). Washington, DC:U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Elder, R. O.; Keen, J. E.; Siragusa, G. R.; Barkocy-Gallagher, G. A.; Koohmaraie, M.; Laegreid, W.W. 2000. Correlation of enterohemorrhagic
Escherichia coli O157 prevalence in feces, hides, and carcasses of beef
cattle during processing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 97:2999-3003.
FSIS (Food Safety and Inspection Service). 1996. Pathogen Reduction;
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) Systems: Final
Rule. 9CFR Part 304, et al., Federal Register 61:38805-38989.
Mead, P.S.; Slutsker L.; Dietz, V.; McCaig, L.F.; Bresee, J.S.; Shapiro, C.;
Griffin, P.M.; Tauxe, R.V. 1999. Food-related illness and death in the
United States. Emerging and Infectious Diseases 5:607-625.
NACMCF (National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for
Foods). 1998. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Principles and
Application Guidelines. Journal of Food Protection 61:762-775.
Samelis, J.; Sofos, J.N. 2003. Strategies to Control Stress-Adapted Pathogens
and Provide Safe Foods. In: Microbial Adaptation to Stress and Safety of
New-Generation Foods. Yousef, A.E.; Juneja, V.K. (Eds.). CRC Press,
Inc. Boca Raton, FL. ISBN 1-56676-912-4, pp.303-351.
Samelis, J.; Sofos, J.N.; Kendall, P.A.; Smith, G.C. 2002b. Effect of acid
adaptation on survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in meat decontamination washings fluids and potential effects of organic acid interventions on the microbial ecology of the meat plant environment. Journal
of Food Protection 65:33-40.
Samelis, J.; Sofos, J.N.; Ikeda, J.S.; Kendall, P.A; Smith, G.C. 2002c. Exposure to water meat decontamination washing fluids sensitizes Escherichia coli O157:H7 to organic acids. Letters in Applied Microbiology 34:7-12.
Sheridan, J. J.; McDowell, D. A. 1998. Factors affecting the emergence of
pathogens on foods. Meat Science 49:S151-S167.
Smulders, F.J.M.; Greer, G.G. 1998. Integrating microbial decontamination
with organic acids in HACCP programmes. Intl. J. Food Micro. 44:149169.
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Smulders, F.J.M.; Collins, J.D. (Eds.) Food Safety Assurance and Veterinary Public Health; Volume 1, Food Safety Assurance in the PreHarvest Phase, Publ. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen,
The Netherlands. pp. 23-48.
Sofos, J.N. 2002b. Stress-adapted, cross-protected, resistant: a concern?
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37
38
FOOD SAFETY
39
Table 1 illustrates selected studies for postharvest pathogen reductions on beef cuts or tissues, beef trimmings destined for ground beef and direct ground beef interventions.
This table also shows possible ranges for microbial reductions with the use of these individual interventions. Numerous technologies have been researched for the reduction of
microorganisms on beef tissues. Organic acids such as lactic acid, acetic acid, formic acid, citric acid and gluconic
acid have shown abilities to reduce E. coli, coliforms, aerobic bacteria and Salmonella spp. However, like other intervention technologies, organic acids have shown variability
in their ability to reduce microbial loads. These variations
can sometimes be explained by concentrations, duration of
application, application techniques, microbial load or microbial resilience, but substantial unexplained variation still
exist. Lactic acid has been observed to reduce E. coli on
beef tissue by 0.2 log (Kotula and Thelappurate, 1994) up to
greater than 3 log reductions (Dorsa et al., 1998a). In additional studies some enhancement in microbial reduction,
including E. coli reduction might be accomplished by heating organic acids before application to beef tissue (Anderson and Marshall, 1990a,b; Anderson et al., 1979). With
coliforms, a common fecal bacterial contaminant, lactic
acid has shown reductions from 0.6 log to greater than 1
log reduction (Anderson and Marshall, 1990b). Aerobic
bacteria are also susceptible to lactic acid treatments and
can be reduce from 0.8 (Anderson and Marshall, 1990b) to
greater than 2 log reductions (Dorsa et al., 1997). Salmonella has also shown a similar susceptibility response to
lactic acid as E. coli with reductions from 0.7 log to greater
than 3 logs possible (Dorsa et al., 1998a). Acetic acid has
produced similar microbial reductions as lactic acid. Using
acetic acid on beef shortloins, Bala et al. (1977) was able to
reduce E. coli in excess of 3 logs. Furthermore, Dickson
(1991) was able to reduce Salmonella typhimurium on beef
trimmings by up to 3 logs using acetic acid.
Other organic acids tested on beef tissue have included
formic (Bell et al., 1986), citric (Brackett et al., 1994) and
gluconic (Garcia-Zepeda et al, 1994) acids. In general,
these have not shown the same effectiveness for maximum
microbial reductions on beef tissues or cuts as lactic and
acetic acids, although they have not been as widely researched. Microbial reductions reported have generally
been below 1 log for any given microorganism using these
organic acids.
Another approach for using organic acids has been multiple organic acid mixtures (Anderson and Marshall, 1990a;
Goddard et al., 1996). However, in limited studies, mixtures
of organic acids seem to yield similar microbial reductions
as single organic acid applications (Table 1).
Sodium hypochlorite and hypochlorous acids have also
been evaluated on beef tissue for aerobic bacteria reduction. Aerobic bacteria reductions have been reported between 0.2 log and 1.0 log (Anderson et al., 1979; Johnson
et al., 1979).
40
Table 1. Selected postharvest interventions for beef tissue, cuts or in ground beef.
Antimicrobial
Microorganism
Inhibition (logs)
Reference
Lactic acid
Ambient or heated
E. coli
Coliforms
APC
S. typhimurium
0.2-3.1
0.6-1.1
0.8-2.5
0.7-3.0
Anderson & Marshall, 1990b; Brackett et al., 1994; Kotula & Thelappurate, 1994;
Dorsa et al., 1998a; Dorsa et al., 1997
Acetic acid
Ambient or heated
E. coli
Coliforms
APC
S. typhimurium
0.3-3.2
0.7-1.75
1.1-3.4
0.5-3.0
Anderson & Marshall, 1989; Anderson et al., 1979; Bala et al., 1977; Bell et al.,
1986; Brackett et al., 1994; Dickson, 1992; Dickson, 1991; Dickson & Siragusa,
1994; Kotula & Thelappurate, 1994; Dorsa et al., 1998b; Dorsa et al., 1997
Formic acid
E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
<1.0
<1.0
<1.0
Citric acid
E. coli
<0.3
Gluconic acid
Psychrotrophs
Lactic acid bacteria
0.2-0.5
0.7
E. coli
Coliforms
APC
S. typhimurium
0.4-0.9
0.7-1.6
0.6-1.7
0.8-1.7
Sodium hypochlorite/
Hypochlorous acid
APC
0.2-1.0
Cetylpyridinium chloride
E. coli
S. typhimurium
5.0-6.0
5.0-6.0
Trisodium phosphate
E. coli
Coliforms
APC
S. typhimurium
0-4.3
0.1-0.3
0.1-2.9
0.5-4.1
Dorsa et al., 1998a; Dorsa et al., 1998b; Fratamico et al., 1996; Dickson et al.,
1994; Delmore et al., 2000; Kim & Slavik, 1994; Dorsa et al., 1997
Cold water
APC
E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
0.1-1.2
0.3-1.0
1.1
0.3-0.9
Hot water
APC
E. coli
S. typhimurium
1.5-2.2
1.3-2.7
2.5-2.2
Steam
APC
0.1
APC
0.2
Multiple interventions
E. coli
Coliforms
APC
Beef cuts/tissues
1.3-2.2
1.2-2.2
1.0-2.5
42
E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC
0-2.4
0.1
0-2.0
0.1-1.1
Lactic acid
E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC
0.1-2.9
0.7
0.2-3.2
0-0.6
Acetic acid
E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC
0.1-2.8
1.3
1.5-2.8
0.1-1.3
Table 1 (continued). Selected postharvest interventions for beef tissue, cuts or in ground beef.
Antimicrobial
Microorganism
Inhibition (logs)
Gluconic acid
E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.5
Reference
Stivarius et al., 2002b
Trisodium citrate
E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
Chlorine dioxide
E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.7
Ozone
E .coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC
0.1
0.2-0.4
0.5-0.8
0.3-0.6
Trisodium phosphate
E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC
0.8-2.3
0.7
0.7-3.1
0.6-0.7
Cetylpyridinium
chloride
E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.6
Multiple interventions
E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC
0.6-2.6
0.4-1.9
0.3-2.0
0.3-1.8
E. coli
APC
Delayed growth
0-0.8
Ajjarapu & Shelef, 1999; Harmayni et al., 1991; Maca et al., 1997; Eckert et al., 1997
Sodium diacetate
E. coli
APC
Delayed growth
Delayed growth
Sodium acetate
APC
0.1-0.6
Buffered citrate/Sodium
citrate
APC
0-0.2
Potassium lactate
Coliforms
APC
0.5-1.0
0.1-0.8
Hydrostatic
~2.2
Carballo et al., 1997
E. coli
pressure
Multiple interventions evaluated are many including two or more combinations of heated mediums, organic acids, buffers, quaternary ammonia like mediums
and oxidizers.
~ symbol means that reductions were approximated.
43
Table 2. Selected postharvest interventions for poultry, pork and lamb whole muscle or comminuted products.
Item
Antimicrobial
Parameter
Microorganism
Inhibition (logs)
Reference
Chicken carcass
E. coli
Salmonella ssp.
Campylobacter spp.
2.3
2.0
2.6
Chicken carcass
H2O prewash(PR)
Acidifed Sodium
Chlorite- ASC (A)
Phosphoric (P) or Citric (C) activated
Dip or spray
E. coli
Coliforms
Aerobic
Phos. activated
E coli- .72
Coliforms 1.51
Aerob- .72
Citric activated
E coli ~ 2.3
Coliform ~.8-2.0
Aerob ~ .7-1.0
Chicken carcass
TSP-10%
L- 2.0%
CPC- 0.5%
SB- 5.0%
spray
Salmonella typhimurium
Aerobes
TSP- .74-4.87
L-1.03- 1.77
CPC- 0.9-2.3
SB- 1.66
Chicken wings
Lactic acid
Sodium benzoate
Wash (dip)
0.5% lactic
0.05% sodium benzoate
Salmonella ssp.
Campylobacter spp.
L. monocytogenes
S. aureus
E. coli
2.5
1.0
0.5
1.5
1.25
Ground
chicken
Hydrostatic pressure
0-700MPa
Listeria
Salmonella
E. coli
S. aureus
Up to ~ 1.7-7.5
Up to ~ 2.0
Up to ~ 5.7-6.0
Up to ~ 5-6
Meat models
Hydrostatic pressure
500MPa
1.3-5.54
Turkey Breast,
core 10 days
SL- 2.0%
SD- .1%
SL+SD- 2.0%+.1%
Clostridium spp.
SL- 0.2
SD- .85
SL+SD- 0.8
Ground turkey
from RTE turkey
breast
L. monocytogenes
N+0.5%D- 3.41
L+0.5%D- 4.9
0.5%D- 4.96
P+0.5%D- 6.62
1.36M A+P
250 ppm H
H+1ppb acetic acid
sprays
Mesophilic bacteria
A+P - 0-1.0
H- 0- 0.1
H+A- 0.2-0.5
Pork Chops
1% A
1% A+1.0% L
Lactobacillus
Enterobacters
.1-.25
1.0-2.5
Pork Loins
Acetic acid
Lactic acid
Citric acid
1.5% A
1.5% L
1.5% C
Coliforms
APC
E. coli
A- 2.5, L- 0.5
A- 1.25, L- 0.0
A- 0.5, L- 0.1
Fu et al., 1994
Lactic acid
Hot water
Hot air
Water + 2% L (WL)
Water, HA, + L(WHL)
Aerobic
Coliforms
E. coli
Lamb Carcass
Muscle cores
Acetic acid
B. thermosphaeta
Aerobic
Coliform
Sheep Subcutaneous
Hot water
Spray
Salmonella spp.
E. coli
4.0 log
4.0 log
44
For pork, a number of postharvest decontamination studies have been performed on various pork loin chops. Using
acetic acid on pork loin chops, reductions in various bacterial populations have been reported from 0-2.5 logs (Carpenter et al., 1986; Mendonca et al., 1989 and Fu et al.,
1994). Reductions in microorganisms on pork loin chops
have also been reported for 0-2.5 logs with lactic acid used
singly or in combination with acetic acid (Mendonca et al.,
1989 and Fu et al., 1994). In other work, Castelo et al.
(2001) was able to reduce APC, coliforms and E. coli by 3.0,
2.3 and 2.0 logs, respectively on pork meat trim using water
and a 2% lactic acid treatment.
Although much limited in the body of research on lamb
postharvest interventions, a few studies have been conducted. While Anderson et al. (1988) was able to reduce B.
thermosphaeta on lamb muscle cores by 2.5 logs using a
3.0% acetic acid dip, they reported no reductions in APC or
coliforms with acetic acid treatment. However, Smith and
Graham (1978) reported 4.0 log reductions of both Salmonella spp. and E. coli on sheep subcutaneous tissue using
hot water.
While the technologies discussed previously represent a
cross-section of intervention technologies that have been
researched, there are still a number of additional technologies with antimicrobial properties for reducing microbial
loads on or within meat products. Examples of these might
be hydrogen peroxide, pulsed light, copper sulfate pentahydrate, ultraviolet light, x-rays and irradiation to name a few.
While a number of these technologies might hold promise
for postharvest pathogen reductions and interventions, because of the infancy of postharvest research, the regulatory
status for use of a number of these technologies has not
caught up to the science. While a number of these technologies have been approved for carcass decontamination
applications, less have been approved for postharvest
pathogen reduction. While some interventions have been
approved and commercialized for use such as the use of
ozone, a chlorous acid system and a peroxyacid system,
others await regulatory approval. In addition to approval
and microbial reduction effectiveness, other issues for technology adoptions include the impact of postharvest pathogen reduction technologies on processing characteristics,
color, shelf-life and sensory characteristics. While occasionally research has addressed these concerns, the largest
body of information remains on antimicrobial effectiveness
alone. Therefore, as more interventions are approved for
postharvest applications, additional research will be necessary to answer processing and quality issues.
Conclusions
While substantial research has been conducted using antimicrobials for carcass decontamination, it is only more
recently that research has begun to focus upon postharvest
pathogen reduction. Although intervention technologies
have led to declines in microbial loads on carcass surfaces,
since these technologies do not render the carcass sterile,
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47
48
RECIPROCATION SESSION
Janice C. Swanson
Kansas State University, Manhattan
129 Weber Hall
Manhattan, KS 66506-0201
jswanson@k-state.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 49-50)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org
Quality of Life
What makes up the quality of life of animals and birds
under our care? We can start by recognizing that each species has been shaped by years of natural and artificial selection. Specialized beaks or muzzles, two or four legs, wings,
digestive differences, breeding differences, and the list goes
on. In some instances artificial selection has not sought to
change a fundamental need, for example, social behavior.
Our domestic livestock and poultry evolved from ancestors
with a strong (and naturally reinforced) behavior to live in
social groups. This behavior was also conducive to domestication and successful exploitation in agriculture. Fitness
and survival were greatly enhanced by the successful execution of social behavior thus this trait remains solidly embedded within the framework of farm species. For example,
sheep display an extreme stress response to social isolation
and restraint that can affect meat quality (Apple et al.,
1995). Therefore the quality of life of many of our domestic
agricultural species includes social interaction or contact.
Although undesirable social behavior has been manipulated
(e.g. temperament, feather pecking) there has been no concentrated effort to eliminate sociality as a whole. Other factors such as lack of fear, avoidance of unnecessary pain and
distress, and ability to adapt and perform a reasonable
range of normal behavior under production conditions contribute to the quality of life an animal will experience.
In addition to behavior, known physiological demands
such as food, water, shelter, bedding, temperature, preventive health measures, control of indoor environments and
atmospheric quality, etc. round out the picture. The more
restrictive and contained an environment becomes the
greater the number of variables we control (versus the animal) for the quality of life. Quality of life can be impinged
or certain aspects sacrificed as economic conditions dictate
another two hens in the cage, pigs in the pen, or cattle in
the lot. Striking a balance between the quality of life demands by stakeholders is the challenge.
International Standards
Food retailer activity in the arena of livestock/poultry
care and welfare indicate their concern with providing assurance to their customers. The clout of the American public appears to be arriving by way of social pressure rather
than traditional politics (Schweikhardt and Browne, 2001).
In an intensely competitive industry such as the grocery and
quick serve restaurant, sensitivities run high to customer
concerns. After all, they hand the product directly to the
consumer.
Considering the global nature of the food retail business,
and the legislative actions by westernized countries, will
international standards for animal welfare emerge? The
World Organization for Animal Health, also known as the
Office of International Epizooties (OIE), established an Animal Welfare Working Group in October 2002 (OIE, 2002).
The mandate of the working group is to address public demand for animal welfare, to develop knowledge on the subject, propose recommendations at the international level
and to integrate ethical, scientific, economic and political
dimensions of the issue to achieve balance in decision making. Since animal welfare is not specifically addressed un-
50
der the World Trade Organizations Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement, member countries of the OIE requested
guidelines and recommendations establishing best animal
management practices that are congruent with good animal
welfare. The OIE has identified priority issues for animals
used in agriculture and aquaculture as follows: transportation, slaughter, killing for disease control, housing, and
management practice. Members of the working group have
been appointed from Canada, New Zealand, Belgium (EU),
Kenya, India and Egypt. At the time of this writing there are
no members from the United States appointed to the primary working group. The development of this international
working group, coupled with the announcements of food
retailers such a McDonalds Global Animal Welfare Standards (McDonalds, 2002), signal a social and political impetus to coordinate and address the issue.
References
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Leith, D.E.; Unruh, J.A. 1995. Effects of restraint and isolation stress and
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postindustrial milieu. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 4:191205.
RECIPROCATION SESSION
Methods
This research was cooperatively conducted by scientists
and technical staff from Iowa State University, Michigan
State University and the University of Wisconsin. The work
was financially supported by the National Pork Board.
Pork carcasses were selected from a single packer, which
purchases pigs on the open market from a variety of producers employing a wide range of genetic lines. Carcass
selection followed pre-determined guidelines for specific
carcass weight ranges, estimated carcass percent muscle
and pH at 45 minutes postmortem (an indicator of lean
quality), to assure an appropriate distribution of carcasses
varying in these criteria. After 24 hours of chilling, carcasses
were transported to the Meat Science Laboratory at Iowa
State University.
Between 48 and 80 hours postmortem hams and shoulders from both sides of selected carcasses were fabricated
into individual muscles. Muscles of significant size (0.5
pounds or larger) were evaluated for the following properD. R. Buege
Muscle Biology and Meat Science Laboratory
University of Wisconsin
1805 Linden Drive
Madison, WI 53706
drbuege@ansci.wisc.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 51-52)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org
Results
The results from the chemical, physical and nutritional
evaluation of 25 significant shoulder and ham muscles have
been organized into a multi-level classification system for
each parameter measured. For example, the mean pH value
of each muscle is classified as low, medium or high pH,
and the mean sensory tenderness of muscles is described
according to a five descriptor scale, encompassing very
tender, moderately tender, average tenderness, moderately
tough and very tough. With such descriptions defined for all
muscle parameters evaluated, a determination can be considered for the most appropriate potential use of individual
muscles or closely-adjacent muscle groups. A section of
longissimus muscle from each carcass (from the fifth rib
forward) was included in these evaluations, to serve as a
familiar benchmark. As an example of the output generated
from this work, Table 1 presents the results of the evaluations and analyses performed on the Semitendinosus and
Longissimus dorsi.
Representatives from the pork processing industry will
review and react to these findings on the characteristics of
individual muscles, and provide input into their merchandising potential. Not only are the size, shape and characteristics of individual muscles important to their potential application, but also the accessibility of the muscles and their
ease of removal from the shoulder and ham primals, using
current and possible future fabrication methods, will be
critical factors in determining muscle use.
The desired outcome of this comprehensive determination of the properties of the individual ham and shoulder
muscles is to identify those muscles which possess appropriate characteristics and realistic fabrication potential, to
be able to be merchandised as higher-value products. Such
an outcome would increase the overall value of these primals to the processing industry, and ultimately add value to
the total pork carcass, to the benefit of pork producers and
pork processors.
51
Acknowledgments
Iowa State University
Aaron Asmus
Jerry Knight
Matt Gardner
Terry Houser
Travis Krause
Elaine Larson
Graciela Mendez
Byongrok Min
Kwangsoon Park
Randy Petershon
Matt VanUtrecht
Haijie Yan
Jacob Yates
Amy Yelden
University of Wisconsin
Elizabeth Dobbs
Wayne Ellefson
Laura Trumble
Longissimus dorsi
1.53
pH Classification
mean value
average
(6.12)
low
(5.81)
Water-Holding Capacity
mean value (%)
low
(91.77)
low
(92.29)
Color
mean L*
mean a*
mean b*
average
(48.3)
(20.1)
(6.1)
light
(53.0)
(17.5)
(5.3)
two-toned
uniform
average
(5.7)
average
(3.2)
Total Iron
mean iron (mg/100 g)
(0.98)
(0.78)
Heme Pigment
mean value (mg/g)
(0.99)
(0.82)
Collagen
mean value (mg/g)
(6.53)
(3.96)
Protein Solubility
high
high
average
(102/150)
(4.18)
moderately tender
(104/150)
(4.49)
Texture
fine-textured
average
Flavor
Recommended Category
fresh-- enhanced
fresh -- enhanced
Product Suggestions
medallions, roast
chops, roast
Weight (lbs).
Color Uniformity
Fat Content
mean fat (g/100
Overall Tenderness
mean sensory
mean star probe
52
RECIPROCATION SESSION
this study, we examined muscles from all of the major primals, using size and weight as the primary selection criterion. We examined the following muscles: adductor, biceps
femoris, complexus, deep pectoral, gluteus medius, infraspinatus, latissimus dorsi, longissimus dorsi, multifidus/spinalis dorsi, psoas major, rectus femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, serratus ventralis, supraspinatus,
tensor facia latae, teres major, triceps brachii, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis, and vastus medialis.
As expected, there was a fair amount of variation among
the muscles for most of the traits considered. There were
few significant effects of carcass weight, maturity, muscling
and fat thickness on the muscle characteristics on a withinbreed type basis. Generally, there were few differences in
muscle traits between the beef and dairy cow populations.
When comparisons were made, we compared only those
carcasses that were similar in weight (i.e., the heavy weight
beef cow carcasses were in the same weight range as the
light weight dairy cow carcasses). Dairy cows tended to be
a bit more consistent in most traits.
This database will provide the foundation for product enhancement and value-added initiatives for cow muscle. It
will be included in a revised version of the bovine myology
CD-ROM.
C. R. Calkins
Professor of Animal Sciences
University of Nebraska - Lincoln
A213 Animal Science
38th and Fair Street, Box 830908
Lincoln, NE 68583-0908
ccalkins1@unl.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (p. 53)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org
53
54
RECIPROCATION SESSION
people desire. As a means to attack the demand slide, especially in the chuck and round portion of the carcass, the
National Cattlemens Beef Association under direction from
the Beef Board, called for research to address these hurdles
in 1998.
Rationale
The research requested by the National Cattlemens Beef
Association was to fill the gap in knowledge about the
lesser known individual muscles in the chuck and round.
This request included profiling each muscle for palatability
characteristics, composition analysis, yields, physical characterizations, and included how the muscle traits were affected by factors such as USDA Quality, Yield Grade and
hot carcass weight. It became readily apparent that this was
a massive request that would require cooperative work to
accomplish in a timely manner. The research work was
conducted by the Department of Animal Sciences at the
University of Florida (UF) and the Animal Science Department at the University of Nebraska. The study was called
Muscle Profiling. The UF Department of Animal Sciences
contributed to the study by measuring objective tenderness
and by conducting sensory panel evaluations for each of the
muscles. In addition, UF characterized the yields and
physical characteristics of each muscle. The University of
Nebraska contributed to the study by performing color
analysis, muscle fiber typing, composition (moisture, fat,
ash), connective tissue concentration, pH, heme iron, expressible moisture and emulsion capacity. Together, the
universities evaluated more than 5,600 muscles during a
two-year period. The culmination of that work was the production of a monograph by NCBA entitled Muscle Profiling. The production of the 100-page document serves as
an encyclopedia of information for meat packers, processors and purveyors. The monograph has been translated
into five different languages and has been utilized to develop new and more convenient, leaner, yet more palatable
products for consumer marketing. Also, the information
gleaned from the Muscle Profiling work was combined with
other data, and a Web site was created. The Web site, Bovine Myology, is currently maintained by the University of
Nebraska Meat Science section within their animal science
department. Bovine Myology can be found on the Internet
at http://deal.unl.edu/bovine. This Web site serves as a tool
for the industry and as an educational medium for various
audiences including university meat science and muscle
biology groups. The Web site is constantly updated with
55
new data, additional research as it is reported, and innovative methods of data delivery.
The Muscle Profiling work revealed gaps in knowledge
that have been filled by other institutions and the Meat Science group at the University of Florida. In the University of
Florida study, muscles of marginal palatability were identified and subsequently enhanced by post-harvest marination
technology to determine what improvements could be produced. It was noted in that study that all muscles do not
respond to post-harvest enhancement to the same degree.
However, four out of eight muscles did show improvement
in tenderness of more than 15 percent. Another study conducted by the Meat Science group at the University of Florida evaluated the postmortem effects of aging on the tenderness development in muscles of the chuck and round.
Work has been reported on the beneficial effects of postmortem aging on meat tenderness, but these studies have
primarily concentrated on the wholesale rib and loin. The
University of Florida study found that the chuck and round
muscles responded in a similar way to postmortem aging
effects, and it was determined that there was an effect of the
intramuscular fat on tenderness development in these muscles as well. The muscles with higher intramuscular fat
would need fewer days of postmortem aging than would
muscles of lower intramuscular fat. Other studies have been
conducted as an offshoot of the Muscle Profiling work and
are being reported at this meeting as well at other research
and industry meetings.
Impact
Numerous groups have used the Muscle Profiling research to find new ways to fabricate, process and prepare
meat from the chuck and round. One of the most significant
56
efforts has been from the R & D Ranch group of the National Cattlemens Beef Association. This group is the product development arm of the National Cattlemens Beef Association, and it is responsible for promoting new product
development within the beef industry. Instead of merchandising the chuck and round as less convenient multi-muscle
cuts, the R & D Ranch group used the Muscle Profiling data
(which suggested new cuts and merchandising methods) to
market cuts in a singular fashion. The new cuts decreased
the length in cooking time and appealed to consumers. The
R & D Ranch group coined the term Beef Value Cuts, and
they have produced cutting brochures, manuals and instructional videos on removal and merchandising. A Web site
offering technical support is also available at
www.rdranch.com. The R & D Ranch group has followed
up with regional training seminars for processors, distributions, food service groups and retailers. In addition, they
match these efforts with a publicity campaign in conjunction with food-service-trade advertising. Many other groups
within the beef retail business have incorporated these ideas
into marketing new items from the chuck and round which
have not been previously available to the consuming public. Other segments of the beef industry have developed
new products based on findings from the Muscle Profiling
work, and they are currently featuring these new products
on the market. Moreover, the U.S. Meat Export Federation
has identified several applications from the Muscle Profiling
work that are being incorporated into their efforts to export
more high-quality beef to markets outside the United States.
Recent data from Cattle Fax, a firm that monitors market
trends, indicates an increase of 10 percent in total beef demand from 1998 to the last quarter in 2002. This increase is
indeed encouraging and suggests a reversal in the slide for
beef demand in these lower value portions of the carcass.
RECIPROCATION SESSION
References
Federal Register, 1999. Food Labeling: Health Claims; Soy Protein and
Coronary Heart Disease, Code of Federal Regulations 21, Part 101,
Food and Drug Administration, Washington, D.C., vol 64, nr 206,
57699-733.
Prima Marketing Group, Inc. 1996. Food Ingredient Survey. Elk Grove
Village, IL.
57
58
RECIPROCATION SESSION
S. J. Jones
Professor
University of Nebraska - Lincoln
A213 Animal Science Complex
Lincoln, NE 68583-0908
sjones1@unl.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 59-62)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org
Audience
When examining the audience there are several details
that must be considered to determine what multimedia tool
can be used. The computer resources the student has available must be taken into consideration. Computer speed,
type of network connection, graphics and audio capability
will determine what you can provide to the student. If the
information is going to be used for resident instruction, most
students will have access to a high-speed connection. This
will make it possible to share video and other media, which
requires a large bandwidth. If students are using a modem
connection and there is video information you would like to
share, it can be copied to a CD and distributed. The best
way to present the information is in a web format because
most computers will have a web browser that can be used.
This will make it possible to share information over the
web, but it can also be read from a CD with the purchase of
propriety read software. Also, be aware not all web browsers are created equal. An application that works on Microsoft Internet Explorer may not function properly on Netscape Navigator, this may also be true with the version of
the browser that is in use. If the information is going to be
shared on a CD, be sure it has been tested on many operating systems and computer platforms to assure proper operation.
Content
This presentation will not deal much with the actual content. Every instructor knows what he or she would like to
have the students in their course learn. Other factors you
must consider are your teaching philosophy, your expectation for the students, your teaching models, and tools and
resources at your disposal. These factors will all affect your
use of the computer in the classroom.
To be successful in creating computer teaching aids it is
necessary to divide information into concepts or principles.
For example, to demonstrate thaw rigor, one may want to
take time lapse pictures of a muscle frozen pre-rigor then
thawed. Another example may be use of animation to describe the process of contraction. The more the concept is
defined the easier it will be to develop a computerized
presentation. It will also help to identify the medium that
can be used to demonstrate the concept. Remember, developing computerized instruction material is an evolutionary
process. Begin with specific concepts you want to show in
your class then slowly add other computer-assisted presen-
59
60
Audio files
Sometimes you would like sound included in a presentation. There are several ways you can do this. Most windows
programs have the capability of recording sounds and utilizing them in presentations. Also, Power Point has the ability
to provide narration to a slide show. A point to remember is
to not embed the sound file into the presentation itself because it will make the presentation too large and you will
not have the ability to edit the file. Another possible method
of collecting sound is through a digital video recorder.
Once this has been done the video can be discarded and
only the audio portion used. Transferring a recording from
an analog source can be done by using a male-to-male
connection from the earphone jack to the microphone jack.
Generally, most narration will need some editing to remove
any pauses or mispronounced words. There are several
software programs available that can accomplish this. It is
possible to open the sound file and remove and replace
words or sentences and to combine files. Some of the audio
editing programs are rather sophisticated and are expensive.
However, there several programs available with options to
do most of the audio editing needed for web presentations.
These programs are:
Cool Edit 2000 (www.syntrillium.com)
Sound Forge, Sonic Factory (www.sonicfactory.com)
Illustrations
There are many illustration programs on the market. The
programs mentioned in the Photo Images section can be
used for illustrations as well. However, most of those software programs will only make bitmap graphics. For small
file sizes, it is good to use vector based illustration software.
Vector based graphics can then be integrated with Flash,
which will be mentioned later. Vector illustration software
that is available is:
Freehand, Macromedia (www.macromedia.com)
Illustrator, Adobe (www.adobe.com)
Corel Draw, Corel (www.corel.com)
Vector Animation
Vector graphics based animation programs with fullscreen navigation interfaces, graphic illustrations, and simple interactivity are in an antialiased, resizable file format
small enough to stream across a normal modem connection. Animation software of this type is widely used on the
Web, both because of its speed (vector-based animations,
which can adapt to different display sizes and resolutions,
play as they download) and for the smooth way it renders
graphics.
These types of animation software allow the user to use
any artwork, using whatever bitmap or illustration tool they
prefer, to create animation and special effects, and add
sound and interactivity. The content is then saved as a file
with a .SWF file name extension. Vector based animation is
also ideal for CD-ROM and use in video. Vector animation
software available is:
56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference
61
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RECIPROCATION SESSION
top is fast enough that the animations work well. You can
get nervous if you have to wait a while for your screens to
change.
63
64
RECIPROCATION SESSION
65
66
Conclusion
The motivation to go to graduate school has its foundation in our intellectual curiosity and drive to excel. A
graduate degree is a means to reach our professional goals.
It is a personal and a very serious decision. No person or
discussion session can make the decision for you. Our goal
in this session is to stimulate you to think critically about
your professional career.
RECIPROCATION SESSION
67
Conclusions
Beef cattle growth promotion products, when used consistent with their label, are safe for the animal, safe for the
beef consumer, safe for the environment and deliver significant economic benefits to the beef producer and to the consumer. In the USA, use of growth promotion products
should be based on sound business decisions and should
not be influenced by political and social pressures. Antianimal production groups will use numerous bases to disrupt beef consumption and beef production in the USA,
including the selling of fear related to endocrine disruption, carcinogenicity, adverse effects in humans, environmental contamination, and misuse/abusive use of the products.
69
70
RECIPROCATION SESSION
results showed that color and water holding capacity generally followed normal patterns with the high pH product
generally having lower L* values and lower drip loss. The
values calculated for pack-off yield (after slicing and packaging) and final yield were clearly in favor of the high pH
(low PSE) hams. Clearly, the low PSE group outperformed
the rest of the treatment groups in that it had the lowest minor and major defects and the highest percentage of no defects. The sensory panelists demonstrated through purchase
intent that they preferred the low PSE product two to three
times that of any other treatment. The belly data showed
that the thinner bellies had higher percentage cook shrinks
and lower overall final yield percentages than the thick bellies. However, the results of this study showed that consumers prefer leaner bacon when evaluating or purchasing
it visually and experience very minimal differences in acceptability and purchase intent based upon palatability.
In Phase III, the objective was to characterize retail products from the loin (enhanced and non-enhanced), ham
(boneless), and belly (not-fully-cooked bacon), assessing the
implications of quality on prices charged by retailers and to
determine the opportunities lost with pork quality defects.
Retail packages of boneless loin chops, bacon, and ham
were purchased at retail markets in eight major U.S. cities
which were chosen to provide broad geographical representation across the United States. Twenty-five retail stores
in each city (n=200) were visited. Across all retail stores
visited, average retail case displays consisted of 64.3%
processed meats, 8.0% fresh poultry, 7.9% bacon, 6.8%
fresh beef, 3.5% fresh pork, 2.6% heat and serve products,
2.4% ham products, and 2.4% frozen poultry products.
Approximately 13% of the boneless pork chops found in the
retail display were characterized as being of poor quality.
Overall, boneless loin chops had a mean NPPC color rating
of 3.52 and were characterized as having a reddish-pink
colored lean. Across all loin chops collected, the mean
peak WBS force was 2.96 kg. Trained sensory panel mean
overall tenderness ratings were 5.95, ranging from 4.25 to
7.75 on an 8-point scale for all chops evaluated in the
study. The study also found that enhanced product offers
organoleptic benefits in juiciness and tenderness, but is
more frequently associated with off-flavors than nonenhanced product. Off-flavors most encountered by the
panelists included salty, metallic, sour, and rancid/oxidative
flavors.
71
72
RECIPROCATION SESSION
Low O2
-O2
-eMetmyoglobin
Metmyoglobin
+++
Fe
Fe+++
+e-
-e-
+O2
ATM O2
+O2
-O2
Oxymyoglobin
Oxymyoglobin
+e+O2
++
Fe
Fe++
100
Oxidized Fe
Undesirable
Reduced Fe Desirable
Hunt 1993
Deoxymyoglobin
Oxymyoglobin
% Mb Form
No O2
Metmyoglobin
10
Oxygen, %
15
20
muscle is dependent on oxygen diffusion, which is influenced by temperature as well as pH. Although oxygen diffusion is more rapid at a higher temperature, net oxygen
penetration is greater at temperatures close to 0C, where
activity of enzymes that use oxygen is minimal. At higher
temperatures, respiratory enzymes use more oxygen and
limit its penetration into muscle. Respiratory enzyme activity is favored by higher pH, consequently high-pH muscle
utilizes more oxygen, and so less oxygen diffuses into muscle. The result is a darker colored muscle, which has only a
very thin layer of oxymyoglobin on the surface; consequently the color is primarily that of the subsurface deoxymyoglobin. High partial oxygen pressure in the gaseous
environment surrounding the muscle will cause the oxymyoglobin layer to move into the muscle more rapidly and
more deeply. Relatively fresh muscle with a good supply of
reducing capability will have two pigment layers, oxymyoglobin on the surface and deoxymyoglobin at deeper locations. For intact muscles, oxygen diffuses more deeply with
increasing time after initial exposure to air for several days,
depending on the mini-environment surrounding the muscle and the supply of reducing capability of the muscle.
When reducing mechanisms of muscle approach depletion,
a third layer of pigment, brown metmyoglobin, forms between the oxymyoglobin and deoxymyoglobin layers. The
brown area has the intermediate PO2, which favored its
formation. The oxymyoglobin layer becomes thinner and
the metmyglobin layer becomes thicker and moves closer to
the surface. Ultimately both visual observers and reflectance instruments begin to see the brown discoloration.
Color stability can be influenced by:
Live Animal Selection - Stress resistant may favor slower
pH decline, less oxidative meat.
Nutrition - Vitamin E (tocopherol) feeding creates more
color stability, even for higher unsaturated fat diets, and
longer aging, and influences pork and turkey in a similar
direction (Liu and others, 1995; Buckley and others, 1995).
Environment - Severe conditions may cause dark cutters.
A sudden temperature rise during cool spring days can affect pigs and turkeys and cause more oxidative, discoloration-prone muscle.
Handling - Cattle and pigs are vulnerable to hot temperature and to mixing of animal groups. Hauling at night advocated, also keeping animal groups intact. Conditions that
distract/startle animals can cause stress (Faustman and Cassens, 1990).
Holding Conditions - Pigs should be rested before slaughter, allowed to cool, have access to water for 3 to 4 hours
after unloading. Too short or no holding encourages PSE
and too long (over 6 hours) may increase DFD.
Stun/bleed Variables - Effective stunning including proper
placement, appropriate current for electrical and stun application time influence quality. Bleeding quickly after stunning is also essential. Carbon dioxide may be good system.
74
References
Audits International (1999) U.S. Cold Temperature Evaluation. Available at:
http://www.am.f.org/CompletedProjects.htm.
Bertelsen, G.; Skibsted, L. H. (1987) Photooxidation of Oxymyoglobin.
Wavelength Dependence of Quantum Yields in Relation to Light Discoloration of Meat. Meat Sci. 19:243-251.
Buckley, D. J.; Morrissey, P. A.; Gray, J. I. (1995) Influence of Dietary Vitamin E on the Oxidative Stability and Quality of Pig Meat. J. Anim. Sci.
73:3122-3130.
Faustman, C.; Cassens, R. G. (1990) The Biochemical Basis for Discoloration in Fresh Meat: A Review. J. Muscle Foods 1:217-243.
Kropf, D. H. (1998) Meat Case Lighting Facts. National Pork Board, Des
Moines, IA.
Kropf, D. H. (2000) Meat, Modified Atmosphere Packaging. Encyclopedia
Food Sci. & Technol., John Wiley publ., New York.
Liu, Q.; Lanari, M. C.; Schaefer, D. M. (1995) A Review of Dietary Vitamin
E Supplementation for Improvement of Beef Quality. J. Anim. Sci.
73:3131-3140.
Mancini, R. A. (2001) Effects of Lean Level and Storage and Display Conditions on Ground Beef Color and Microbiology. M.S. Thesis. Kansas
State University, Manhattan.
Miller, R. (1998) Functionality of Non-Meat Ingredients used in Enhanced
Pork. Facts, National Pork Board, Des Moines, IA.
Srheim, O.; Nissen, H.; Aune, T.; Nesbakken, T. (2001) Use of Carbon
Monoxide in Retail Meat Packaging. Proc. Recip. Meat Conf., Am.
Meat Sci. Assn, Savoy, IL. 54:47-51.
Warren, K. E.; Hunt, M. C.; Marsksberry, C. L.; Srheim, O.; Kropf, D. H.;
Johnson, D. E.; Windisch, M. J. (1992) Modified-Atmosphere Packaging
of Bone-In Pork Loins. J. Muscle Foods 3:283-300.
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RECIPROCATION SESSION
Formation
The cooking process is responsible for the formation of
HAA and PAH from natural constituents in foods, with
cooking time and temperature being important determinants
in both the qualitative and the quantitative formation of
these compounds (Knize et al., 1985; Skog et al., 1995).
Higher temperatures and longer cooking times favor the
formation of HAA. A number of studies have shown the
precursors for the formation of the HAA to be amino acids,
such as phenylalanine, threonine, and alanine; creatine or
creatinine; and sugars (Skog et al., 1993). HAA are frequently formed in muscle meats during frying, broiling, and
grilling. But methods using lower temperatures such as
stewing, boiling, and baking usually do not form HAA.
PAH are products of combustion and pyrolysis of protein,
carbohydrate or lipids by condensation of smaller units at
high temperatures to form stable polynuclear aromatic compounds (Lijinsky, 1991). PAH levels in foods are strongly
dependent on the method of cooking, including the
distance of food from the heat source, design of cooking
device and fat content of the foodstuff (Lijinsky, 1991).
Smoke deposited on the surface of charcoal-grilled meats
appears to be the major source of PAH carcinogens in food.
The HAA and PAH carcinogens formed during cooking
have stable multi-ring aromatic structures. The heterocyclic
amines have an exocyclic amino group and several nitrogen
heteroatoms. Structures of those compounds commonly
detected in foods are shown in Figure 1. Additional heterocyclic aromatic amines have been found in foods and the
whole set of HAA compounds has been reviewed (Robbana-Baranat et al., 1996). Over 25 PAH have been identified in curing smoke and approximately 40 others have
been identified but not characterized in this type of smoke.
An extensive database of PAH in foods was recently published (Kazerouni et al., 2001). The variables influencing the
formation of PAH and HAA create a wide range of concentrations in food, requiring the analysis of a large number of
food samples cooked under various conditions to determine
the sources and amounts of carcinogens in the human diet.
77
B[a]P
B[a]A
Results
B[k]F
B[b]F
N
H 3C
NH2
N CH
3
CH 3
DiMeIQx
DBA
N
H3C
NH2
N CH
3
Charcoal grilled
nd*
nd
0.6
4.1
nd
3.1
nd
nd
Pan fried
3.8
16
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
Indenopyrene
MeIQx
N
N
CH3
NH2
PhIP
Figure 1. Chemical structures and abbreviated names of HAA and
PAH carcinogens.
B[a]A= benzo[a]anthracene
B[a]P=benzo[a]pyrene
B[b]F=benzo[b]fluoranthene
B[k]F=benzo[k]fluoranthene
DBA=dibenzo[a,h]anthracene
DiMeIQx=2-amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline
Indenopyrene= indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene
MeIQx=2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline
PhIP=2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine
Analysis
There are several factors that make the analysis of carcinogens from foods a difficult problem. PAH and HAA are
present in foods at low nanogram per gram levels. The low
levels require that chromatographic efficiency and detector
sensitivity be optimized, and these are typically analyzed by
gas or liquid chromatography with detection by light absorbance, fluorescence or mass spectrometry. Several of the
compounds are formed under the same reaction conditions,
78
10
5
0
160
180
200
250
Pan Temperature, C
Figure 2. Sum of HAA formed in beef patties fried to an internal temperature of 70C, either turned over once at 5 min (open bars) or
turned over every minute (filled bars) until done. Four different pan
temperatures were used. Error bars are the standard deviation of five
replicate samples.
14
12
10
8
6
Acknowledgments
4
2
0
1 160C
2
4180C5
7200C
8
250C11
10
Pan temperature
Another means of decreasing HAA formation is to remove the precursors from the meat before cooking (Felton
et al., 1994). Figure 4, upper, illustrates that ground beef
patties contain small molecule precursors of HAA: amino
acids, sugars, and creatinine. When fried at high temperatures, these precursors form the HAA. Alternatively, a microwave oven pretreatment of 1.5 to 2 min reduces the pre56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference
79
80
Figure 4. Schematic depiction of formation of HAA carcinogens after frying (right side) or reduction of HAA carcinogens after microwave pretreatment of ground
beef patty before frying (left side). Microwave pretreatment reduces precursors resulting in lower exposure to consumers.
References
Commoner, B.; Vithayathil, A.J.; Dolara, P.; Nair, S.; Madyastha, P.; Cuca,
G.C. (1978). Formation of mutagens in beef and beef extract during
cooking. Science 201: 913-916.
Doll, R.; Peto, R. (1981). The causes of cancer: Quantitative estimates of
avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 66: 1191-1308.
El-Bayoumy, K.; Chae, Y.-H.; Upadhyaya, P.; Rivenson, A.; Kurtzke, C.;
Reddy, B.; Hecht, S.S. (1995). Comparative tumorigenicity of
benzo[a]pyrene,
1-nitropyrene,
and
2-amino-1-methyl-6phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine administered by gavage to female CD
rats. Carcinogenesis 16: 431-434.
Felton, J.S.; Fultz, E.; Dolbeare, F.A.; Knize, M.G. (1994). Reduction of
heterocyclic amine mutagens/carcinogens in fried beef patties by microwave pretreatment. Food and Chemical Toxicology 32: 897-903.
Gross, G.A.; Grter, A. (1992). Quantitation of mutagenic/carcinogenic
heterocyclic aromatic amines in food products. Journal of Chromatography 592: 271-278.
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81
82
MUSCLE BIOLOGY
ter? Is it even possible to deliver such proteases to the muscle? If so, the goal of providing consumers with consistently
palatable meat is within grasp.
Regulation of growth, especially lean growth, is a complex mechanism that is likely controlled by a myriad of
physiological parameters. One such physiological parameter that augments whole body growth is circulating levels of
growth hormone (GH). When exogenous growth hormone
is administered to lactating cows, milk production is greatly
enhanced. Of course, this whole process has been exploited
by agriculture and has been successfully commercialized
for improving dairy herd production (Bauman et al., 1999).
In other species, for example in pigs, the response is somewhat different. In particular, daily administration of growth
hormone not only improves growth rate but also acts as a
repartitioning agent whereby nutrients are directed away
from adipose tissue deposition and toward lean body mass
growth (Thiel et al., 1993). As a result, altering circulating
growth hormone levels is a very attractive means of improving growth performance and productivity as well as lean
composition. Unfortunately, the requirement for daily administration of GH is not, however, feasible nor is it practical to many in the meat animal industries. Furthermore,
there is substantial public resistance to using injected hormones as a means for improving animal productivity. Even
though animal scientists must remain cognizant of public
concerns, it is the obligation of those charged with improving the efficiency of growing animals to remain vigilant and
receptive to opportunities that may augment growth in a
consumer friendly manner. This is clearly the benefit of
using transgenesis and cloning. One such strategy currently
being investigated rigorously to circumvent repetitive and
constant delivery of growth hormone is to target upstream regulators of growth hormone secretion somatotrophs from the anterior pituitary gland. In particular, scientists at Baylor have successfully expressed enough growth
hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) in pig skeletal muscle
to increase circulating insulin-like growth factor I concentrations, which are down-stream of circulating growth
hormone and elucidate peripheral tissue responses in the
body (Draghia-Akli et al., 2002). Furthermore, these pigs
grew at a faster rate than controls. Although this study was
conducted using electroporation of DNA in skeletal muscle,
these data show that the strategy of targeting growth hormone releasing hormone as a means to improve growth
performance via the GH axis is possible and suggest that
83
84
Knockout Swine
In January 2002, we published a technique that resulted
in the removal of gene function (Lai et al., 2002). This technique used a gene trap strategy on fetal-derived fibroblasts
followed by cloning via nuclear transfer. The gene whose
function was removed was alpha (1, 3) galactosyltransferase
(GATT1). The galactose 1, 3 galactose sugar linkage produced by this enzyme is thought to be responsible for hyperacute rejection when pig organs are transferred into primates (Auchincloss and Sachs, 1998, Cooper et al., 2002).
More recently, a second round of selection was performed on cells that had one copy of the GATT1 gene already removed (Phelps et al., 2003). They discovered a single random point mutation that occurred in the reading
frame of the other copy of the gene. These cells were expanded and used for nuclear transfer. Their domestic pigs
now have both copies of the gene rendered non-functional.
Similarly, we used our first GATT1 knockout gilt (NIH
miniature pig) to derive fetal fibroblasts after nuclear transfer. We then added antibodies that recognize the galactose
1,3 galactose sugar linkage and compliment. Thirty-two
clones were identified (~10-4) and one of these clones, after
nuclear transfer and embryo transfer, resulted in a normal
offspring (named Goldie) that did not have a functional
copy of the GATT1. Neither human serum, baboon serum,
nor IB4 lectin binds to the cells isolated from Goldie (Lai et
al, in preparation). Thus she is an excellent candidate for
the production of organs that might be transferred into humans.
A discussion of animals derived by nuclear transfer requires a few words about abnormal phenotypes in offspring
derived by this technology. Generally, these aberrant phenotypes are referred to as Large Offspring Syndrome (LOS).
LOS was first described in cattle that were derived from in
vitro oocyte maturation, in vitro fertilization and culture
prior to embryo transfer. The most prevalent phenotype is
that of a skewed distribution of birth weights, with some of
the offspring over twice the normal size (Walker et al.,
1996, Wilson et al., 1995). The aberrant phenotypes are
species specific: cattle show large birth weights and/or contracted tendons; mice show large placenta and/or obesity in
old age; pigs show contracted tendons and/or respiratory
problems. Fortunately, these phenotypes are not transmitted
to the next generation (Tamashiro et al., 2002, Conway,
1996, Carter et al., 2002), as they appear to be a result of
aberrant DNA methylation in the donor cell line or during
early embryogenesis, and the DNA methylation pattern is
erased and reestablished during gametogenesis (Humpherys
et al., 2001, Rideout et al., 2001). Thus LOS is a management concern only in the first generation, as the aberrant
phenotypes are apparently not passed on to the offspring.
In other instances, mice do not exhibit the expected phenotype. In the case of cystic fibrosis the CFTR is mutated
and results in the lack of chloride ion movement across the
membrane. This gene has been mutated in mice, but there
is no airway disease phenotype (Grubb and Gabriel, 1997),
i.e. mice have a compensatory mechanism. Thus, even
though the mouse is too small to test many of the mechanical treatments that are used for humans that have cystic
fibrosis, it also has no symptoms of the disease. Thus a
knockout of CFTR in another species such as the pig is warranted.
Conclusion
While we now have the technology in-hand to add genes
as well as remove genes, the procedures are not efficient.
Technology that may be used in the near future to create
pigs with specific genetic modifications is that of manipulation of the male germ cell prior to introduction into an animal that has had its germ cells depleted (Brinster, 2002). It
may be possible to perform homologous recombination on
the germ cells prior to formation of the sperm. Transplantation of these cells into a host may permit the production of
genetically modified sperm cells. Then a male carrying
these cells could be used to breed a large number of females and the resulting offspring would carry the genetic
modification.
As previously stated in the introduction, the potential application of genetic modification to meat science is enor85
mous. The ability to make livestock grow faster and produce more meat that is more palatable is exciting and could
revolutionize the animal industry. However, one of the
greatest limitations to the development and propagation of
transgenics, other than the low percentage of viable offspring, is the limited availability of known genes that are
economically important. Moreover, tissue-specific promoters, or those DNA elements responsible for controlling expression of genes, are rather scarce and need further development. Currently, genes like the aforementioned and myostatin, which is responsible for the double muscled syndrome in cattle (McPherron and Lee, 1997), are the only
genes that have been studied sufficiently to merit such an
aggressive means of exploitation in the area of meat production. Of equal importance, however, is the fact that
many of these candidate genes need to be expressed in a
time and tissue-dependent manner. For example, myostatin
is a negative regulator of muscle development (Lee and
McPherron, 2001). In a mutated form, this gene product is
incapable of controlling muscle development properly and
thus yields a double muscled phenotype in cattle. Because
the myostatin may modulate other physiological phenomena in other tissues, transgene expression needs to be directed or restricted to developing skeletal muscle. Furthermore, development of muscle fibers occurs over fairly narrow window of prenatal development. Therefore, the utility
of using myostatin or a mutated form of this gene in transgenics would be greatly enhanced if transgenes were controllable. At present, there are a limited number of promoters available for expressing transgenes in a tissue-specific
manner. The most often used promoter is the muscle
creatine kinase (MCK) promoter (Jaynes et al., 1988). Because MCK is expressed solely in muscle cells, this promoter is ideal for restricting transgene expression to muscle
cells. This promoter has been used successfully to develop a
number of transgenic mouse lines.
Controllable promoters, on the other hand, or those promoters that respond positively or negatively to various
compounds, either fed or injected, have had limited success
outside the cell culture environment. However, continued
development of such reagents must occur if maximal
benefits are going to be realized by transgenic approaches.
As a discipline, it is imperative that we continue to research and study, in detail, those biochemical and molecular processes that drive meat production. As a result of these
efforts, we will continue to discover genes that may some
day be used to generate transgenic animals for commercial
meat production. Since the technology is now available to
make most any genetic modification we are now limited
only by our imagination and baseline data needed to justify
the efforts.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge support from the
NIH (RR13438) and Food for the 21st Century to RSP.
86
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87
88
INGREDIENT TECHNOLOGY
Poultry Industry
Problems
Salmonella is the primary microbial challenge for poultry.
In 1997, USDA 9 CFR 381.94 established Pathogen Reduction Performance Standards for Salmonella and E. coli.
According to the standard, raw poultry product may not test
positive at a rate exceeding the values of the CFR (1998); for
broilers the standard is 20%. Salmonella is reported as incidence (% positive). Salmonella sampling is done by selecting one WOG (without giblets, i.e. an eviscerated bird) and
performing a WBCR (whole bird carcass rinse) with 400 ml
of sterile solution.
Out of a 51 sample window, the maximum number of
positives is 12. If a plant exceeds 12 positives of 52, the
government writes an NR (noncompliance record) The NR
states that the
establishment shall take immediate action to
meet the standard; when the establishment fails
the (2nd) next FSIS 51 sample, reassessment of the
HACCP plan occurs; and failure of the third consecutive series of FSIS tests constitutes failure to
maintain sanitary conditions and adequate
HACCP planwill cause FSIS to suspend inspection services.. Until the establishment submits to
FSIS written assurances detailing corrective action
and measures to reduce the prevalence of pathoHelen G. Brown, Ph.D.
Tyson Foods, Inc.
Food Safety and Research Laboratory
3609 Johnson Road
Springdale, AR 72762
helen.brown@tyson.com
Contents of this article Copyright 2003 by Tyson Foods, Inc., USA. All
rights reserved.
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 89-93)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org
ment tricks over the past five years while trying to conquer
this problem. There are windows of opportunity for time off
feed which impact consistency of fecal material and gut
strength. Plants have gone to extremes of installing new
evisceration equipment, changing and adding more bird
wash cabinets, and in the process increasing number of
gallons of water per bird. Plants prior to institution of zero
fecal tolerance and the E. coli performance standard had
water volume less than 5 gallons per bird. Some plants today use as much as 10 gallons per bird. (For calculation
purposes, this is about 10 million gallons of water per week
for an average poultry slaughter plant!)
Causes
Chickens eat, sit, and walk where they poop. Fecal material etc comes into processing plant in feather follicles. The
scalding process, which is necessary to loosen feathers, can
dissolve protective cuticle, enabling attachment of Salmonella. Bacteria are present on live birds; they go through hot
(scalding) water to soften feathers to enable removing feathers. Scalder water is a common water bath and as such
contains all the debris from the poultry house. After the
birds are picked these, wet birds, have bacteria. During
evisceration, birds drop onto common surfaces prior to being re-hung for the evisceration process. In the mechanical
evisceration process for poultry, the birds touch each
other; they are warm (96+F) (doubling of bacteria occurs
very quickly at this temperatures.) Additionally, crosscontamination or contamination by viscera can occur. Contamination can be bird to bird, or bird to equipment to bird.
(One process that has been studied was to superglue the
guts so they did not leak!)
USDA, ARS researchers at Texas A&M have looked at putting chemicals in the waterers to accomplish the same. Researchers at University of Georgia are using electrolyzed
water and electrostatic spray of chemicals to improve/impact bacteria in the hatching process. One solution is application of competitive microorganisms in live
production. Companies, like Milk Specialties, Inc. (Preempt) and Calsporin, market Competitive Exclusion (CE)
products that exclude the attachment of bacteria in the digestive tract. These are considered drugs by FDA. Most of
these products are used in Japan and in some of the U.S.
primary breeding operations. They consist of lactic acid
bacteria that are applied by spraying the bacteria on eggs in
the hatching cabinets. When the chicks hatch, they preen
and consume the bacteria in the process. This sets up a digestive tract where Salmonella can not attach. Unfortunately, these products are expensive, two cents per chick;
but the bacteria can cause maturation of the gut that justifies this high cost. (Faster maturation of the gut can result in
improved animal performance and bird health.)
In the processing plant, Chlorine (sodium/calcium hypochlorite and gas) was historically the antimicrobial. With
a Zero Fecal (tolerance) in place and USDA approval for
OLR, several solutions have been added to the antimicrobial arsenal. Below is a list of several solutions that are
approved for OLR.
1.
2.
When poultry has visible contamination (specifically fecal, feed materials) birds must be reprocessed. This originally involved removal from the line and trim, trim, trim!).
For several years now On Line Reprocessing (OLR) has
been allowed by USDA. This process has three major parts:
Wash to remove fecal,
Treat with antimicrobial,
Trim while on line.
Solutions
Poultry is vertically integrated, where companies control
chicks, feed, management practices, yet most houses are
actually owned by individual growers. There are one to ten
houses per individual grower and the water comes from
wells on the farm and the quality of water varies from
grower to grower. In an attempt to control the amount of
moisture that birds walk etc on, birds drink from nipple
drinkers. Wet litter causes increased levels of fecal material
in feather follicles and also changes the bacterial population
on the birds. Litter beetles are a vector of Salmonella in
chickens. Farmers in warm regions tend to have high levels
of beetles and it is not surprising that farms with a high beetle population have bird health and feed conversion problems.
Acetic acid, i.e. vinegar, and chlorine (household bleach)
are frequently used in the drinking water to control bacteria.
90
4.
Beef
Problems
The primary microbial problem to the beef industry is E.
coli O157 H7. There are two types of interventions on beef:
whole carcass interventions and ingredients used to reduce microorganisms on beef trimmings and ground beef.
There is no intervention that is a silver bullet; multiple hurdles are put in place to reduce microbial loads and then
products have to be cooked above a temperature that in56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference
Product
Application
21 CFR
173.370
Beef carcasses
Secondary direct
food additive/Processing
Aid
Acidified
sodium
chlorite
21 CFR
173.325
Secondary direct
food additive/Processing
Aid
Ozone
21 CFR
173.368
Secondary direct
food additive/Processing
Aid
Sources of
ionizing
radiation
21 CFR
179.26
Food additive
Lactoferrin
Peroxyacids
Reference
GRAS
Notice
(FDA
Website)
Secondary direct food additives are defined as processing aids by FDA definitions (not USDA) and the effects are
momentary, with no residual effects. Hence the ingredient
does not impact the label or standard of identity. Acids are
good examples of processing aids; their functions are approved (as acidulants, nutrients, antioxidants, etc). For use
as an antimicrobial, the chemical companies have to submit
data showing processing aid use and no residual impact on
sensory characteristics (color or odor), or shelf life, or leave
a detectable residual. If there is use according to labeling
definition, the solutions actually become ingredients
and hence need to be on the label. Although there have
been other chemicals that are seeking approval, some
products are not focusing on trim applications because of
impact of acid on organoleptics: i.e. pigment! Mionix Calcium Acid Sulfate and Sterifx are probably in this category.
Lactoferrin is one of the new generations of solutions
for fighting bacteria. It provides protection against most major pathogens (E. coli, Listeria, Campylobacter, Salmonella,
and Staph). Activated Lactoferrin (aLF) was granted GRAS
status by FDA in October, 2001, and approval by USDA for
use on beef in December, 2001. The use requires labeling
contains Lactoferrin, a naturally occurring dairy ingredient. There are two different applications a spray followed
by rinse whereby bacteria are detached and spray on
92
and leave on for a residual effect This keeps down bacterial growth perhaps similar to CE. Terminus Lab Inc. (who
had partnered with Farmland National Beef in the first use
of this solution) is making application as a processing aid
status for the detachment intervention. Information from
Terminus Lab indicates that Lactoferrin protects up to 45
days when left on the beef, hence there is an extension of
shelf life. One function of Lactoferrin is to absorb free iron
that pathogens use and whether one in the same, it neutralizes pathogens by eliminating attachment structures.
Peroxyacetic acid, the same product that is being used in
OLR for Poultry, is approved for use as a red meat antimicrobial. This is in the same family as the Inspexx used for
on line reprocessing in poultry. In November, 2000, Inspexx 200 was approved by FDA (FR Vol. 65, No. 228,
70660-1). In February, 2001, commercial processing plant
initiated Inspexx 200 as a pre-steam antimicrobial. Then,
April 24, 2001 Excel established exclusive application. The
peroxy acid has a double whammy antimicrobially speaking; it oxidizes and then has a lower the pH. It has been
applied at a number of intervention points; before the evisceration cabinet, both pre and post pasteurization, after the
hot water pasteurization, and in hot box applications. It has
also been used on pork carcasses after the final wash, in hot
box spray chilling and pre fabrication. Ecolab data has presented data showing comparable cost to organic acids, and
greater efficacy in reducing contamination. Currently, FDA
approval is being sought for application to offal (head,
tongue, etc.) and Meat Trimmings for Ground Beef.
Acidified sodium chlorite, (ASC) has been used both pre
and post chill on beef carcasses. ASC has been used at
1000 ppm in a post skinning spray with significant reductions for APC: 2.4 log reduction in APC VS .25 log reduction with 2% Lactic acid. This reduction was attributed to
the short attachment time in carcasses treated right after
skinning. A 2-log reduction in APC was achieved when ASC
was applied post chill: 4.4 log vs. 2.4 log (APC cfu/cm2
Data from Sanova 2003).
Ozone and Radiation are both approved as antimicrobials on beef. Ozone, which is a gas, can be solubilized in
water for a millisecond and has been used in poultry chill
waters. There are difficulties because of the short stability of
the compound and because although a powerful oxidant, it
oxidizes all organic matter including the fat, lean of the
carcass, and shackles plus everything in the processing
plant. Radiation of the whole carcass is very difficult to accomplish, but frozen ground beef patties are currently being
treated with low doses of radiation to kill bacteria. Although
radiation must be labeled as an additive, the problems of
public perception and cost have obviously been overcome
for ground beef patties.
done to solve the problem of Listeria. Recalls are a producer/processors worst nightmare. When publicity surrounds one particular company and product (e.g. Minnesota
firm recalls ground beef products for possible E. coli
O157:h7 August 22, 2002), all the industry suffers. Stock
prices can drop 10-20% reacting to huge recalls. And there
have been companies who have ended up becoming part of
larger companies because of (e.g. a 24 million pound)
ground beef recall. The USDA FSIS has a web site where
recall information is constantly updated. I went through the
list of recalls for 2002 and through May 2003. In 2003
USDA recalls were split about evenly between Listeria and
E. coli O157, and there were a couple of recalls for Salmonella on pork or beef (probably raw). In 2003, there were no
recalls for micro on raw poultry. There have been 25 recalls
of poultry and meat products this year: two for ground
beef/beef trim for E. coli O157 and seven for Listeria potentially on fully cooked products. (One was chicken salad, 2
were pork products, and others were frankfurters, bologna,
sausage.)
Class I: A health hazard situation where there is a reasonable probability that the use of the product will
cause serious, adverse health consequences or death.
Class II: A health hazard situation where there is a remote probability of adverse health consequences from
the use of the product.
Class III: A situation where the use of the product will
not cause adverse health consequences.
Listeria Recalls are Class I or II. In 2002 a USDA FSIS
Positive Product Listeria Sample at Wampler Foods triggered
the largest recall ever (27.4 million pounds of fresh and
frozen ready-to-eat turkey and chicken products.) This led
to increased Listeria testing at fully cooked processing plants
as new regulations were promulgated. Purac has introduced
PURASAL Lactic acid products that can be added to vacuum packaged, uncured and cured meat products as a
natural antimicrobial
Causes
Listeria is an adulterant with zero tolerance. The problem
is very apparent the solutions are not quite so. Fully cooked
product is sterile, but because Listeria grows in a damp environment, sets up in niches, and forms biofilm that can not
be removed during cleaning and sanitation, the environment presents many opportunities for microbial contamination during slicing, packaging, handling etc.
Solutions
This spring USDA-FSIS proposed regulations that require
processing plants to have Listeria control programs in place.
There are 3 methods a plant can use based on risk. What
subsequently happens is that plants have to apply solutions to their problem or face extreme sampling, holding,
and destruction, risk the NRs and in general have potential
of a lot of bad PR.
The risk assignment from lowest to highest are:
1.
2.
3.
Listeria is heat and salt tolerant, and grows at cold temperature. Solutions for most micro are heat and sanitation.
Unfortunately, this problem is not quite as simply fixed as it
appears. Tyson Foods, Inc. has led the industry with a
Trademarked Listeria Sentinel Site monitoring program.
Contact and non contact surfaces are monitored daily for
Listeria. Products are retained until results are negative and
positive contact surfaces result in a swat team approach to
finding exactly what causes the positive (e.g. maintenance
personnel moving from raw to fully cooked areas, laying
contaminated tools on a food contact belt etc.) The latest
regulation defines the solutions based on risk. There have
been a number of technologies introduced to prevent and
control these problems. Post lethality treatments include
radiant,(infra red), UV, heating, hot water, steam pasteurization, high pressure. Antimicrobial agents may be added to
the product formulation, to the finished product or package.
Antimicrobial processes include freezing, addition of lactates, acetates, diacetates, salt, nitrites, acid, or other additives to drop the water activity.
Below is a table of Solutions for Fully Cooked Meat
Products- specifically lactates and diacetates. Because of
the above regulation much of the industry has undertaken
to add lactates, acetates and diacetates to their fully cooked
products. This reduces the risk level and sampling and provides a comfort zone (because when Listeria is present during refrigerated shelf life there is no growth.) Purac has
developed a tool to calculate levels of their/these products
that will retard growth of LM in cured products that USDA
actually cites: the Opti.Form Listeria Control Model. The
effect of these antimicrobials is self evident (Source Bedie et
al., 2001). No pathogen growth @ 70 days with 3% sodium
acetate; 120 days @ 6%. 120 days no growth with .5P%
sodium diacetate vs 50 days @.25P%. Sodium acetate is
less effective but still inhibits Listeria growth as opposed to
product with no Purasal.
Table 2. Solutions for fully cooked meat products.
Antimicrobial
Sodium lactate
Sodium diacetate
Sodium acetate
Sodium lactate
Sodium diacetate
Control
Level
(%)
3
0.25
0.25,
0.5
6
.5
0
93
94
INGREDIENT TECHNOLOGY
Market
Since the 1980s, consumer interest in and demand for,
natural and organic products has increased, both in the U.S.
and Europe. As a result, use of synthetic additives has declined while additives considered to be natural have grown,
largely because the latter are perceived as safer. The natural
trend, coupled with the growing market for premium food
products, has driven the use of natural antioxidants like
tocopherols (vitamin E), natural herbal flavorings, and
ascorbic acid (vitamin C).
Many herbal extracts have antioxidant properties, and are
therefore used as food antioxidants. The antioxidant function can generally be linked to the presence of phenolic
compounds such as rosmanol, carnosic acid, carnosol, and
rosmarinic acid. The herbal extract most commonly used as
a food antioxidant is rosemary (rosmarinus officinalis),
which is native to most Mediterranean countries, and is
now readily available throughout Europe (Frost and Sullivan
et al., 2002). Although U.S. corporations lag behind the
production capabilities of firms in the EU, some U.S. companies are growing rosemary in the southern states and increasing production capabilities.
Natural Antioxidants
Natural antioxidants are commonly derived from plant
sources, and the efficacy is determined by plant species,
variety, extraction and/or processing methods, and the
growing environment. The mode of action for these substances will vary depending upon the source material, the
presence of synergists and antagonists, and of course the
food matrix applied to.
In order to use any antioxidant preparation in food, it
must be safe; easy to incorporate; effective at low concentrations; possess no undesirable odor, flavor or color; be
heat stable and have economic benefit. The possible effects
of antagonists must be carefully considered since an antioxidant may become a prooxidant in the presence of certain other molecules or at high concentrations. For exam95
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
10
11
12
It is generally recognized that carnosic acid has the highest antioxidant potency of all the compounds found in
rosemary extracts. As carnosic acid oxidizes, it cascades
from one antioxidant to another, acting as a primary antioxidant throughout this cascade, and protecting the food
system (RFI et al.). The phenomenon has been termed, the
Carnosic Acid Cascade. When carnosic acid donates a hydrogen to quench a free radical, it forms the antioxidant
carnosol, which in turn forms another, rosmanol and so on.
Carnosic acid thus has secondary and tertiary antioxidant
formation mechanisms, although carnosol and rosmanol
have only ~45% the potency of carnosic acid (RFI et al.).
Many herbal extracts obtained from rosemary, sage, and
oregano also contain hydrophilic antioxidants including
compounds like rosmarinic acid that can act synergistically
with the more lipophilic antioxidants. The blend of compounds is very important as it ensures a multi-phase food
system will be broadly protected. Conversely, more lipophilic antioxidants like tocopherols may be blended with
natural emulsifiers like lecithin, which increases dispersability within a multi-phase system, and increase the effectiveness of the formulations. As seen in Figure 2, herbal products can also take advantage of this emulsification effect
(Haworth et al.)
30
25
20
15
10
5
Commercial
Rosemary
prod./Lecithin (1000
PPM/5000 PPM)
Commercial
Rosemary prod.
(1000 PPM)
0
Mixed
Tocopherols/Lecithin
(300 PPM/5000 PPM)
Control
Month
Herbals
Mixed Tocopherols
(300 PPM)
Increased consumer demand for foodstuffs free from additives has lead to a growing interest in products that are
perceived as natural. Herbal and tocopherol/vitamin Ebased products, in particular, are recognized by consumers
as being natural. Furthermore, regulations permit the labeling of herbal extracts and/or tocopherols as natural, which
is an appealing option to most food producers.
50
Antioxidant Treatment
Figure 2. Emulsification effects on mixed tocopherols and a commercially available rosemary product.
96
Meats
The most important reference to the consumer when
making a meat purchase decision is color. Consumers notice differences in color among meat products, and make
purchase decisions based upon those differences. It has
been estimated that up to 20% of all products are price reduced, discarded, or reprocessed due to discoloration and
consumer perceptions of the product being rancid (Sherbeck et al., 1995). Many retailers increase the overall price
of all meat products to compensate for lost margin associated with these problems.
Research has shown that natural antioxidants can improve the shelf life of meat products by delaying the onset
lar benefits. In a recent study published by the British Poultry Science Journal, poultry diets were supplemented with
either vitamin E, rosemary extract, or sage extract. Results
with all three treatments showed a marked improvement in
the shelf life of the uncooked refrigerated white meat sections (Lopez-Bote et al., 1998).
Summary
In conclusion, the main goal of incorporating natural antioxidants into foods, specifically meats, is to increase product quality and overall appeal to consumers. Increasing the
shelf life of meat products by incorporating natural antioxidants can be done in many ways including direct addition
of primary and/or secondary antioxidants, bioavailability
into the muscle via dietary administration, or combinations
of the aforementioned. There is a growing consumer trend
to seek natural ingredients, which bodes well for the use of
natural antioxidants in foods for the years to come.
References
Frankel, F. N. 1998. Lipid Oxidation Scotland: The Oily Press LTD.
Frost and Sullivan. 2002. European and United States Food Antioxidants
Markets, Document #3952-88. Available for purchase from:
http://www.frost.com.
98
TEACHING
101
102
TEACHING
ANSCI 209
The first ideal employee quality that Mark Franzreb identified in his presentation was science is a given. I am interpreting Marks quotation to mean that a Cryovac employee must possess some fundamental/technical knowledge and skills related to meat science and food packaging.
I think most of us here today would agree that the imparting
of such knowledge and expertise is one of our major responsibilities as institutions of higher learning. Meat science
instruction has been around a long time, with many land
grant institutions implementing introductory courses in the
early 1900s. Such Meat Science pioneers as Bull, Loeffel,
Mackintosh, Kunkle, Ziegler, Francioni, and Bray initiated
the instructional process.
ANSCI 210
ANSCI 309
Meat Science
ANSCI 409
Muscle Biology
At the University of Illinois, the original meat science facility, including office and processing areas, was located in
Davenport Hall and dedicated in 1901; the first meats
course was taught in 1902. Much has changed since 1901
including facilities, students, instructors, and subject matter.
Typical/Traditional Courses
I am going to take the liberty of characterizing the University of Illinois Meat Science/Muscle Biology academic
program as somewhat traditional and therefore similar to
many universities and colleges represented here this afternoon. I have listed those Meat Science/Muscle Biology
courses that we offer at the University of Illinois:
ANSCI 100
ANSCI 109
ANSCI 119
Meat Technology
Tom R. Carr
Professor
University of Illinois
205B Meat Science
1503 South Maryland Drive
Urbana, IL 61801
t-carr1@uiuc.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 103-104)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org
Student Outcomes
What technical information and skills should our graduates possess? In reading the information that describes the
AMSA Quiz Bowl, I was really intrigued by the list of topics
that may be addressed in that competition. The topics listed
were history of the meat industry, muscle structure and
function, conversion of muscle to meat, food safety and
HACCP, meat microbiology, meat grading, meat processing, meat industry and organizations, sensory evaluation,
meat palatability, meat marketing and pricing, and others. I
am certainly glad that I have matured to the point that I do
not have to participate in such ego deflating activities. Certainly, the University of Illinois would address some of these
topics very effectively, while other areas would be covered
rather superficially. I suspect most institutions would be in
the same boat.
103
104
Educational Gaps
Where do we fall short in preparing our students for a
dynamic meat industry? According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, the following personal traits
were identified as critical for a successful industry career:
communication skills, honesty/integrity, teamwork skills,
interpersonal skills, motivation/initiative, strong work ethic,
analytical skills, flexibility/adaptability, computer skills, and
organizational skills. Do we consider how we can improve
a students teamwork, leadership, and communication skills
as we prepare and organize that meat science course we
have taught for ten years? How can we emphasize the
importance of honesty and a strong work ethic in a
traditional course setting: Some meat science graduates will
begin their meat industry careers supervising plant
personnel on a production line. Will they have the
communication and interpersonal skills as well as the selfconfidence to successfully meet their job responsibilities?
How many students have had the opportunity to complete a
labor/industrial relations course? The development of life
skills will continue to challenge meat science/muscle
biology faculty as we prepare students for the meat industry.
References
JobWeb.com-Career development and job search help for college graduates. 2003. National Association of Colleges and Employers, 62 Highland Avenue, Bethlehem, PA 18017-9085.
POSTER SESSION
with increasing WCS in the steers fed the corn diet, whereas
it remained unchanged or even decreased slightly in the
steers fed the flaxseed or milo-based diets (interaction,
P<0.02). Steers fed flaxseed had a greater (P<0.01) s.c. adipose concentration of vaccenic acid (18:1 trans-11) than the
steers fed milo and tended (P<0.07) to have greater amount
of vaccenic acid than steers fed corn alone. Steers fed flaxseed also had greater (P<0.01) s.c. and i.f. percentages of linolenic acid (18:3, n-3) than steers fed either of the other
grain sources. Steers fed flaxseed had the largest mean i.f.
adipocyte volume (P<0.01), and s.c. adipocyte mean volume tended to be larger (P<0.06). The increases in saturated
fatty acids in s.c. adipose tissue appear to have been the
result of the decreased SCD activity in s.c. adipose tissue
with increased inclusion of WCS. Increased dietary linolenic acid from flaxseed may have increased s.c. adipocyte volume by stimulating lipogenesis. These data indicate
that rations formulated to provide increased levels of linolenic acid (i.e., flaxseed) will increase feed efficiency
and lipogenesis from acetate without altering either the
quality or composition of the beef carcasses. Additionally,
the inclusion of WCS in milo diets may cause a decrease in
efficiency, less salable lean, and more saturated fat.
Key Words: Steers, Adipose Metabolism, Linolenic Acid
FATTY ACID PROFILES AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF
LONGISSIMUS DORSI, TRICEPS BRACHIL AND
SEMIMEMBRANOSUS MUSCLES FROM HANWOO AND
ANGUS BEEF
S. H. Cho, J. H. Kim, B. Y. Park, Y. M. Yoo, I. H. Hwang, J.
M. Lee
e-mail: shc0915@rda.go.kr
National Livestock Research Institute
Variation in fatty acid composition has an important effects
on meat quality especially with the subcutaneous and intermuscular (carcass fat) but also the intramuscular (marbling) fat. The aim of this study was to compare the fatty
acid profiles for 3 muscles (Longissimus dorsi, LD, Triceps
brachii, TB and Semimembranosus, SM) obtained from
thirty-eight carcasses (18 steers of Hanwoo, 24 month old,
313-409kg carcass weight and 18 steers of Angus, 24
month, 342-423kg carcass weight) and assess their role in
sensory perception. The following day of slaughter, the carcasses were boned and the LD, SM and TB removed, vacuum packed, and aged at a 1C chiller for 7days to breaking
into blocks for sensory evaluation and objective measurements including fatty acid analysis. The samples of each
105
Acid-SIP extracted proteins had significantly less fat, cholesterol and ash than the original meat and bone meal. For
Acid-SIP proteins from PH and PMB, the WHA (2.230.53
and 2.250.37g water/g protein, respectively) was comparable to comminuted meat batters from turkey (DaumThunberg et al, 1992). Cook yields were above 90% for
both meat types after treatment with Acid-SIP. Texture Profile Analysis of the cooked links further demonstrated the
gelling ability. Except for springiness, textural attributes of
PMB with and without NaCl were not significantly different.
Texture attributes of PH without salt were comparable to
PMB, but PH with NaCl further enhanced the gelling ability.
Based on results, utilizing Acid-SIP on PH and PMB improved nutritional composition and textural properties. Proteins obtained remained functional after extraction process
so further work is needed to see if this method would have
economic value when applied to mechanically separated
meat and other byproducts. AOAC (1995). Official methods
of analysis (15th ed.). Washington DC: Association of Official Analytical Chemistry.Daum-Thunberg, DL, Foegeding,
EA, & Ball, HR. (1992). Rheological and water-holding
properties of comminuted turkey breast and thigh: effects of
pH. Journal Food Science, 57(2), 333-337.
Key Words: Pork, Acid solubilization isoelectric precipitation, Functionality
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN -CALPAIN AUTOLYSIS AND
IMMUNOLOCALIZATION IN PORK MYOFIBRILS
1
Jamie Melody, 2Laura Rowe, 2Ted Huiatt, 2Steven Lonergan, 2Elisabeth Huff-Lonergan
e-mail: elonerga@iastate.edu
1
PIC, USA, 2Iowa State University
Degradation of myofibrillar/cytoskeletal proteins in postmortem muscle plays an important role in the development
of tenderness and water-holding capacity of pork. The calpain system degrades some of these key myofibrillar/cytoskeletal proteins. One of the isoforms of the calpain
enzymes, -calpain, has been implicated most often as the
isoform likely to be responsible for many of the proteolytic
changes observed in meat. Several factors influence calpain
activity including free calcium concentration, inhibitor (calpastatin) activity, and autolysis. In living muscle, -calpain
is considered a soluble, sarcoplasmic protein. In postmortem bovine muscle, immunoblotting has shown that calpain becomes associated with myofibrils. This association increases as postmortem aging time progresses; however, it is not clear whether -calpain precipitates nonspecifically onto the myofibril or if it binds to certain regions of the myofibril. Therefore, the objective of this study
was to examine the relationship between autolysis and localization of -calpain in early postmortem myofibrils.
Halothane negative Duroc pigs (n = 16) were harvested at
the Iowa State University Meat Laboratory. Temperature
and pH measurements of the psoas major muscle were
taken at 0.5, 0.75, 1, 6, 12, and 24 hours postmortem.
Muscle samples were collected from the left side of each
56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference
POSTER SESSION
quality and tissue fatty acid composition. Steers were randomly allotted to one of three diets: 1) basal high concentrate diet (NONE; 88% concentrate, 12% grass hay), 2)
basal diet plus 4% canola oil (CA), or 3) basal diet plus 3%
canola oil and 1% crude fish oil (FISHCA). All steers were
implanted with Synovex-S at the initiation of the study and
fed the basal diet (NONE) for the first 41 d. After 41 d on
feed, animals were gradually switched to treatment diets
over a two-week period. From d 56 to harvest (d 106), all
steers received their appropriate treatment rations. At 24 h
postmortem, carcass data was collected, and samples were
removed from each carcass for subsequent fatty acid, sensory, shear force and lipid oxidation analyses. Data were
analyzed with dietary treatment in the model. Average daily
gain tended (P = 0.07) to be greater for FISHCA than NONE
or CA during the final 50 d on feed when treatment diets
were fed. Hot carcass weight, dressing percentage, fat
thickness, ribeye area or yield grade did not differ (P >0.05)
between treatments. Marbling score and quality grade were
higher (P <0.05) for CA and FISHCA than NONE. Lipid oxidation (TBARS, mg malonaldehyde/ kg sample) was greater
(P <0.05) for FISHCA than CA or NONE, and TBARS values
increased (P <0.05) over storage time in all treatments.
Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBS) values tended (P = 0.06)
to be higher for CA than FISHCA, with NONE being intermediate. Sensory panelist off-flavor scores were greater (P
<0.05) for FISHCA ground beef compared to NONE or CA,
which did not differ (P >0.05). Ground beef samples from
steers fed NONE or FISHCA received higher (P <0.05) juiciness and tenderness scores from sensory panelists compared
to CA. Steaks from animals fed CA received higher (P
<0.05) juiciness ratings by sensory panelists than NONE or
FISHCA, which were similar (P >0.05). Initial and overall
tenderness, beef flavor, and off-flavor ratings of steaks did
not differ (P >0.05) by dietary treatment. Concentration of
the cis-9, trans-11 CLA isomer was 30% higher (P <0.05) in
ground beef from FISHCA than NONE or CA, which were
similar (P >0.05). Concentrations of omega-3 fatty acids did
not differ (P >0.05) by dietary treatment for ground beef.
Feeding supplemental oils improved marbling score and
quality grades. Feeding supplemental fish oil decreased
WBS values in longissimus muscle samples. The addition of
fish oil with canola oil to finishing cattle diets increased
CLA concentration, lipid oxidation, and off-flavors in
ground beef. Addition of fish oil with canola oil did not
affect off-flavor ratings of steaks.
Key Words: Fish Oil, Meat Quality, Beef
109
Mean
6.0
60.7
1.62
2.52
2.96
426.1
255.8
60.0
149.8
0.586
SD
2.4
8.1
0.51
0.59
0.72
33.8
24.0
1.59
13.0
0.020
Range
2.5-10.2
49.1-76.1
1.0-2.5
1.80-3.80
2.00-4.00
356.5-485.3
213.9-300.3
57.5-63.1
125.9-169.8
0.559-0.636
Thirteen Aberdeen Angus steers finished under similar grazing conditions were harvested and fabricated to establish
the relationship between carcass traits (CT) and retail yield
(RY) in grass-finished beef. After 12 h of fasting and immediately before slaughter, live weight (LW) was recorded. CT
110
IN
113
114
POSTER SESSION
115
116
117
bloom time for all eight muscles at d-7 postmortem. Samples were frozen at d-7 postmortem and later thawed and
cooked to 70C for Warner-Bratzler shear force determination. Coefficients of determination (r 2) were calculated using linear regression for inter-muscle relationships and
quadratic regression for intra-muscle relationships. Coefficients of determination (r 2) for using LL L* to predict L*
readings of other muscles were significant (P<0.05) for GM
(0.71), ST (0.70), SM (0.65), TF (0.41), RF (0.34), PM (0.30),
and BF (0.24). Coefficients of determination (r 2) for using LL
ph to predict pH readings of other muscles were significant
(P<0.05) for GM (0.58), ST (0.49), SM (0.42), BF (0.13), PM
(0.09), RF (0.05), and TF (0.04). Coefficients of determination (r 2) for individual muscles for using LL shear force to
predict shear force values of other muscles were significant
(P<0.05) for RF (0.27), GM (0.22), SM (0.19), ST (0.15), BF
(0.13), and TF (0.09). Coefficients of determination (R 2),
calculated separately for each muscle, for using pH and pH
2
to predict shear force were significant (P<0.05) for SM
(0.26), GM (0.25, LL (0.11), and ST (0.08). When dark cutters (n = 11) were excluded from analysis, the relationship
between pH and shear force was generally weaker (R 2 =
0.11 for SM, 0.10 for GM, 0.04 for LL, 0.07 for ST). Coefficients of determination (R 2), calculated separately for each
muscle, for using L* and L* 2 to predict shear force were
significant (P<0.05) for LL (0.20), SM (0.14), GM (0.12), TF
(0.09), and RF (0.08). When dark cutters (n = 11) were excluded from the analysis the relationship between L* and
shear force changed only slightly (R 2 = 0.17 for LL, 0.10 for
TF and RF, and 0.09 for SM). For BF and PM, the relationships of shear force with pH and shear force with L* were
not significant (P<0.05). In general, color, pH, and shear
force of LL exhibited weak to moderate relationships to
color, pH, and shear force of the other muscles. Within
muscles, shear force was related to color and pH of SM,
GM, and LL.
Key Words: pH, Muscle differences, Tenderness
3rd Place, M.S. Division
Graduate Research Poster Competition
sponsored by Sara Lee Foods
EVALUATING CONSUMER ACCEPTABILITY AND
WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR VARIOUS BEEF CHUCK
MUSCLES
A. C. Kukowski, R. J. Maddock, S. W. Fausti, G. L. Taylor,
D. M. Wulf
e-mail: annakukowski@hotmail.com
South Dakota State University
Muscles from USDA Choice boneless boxed beef subprimals were aged 14 days, frozen, and cut into 2.5-cm-thick
steaks. Consumers received two of each type of steak for inhome evaluations of uncooked steak appearance traits and
cooked steak palatability. After in-home evaluation of
steaks, consumers participated in a random-nth-price auction session to determine willingness to pay for those steaks.
Muscles differed for overall like of appearance (P<.05) with
the LD, TB, and SS rated similar and highest, and the SV
lowest. Like of shape, size, and leanness differed among
muscles (P<.05) with the LD and TB rated similar and highest for like of shape, and the SV the lowest; the LD rated
highest for like of size, the SS and SV similar and lowest; the
LD rated highest for like of leanness, the SV lowest. Palatability traits differed among muscles (P<.05) with the LD
rated highest for overall like, and the SS and SV similar and
lowest; the LD and IF rated similar and highest for tenderness, the SS and SV similar and lowest; the LD and IF rated
similar and highest for juiciness, and the SS lowest; the LD
and IF rated similar and highest for flavor, and the SV and
SS similar and lowest. Weighted-average price per pound
(determined using binding price for each auction round; n =
35) was $4.38, $4.23, $3.78, $2.82, and $1.96 for the LD,
IF, TB, SS and the SV, respectively. Average price differentials (determined using all bid prices for each auction
round; n = 370) differed significantly from the LD and were
$-0.71, $-0.79, $-1.75, and $-2.44 per pound for the TB, IF,
SS and SV, respectively. Average price differentials were not
different between the TB and IF (P>.05). Average price differentials for the SS and SV were different from the TB and
IF and each other (P<.05). Average appearance trait differentials were significantly correlated to average price differentials; for the IF, like of shape had the highest correlation (r
= .28); for the TB like of leanness had the highest correlation (r = .52); for the SS overall like of appearance was the
only significant contributor of appearance traits for average
price differential (r = .29); for the SV like of size had the
highest correlation (r = .46). Average palatability trait differentials were significantly correlated to average price differential; for the IF overall like had the highest correlation (r =
.39); for the TB juiciness had the highest correlation (r =
.45); for the SS tenderness had the highest correlation (r =
.41); for the SV overall like had the highest correlation (r =
.44). Demand analysis showed demand decreased by
2.60%, 2.44%, 2.09%, 1.96%, and 1.59% for every 1.00%
increase in price for the SS, TB, LD, IF, and SV respectively.
These data indicate the IF and TB were acceptable to consumers as steaks, however at prices lower than the LD.
Key Words: Beef, Consumer, Willingness-to-pay
In-home consumer steak evaluations, followed by centralized laboratory setting auctions (n = 74 consumers) were
used to determine consumer acceptability and willingness
to pay for various beef chuck muscles. Four muscles from
the beef chuck: the infraspinatus (IF), serratus ventralis (SV),
supraspinatus (SS), and the triceps brachii (TB), and the
longissimus (LD) from the rib were evaluated, with the LD
used as a reference to determine price and trait differentials.
56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference
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POSTER SESSION
127
study was to elucidate which portion of myosin was destabilized, i.e. subfragment-1(S-1), rod, or both by means of
thermal analysis of oxidatively stressed myosin. Myofibrils
prepared from commercial postrigor chicken breast muscle
were treated with non-enzymatic, hydroxyl radicalgeneration systems (HRGS) consisting of 0.1 mM ascorbic
acid, 0.01 mM ferric chloride, and 0.1-5 mM of hydrogen
peroxide at 0C for 18 h. Oxidized myofibrils were washed
with a 0.1 M potassium chloride, 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5)
buffer to remove HRGS, and subsequently subjected to heat
treatment at 45-49C for up to 24 h. Changes in myosin CaATPase activity and salt solubility as well as chymotryptic
production of S-1 and rod from myosin were monitored as
indices of the thermal denaturation process of myosin. CaATPase (0.2 mg/ml myofibrillar protein) was assayed in the
medium of 0.5 M potassium chloride, 5 mM calcium chloride, 25 mM Tris-maleate (pH 7.0), and 1 mM ATP at 25C.
Salt solubility of myosin was densitometrically determined
from SDS-PAGE of salt soluble fraction of the oxidized myofibrils in 0.5 M potassium chloride with 1 mM ATP-Mg.
Chymotryptic digestion of myofibrils was carried out in the
medium of 0.1 M potassium chloride with 1 mM EDTA, and
the production of S-1 as well as rod was determined by
densitometry of SDS-PAGE. HRGS treatment of myofibrils
caused cross-linking of myosin heavy chains via disufide
bonding and an increase in Ca-ATPase activity, suggesting
that thiol groups of myosin including those at the active site
were modified. On the other hand, salt solubility and chymotryptic digestibility of myosin was not affected by HRGS
treatment. HRGS treatment promoted thermal inactivation
and insolubilization of myosin, confirming that oxidation of
myofibrils decreased thermal stability of myosin. Furthermore, a decrease in chymotryptic production of S-1 and rod
from myosin by heat treatment of myofibrils was observed.The S-1 production from myosin in the oxidized
myofibrils decreased more rapidly than that in unoxidized
myofibrils. The decrease in S-1 production by heat treatment was in accordance with the Ca-ATPase decay. However, the HRGS treatment did not affect chymotryptic production of rod from myosin by heat treatment. The results
strongly suggested that destabilization of myosin due to
oxidation occurred in the S-1 portion rather than the rod
portion. The altered myosin denaturation pattern as induced
by oxidation may explain functionality changes in oxidatively stressed myofibrillar proteins including gelation.
Key Words: Myosin, Oxidation, Denaturation
129
(H, M, and L, respectively). Also, last rib fat was different for
barrows (2.49 cm) and for gilts (2.16 cm;P<0.05). Star fat
weight increased with the weight groups (0.08, 0.10 and
0.11 kg, respectively for L, M and H;P<0.05). Linear fat
measurements did not consistently predict star fat weight.
Star fat area measurements had a correlation to seam fat
weight (0.29). The three subcutaneous fat depth measurements taken at the midpoint, ventral and dorsal sites had
moderate correlations of (0.17, 0.19 and 0.19, respectively)
to star fat weight. However, these midpoint, ventral and
dorsal fat depth measurements had higher correlations to
seam fat (0.35, 0.29 and 0.28, respectively) and subcutaneous fat (0.76, 0.72 and 0.71, respectively). Both, seam and
subcutaneous fat can explain a portion of the variation in
star fat weight using cubic (R 2 = 0.27) and linear regressions (R 2 = 0.30), respectively. In addition, hot carcass
weight can explain a portion of the variation in star fat
weight using cubic regression (R 2 = 0.27). By utilizing a
few key variables, star fat weight could be minimized in
ham production.
Key Words: Pork, Composition, Ham
EFFECT OF ERYTHORBATE, STORAGE AND PACKAGING
ON PREMATURE BROWNING IN GROUND BEEF
S.P. Suman, C Faustman, S Lee, J Tang,PVasudevan, T Annamalai, M Manojkumar,PMarek, K.S. Venkitanarayanan
e-mail: cfaustma@canr.uconn.edu
University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT
The color of cooked ground beef is often used as an indicator of doneness. For safety reasons, it is recommended that
the center of ground beef products be cooked to 71C. Premature browning (PMB) is the condition in which beef may
appear done before reaching 71C. Ground beef with added
erythorbate at 0.04%(ERY), and without erythorbate (CON),
was formed into patties. In Experiment 1, patties were
stored at 4C for 48 hr (REF), or at -18C for 21 days (FROZ),
or frozen at -18C for 21 days, thawed at 4C for 24 hr (F-T),
and cooked. Bulk ground beef (0.5kg) was stored (BULK) at
-18C for 24 days, thawed for 24 hr at 4C, and patties prepared and cooked immediately. In Experiment 2, patties
were overwrapped with PVC film (WRAP) or packed in
Modified Atmospheres (80% O2 and 20% N2), stored for
48 hr at 4C (MAP), or frozen for 21 days at -18C (MAPF)
and cooked. Total reducing activity (TRA) of the meat was
measured immediately prior to cooking. The patties were
cooked to internal end point temperatures of 60, 66, 71
and 77C. External raw color and internal cooked color ( L*,
a* and b* values) were measured. TRA was higher for ERY
for all storage conditions; FROZ ERY patties had higher TRA
than F-T ERY and REF ERY treatments ( P<0.05). After 48 hr
MAP storage at 4C, TRA was lower for CON and ERY
when compared to their aerobically packaged counterparts
( P<0.05). Beef with 0.04% erythorbate and cooked to internal temperatures of 60, 66 and 71C had higher a* values than CON ( P<0.05). The a* values for cooked patties
were higher for ERY than CON under all storage and pack56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference
POSTER SESSION
Food Safety
MICROBIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BEEF TOP BUTTS
STORED AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURE SCENARIOS
DURING AGING
J. M. Behrends, J. W. Savell, G. R. Acuff
e-mail: Jmbehrends@cs.com
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX
Restaurants and food services continue to utilize aging as a
process to improve tenderness and increase palatability of
beef. The process may include initially aging subprimals for
2 to 3 weeks followed by an additional aging period for
steaks during distribution and storage before cooking and
serving. We evaluated four scenarios to determine the impact of storage refrigeration temperatures on lactic acid bacteria and aerobic bacteria populations on top butts (m. gluteus medius; TB) and steaks during aging. The temperature
parameters for TB subprimals were -1C (TBLow) and 4.5C
(TBHigh) for 26 days followed by cutting into steaks with
additional 13 days of aging at these temperature treatments:
2 days at -1C; 4 days at 1.5C; 7 days at 4.5C (STLow) and
2 days at 4.5C; 4 days at 1.5C; 7 days at 7C (STHigh).
The four scenarios included TBLow/STLow; TBLow/STHigh;
TBHigh/STHigh; TBHigh/STLow. Three TB were obtained
for each of the two storage temperatures (-1C and 4.5C)
and three evaluation days (initial, 13, and 26; n=18 top
butts total). Excised samples (10 cm 2 surface area 1mm
deep) were removed on each of the TB according to their
assigned aging day and assessed for microbial populations.
On d 26, TB were cut into 6 steaks each (n=54 TB steaks)
and vacuum packaged: 3 steaks from each TB were randomly allotted to low temperature parameters and 3 were
randomly allotted to high temperature parameters for an
additional 13-d storage time and were evaluated for microbial populations on three days (27 d, 33 d, and 40 d total
aging time). Product stored at all four scenarios reached
aerobic bacteria populations of questionable acceptability
(>6 log10/cm 2). Initial populations were relatively low,
however, increasing numbers of anaerobic bacteria and
lactic acid bacteria populations indicate growth during storage despite the different treatment groups applied. The
aerobic populations tended (P = 0.07) to be lower for
TBLow versus TBHigh. There was a significant increase in
aerobic populations from day 1 to 13 for top butt subprimals. Also, there was an increase in aerobic populations for
steaks from day 27 to 33. Top butt steaks from TBLow were
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org
133
(41.38%) and lamb samples (17.65%) contained Campylobacter spp. along with 6.54% of pork and 0.39% of beef
swabs for an overall prevalence of 5.54%. Future research
will investigate the effectiveness of a variety of antimicrobial rinses on the reduction of bacterial loads on carcass
surfaces. This information will be transferred to very small
meat establishments to assist with carcass decontamination
methods.
Key Words: antimicrobial interventions, very small establishments, baseline
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AEROSOLIZED MICROBIAL
LOAD AND CONTAMINATION OF FULLY COOKED
THEN FROZEN MEAT PRODUCTS
1
A.A. Helm, 1C.R. Kerth, 1W.R. Jones, 1T.A. McCaskey, 1D.E.
Conner
e-mail: ckerth@acesag.auburn.edu
1
Auburn University
Air has long been thought to be a potential source of microbial contamination. Recently, research has shown that
microbial organisms, including pathogenic bacteria, have
been found in significant numbers in air. The objective of
this research was to determine relationships between the
microbial concentration in air and the level of contamination of fully cooked meat products. Air in a commercial
processing facility was sampled (n=113) for microbiological
organisms during a 5-month period by using an EM MAS100 Eco air monitoring system with plate count agar. Air
was sampled for 5 minutes 2-4 times per day in 45-minute
intervals in the packaging area at either next to the conveyor, where product is exposed to air, or in the area of
highest employee traffic and expressed as log cfu/500L of
air. Product samples were collected in 15-minute intervals
to accumulate a 3 sample composite every 45 minutes,
which corresponded to each air-sampling period. Serially
diluted product samples and air samples were incubated at
37C for 24 h or 48 h. Twenty-four hour air counts ranged
from 0.15 to 2.54 log cfu/500L, with a mean of 1.25 log
cfu/500L, and 48 hour counts ranged from 0.30 to 2.54 log
cfu/500L, with a mean of 1.65 log cfu/500L. Product counts
ranged from 0.30 to 2.9 log cfu/g at 24 hours and from 0.30
to 3.78 log cfu/g at 48h, with means of 1.60 log cfu/g and
1.9 log cfu/g for 24 h and 48 h respectively. No correlations
existed between 24 or 48 h air counts at either the conveyor
or traffic areas and 24 or 48 h product counts (P >0.05).
Simple regression found at most 9.4% of the variation in air
counts was accounted for by times doors were opened.
Multiple regression models showed that opening of doors,
wind velocity at the area of highest employee traffic, wind
velocity at the conveyor, and time of day accounted for
21% of the variation in air quality, and day of year, outside
temperature, times doors were opened, number of employees, and freezer conveyor speed described 34% of the
variation in product contamination. These data indicate that
no direct relationship exists between microbial air quality
and product contamination, but environmental conditions
American Meat Science Association
may account for up to one-fifth of the variation in air contamination and one-third of the variation in product contamination.
Key Words: Air Quality, Microbial Contamination, Fully
Cooked Product
CONSUMABLE HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS USED FOR
DECONTAMINATING RETAIL PORK LOIN CHOPS
Lisa McKee, Lori Neish, Nancy Flores
e-mail: lorineish@yahoo.com
New Mexico State University
As awareness of foodborne illness has increased, efforts
have been made to reduce contamination of raw meats.
Rinsing or spraying carcasses with water, organic acids and
other substances have been investigated on a commercial
scale as a means of reducing microbial loads. This study
focused on consumer rinsing methods to decontaminate
raw pork loin chops at home. Ten common consumable
products (apple juice, cranberry juice, orange juice, distilled white vinegar, Coca-Cola, 2% lowfat milk, clam
juice, 10% sodium bicarbonate solution, 10% sodium chloride solution and tap water) were used as rinsing agents to
decontaminate raw pork loin chops. All samples were
evaluated for total aerobic plate (APC), total coliform and
Escherichia coli ( E. coli) counts before and after rinsing using a swab method and standard procedures for Petrifilm
plates. Total coliforms and E. coli counts were below detectable levels both before and after rinsing. No differences
(p=0.7061) in before rinsing APC were detected. Before
rinsing counts ranged from 4.09 to 4.74 logs. After rinsing
APC for vinegar treated chops (2.26 logs) was lower
(p0.0052) than after rinsing APC for all other treatments. No
differences (p 0.1138) were detected between the remaining
treatments. All treatments reduced bacterial loads, but vinegar seemed to be the most effective rinsing agent under the
study conditions. Additional rinsing agents and exposure
time of the rinsing agents are currently being studied.
Key Words: Pork, Rinsing, Consumer
DESTRUCTION OF NON-PATHOGENIC ESCHERICHIA
COLI IN BEEF JERKY MADE WITH HOME-STYLE
DEHYDRATORS
S.R. Pohlman, N. Kalchayanand, W.J. Means, R.A. Field,
A.W. Wolf
e-mail: means@uwyo.edu
Univeristy of Wyoming Laramie WY USA
Association of jerky products, made in the home by traditional drying methods, with foodborne disease has raised
questions about their safety. Our objectives were to determine 1) consumer acceptance of beef jerky made with antimicrobial ingredients, and 2) destruction of nonpathogenic Escherichia coli in beef jerky processed in
home-style dehydrators. Four recipes were developed using
ingredients with known antimicrobial properties. Recipes
56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference
by coring vertically with a 1.27 cm diameter WarnerBratzler hand corer. The cores were sectioned into 1 cm
segments, macerated in buffered peptone water and enumerated on aerobic Petrifilms. Salmonella counts decreased (P<0.001) with depth below the inoculated surface
and increased (P<0.001) with application of the vacuum.
Although these tests did not exactly mimic a commercial
process, they did demonstrate that significant migration
could occur into whole-muscle product during marination,
even without any mechanical action. Subsequently, using
two different techniques, tissue samples were excised aseptically from the inner portions of a whole turkey breast after
marination with a Salmonella-inoculated marinade. Combined, these methods examined Salmonella multidirectional
penetration when the entire muscle was subjected to vacuum tumbling. In one study the muscle was vacuum tumbled with the marinade for various durations (5, 10, 20
min). In a separate experiment, whole breast was exposed
for 20 min to the following treatments: (1) vacuum tumbling, (2) tumbling without vacuum, (3) vacuum without
tumbling, and (4) still marination (control). Results confirmed significant (P<0.001) migration of Salmonella into
the samples during marination. Additionally, both vacuum
and tumbling resulted in greater (P<0.05) Salmonella counts
inside the samples, as compared to the inoculated control.
Pathogens on or below the surface of whole meat products
need to be inactivated as part of any commercial cooking
process. Salmonella penetration may need to be integrated
into microbial inactivation models to accurately determine
the fate of pathogens during further processing of whole
muscle products.
POSTER SESSION
Education
KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES, AND BEHAVIOR RELATED
TO GAME HANDLING PRACTICES IN NORTH DAKOTA
DEER AND ELK HUNTERS
J. A. Garden-Robinson, M. J. Marchello, C. S. Stoltenow, G.
P. Lardy, D. J. Klenow, D. D. Hulse
e-mail: mmarchel@ndsuext.nodak.edu
North Dakota State University
Resident and non-resident hunters spent $166.4 million on
hunting activities in North Dakota (ND) in 2001, an amount
generating an additional $199 million in secondary economic effects, for a gross business volume of $365.4 million. Nineteen percent of North Dakotans ages 16 and older
hunted in 2001. This study of ND deer and elk hunters
practices and perceptions included a series of focus groups
and separate 10-minute telephone surveys to a random
sampling of 267 successful deer hunters and all successful
elk hunters (n = 30). Results indicate a need for improved
handling and preparation procedures. Several differences
between deer and elk hunters with respect to processing
and choices of finished products were apparent. Sixty-eight
percent of deer hunters processed their own animals at
home, while 45% of elk hunters did so. Ninety percent of
the deer hunters made sausage out of at least a portion of
their venison, 60% made use of fresh chops, steaks or
roasts, and 48% prepared ground venison. Nearly all of the
elk hunters (97%) made use of fresh chops, steaks or roasts.
Ninety percent made ground elk, and 48% made sausage.
Less than 13% of deer and elk hunters reported eating any
organ meats, such as hearts and livers. Two deer hunters
reported eating brain. While 76% of deer hunters and 90%
of elk hunters reported owning a meat thermometer, only
5% of deer hunters and 16% of elk hunters who prepared
fresh roasts reported using a thermometer to test for doneness. Only 6% of deer hunters and 13% of elk hunters who
made sausage said they used thermometers to check internal temperature of the cooked product. While the low frequency of thermometer use is problematic for all types of
meat products, the lack of use for sausage and other ground
meat poses the most significant health threat. Almost all the
deer and elk hunters reported eating meat from the animals
they had harvested. In addition, more than 90% of both
hunting groups reported that family members also consumed the meat. Sixty-three percent of deer hunters also
shared their meat with relatives and friends; whereas, 90%
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