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RMC 2003

Proceedings of the
56th Reciprocal
Meat Conference
JUNE 15-18, 2003
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI

RMC 2003
Proceedings of the
56th Reciprocal
Meat Conference
JUNE 15-18, 2003
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI

The American Meat Science Association is a non-profit scientific professional


society for individuals working in the field of meat science.
AMSA is a broad-reaching organization of individuals that develops and
disseminates its collective food and animal science knowledge to provide meat
science education and professional development.
AMSAs annual Reciprocal Meat Conference is the leading venue for networking
and information exchange among researchers in academia, industry and
government. For more information on AMSA programs and services, go to
http://www.meatscience.org.

American Meat Science Association


1111 N Dunlap Ave
Savoy, IL 61874
Phone: (217) 356-5368
Fax: (204) 465-0688
Email: information@meatscience.org
A complete catalog of titles is available on the AMSA home page at
http://www.meatscience.org
Copyright 2003 by the American Meat Science Association
Permission to reproduce or transmit in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by an information and
storage and retrieval system, must be obtained in writing from the publisher at the
address or fax number above.

2002-2003
American Meat Science Association
Board of Directors

OFFICERS

DIRECTORS

President
Joseph G. Sebranek
Iowa State University

Elizabeth A. E. Boyle
Kansas State University

President Elect
Craig D. Bacon
Tyson Foods
Past President
Jeff W. Savell
Texas A&M University
Secretary Treasurer
C. Ann Hollingsworth
Better Built Foods

Casey Frye
Burke Corporation
RMC Chair
Dan S. Hale
Texas A&M University
D. Dwain Johnson
University of Florida
Collette M. Schultz Kaster
Premium Standard Farms
Wesley N. Osburn
Michigan State University

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
Thomas H. Powell
American Meat Science Association

55th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

2003 Committees of the


American Meat Science Association
2005 ICoMST Organizing Committee
R. B. Sleeth
S. H. Richert
D. B. Anderson
A. M. Booren
L. L. Borchert
C. R. Calkins
R. G. Cassens
L. R. Graves Delmore
L. C. Faustman
S. J. Goll
C. A. Hollingsworth
M. C. Hunt
H. K. Johnson
J. T. Keeton
M. Koohmaraie
N. G. Marriott
K. W. McMillin
D. J. Meisinger
J. G. Sebranek
J. N. Sofos
M. B. Solomon

Achievement Award
E. J. Huff-Lonergan
S. Barbut
D. H. Beermann
D. C. Beitz
K. L. Kotula
W.G. Moody

Archives/Historical
D. H. Kropf
T. R. Dockerty
K. J. Fromme
C. L. Knipe

Auditing
C. L. Kastner
W. R. Henning
M. L. Kreul
T. J. Rourke

Budget
C. A. Hollingsworth
R. J. Delmore
D. J. Meisinger
L. C. Faustman

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Continuing Education
D. B. Griffin
E. P. Berg
D. E. Burson
C. R. Calkins
J. G. Gentry
N. G. Marriott
D. M. Wulf

Educational Materials
M. L. Rossman
P. T. Berg
J. C. Forrest
R. M. Harp
J. M. Hochstetler
J. M. Leheska
L. E. Mease
R. A. Nold
A. E. Reynolds

Emeritus Membership
D. M. Allen
J. A. Boles
Z. L. Carpenter
T. R. Dockerty
L. E. Orme
R. Steiner

Extension-Industry Service Award


D. B. Burson
D. T. Bartholomew
E. A. E. Boyle
R. C. Johnson
M. E. O'Connor
W.C. Schwartz

Foundation Trustees
R. B. Sleeth
L. L. Borchert
J. J. Harris
H. K. Johnson
C. L. Kastner
D. J. Meisinger
W. G. Moody

Graduate Poster Competition


T. D. Pringle
A. L. Alderton
E. P. Berg
J. A. Boles
K. B. Chin
S. J. Eilert
R. M. Harp
G. J. Hausman
M. F. Miller
B. Paterson
W. Pinkerton

Intercollegiate Meat
Coaches Executive Board
H. G. Dolezal, President
C. D. Alexander
T. R. Carr
K. B. Bullock
R. C. Hines
W. B. Mikel
J. B. Morgan

International Award
W. R. Usborne
J. C. Acton
H. R. Cross
E. Puolanne
M. H. Stromer
G. K. Williams
J. B. Wilson

International

J. W. Cravens
R. P. Clayton
D. J. Hanson
E. J. Huff-Lonergan
W. R. Lloyd
M. K. McMindes
T. H. Montgomery
E. Puolanne
K. K. Scheller
D. L. Seman
W. R. Usborne

Long Range Planning


S. J. Goll
K. D. Childs
M. Koohmaraie
M. J. Marchello
K. W. McMillin
M. F. Miller
R. K. Miller
F. Toldra

Meat Industry Research


Conference Planning
S. D. Shivas
B. L. Gwartney
R. W. Jabaay
D. D. Johnson
R. C. Johnson
E. W. Mills
A. L. Schroeder
G. L. Smith
R. Tarte

Meat Processing Award


A. M. Booren
D. L. Engeljohn
R. W. Jabaay
M. T. Lesiak
R. E. Rust
P. J. Shand

Newsletter

M. L. Scaggs
B. Booren
C. Grimes
M. Hardin
R. J. Maddock
K. W. McMillin
W. B. Mikel
C. Quinlan
M. Sutton-Vermeulen
J. W. Wise

American Meat Science Association

Nominations

J. W. Savell
J. C. Acton
H. R. Cross
L. W. Hand
R. A. Hendricks
K. Mastracchio
L. R. Miller

Parliamentary

G. Schmidt
D. W. Henderson
T. D. Schnell

Processed Meats Clinic


R. Tarte
J. Bohac
R. S. Miles
P. OConnor
B. K. Quandt
J. R. Ransom
W. C. Schwartz

Professional Membership
T. H. Montgomery
E. Boyd
R. G. Cassens
D. L. Engeljohn
L. E. Jeremiah
S. L. Martin
E. S. Troutt

RMC Exhibits & Table


Tops
D. T. Bartholomew
A. D. Clarke
T. H. Montgomery

RMC Program

D. S. Hale
D. R. Buege
C. M. Calhoun
S. J. Eilert
L. C. Faustman
M. Koohmaraie
C. L. Lorenzen
E. L. Rubendall
J. N. Sofos
T. L. Wheeler
Y. L. Xiong
H. N. Zerby

Recognition

H. K. Johnson
D. M. Allen
S. G. Campano
T. R. Carr
J. T. Keeton
R. W. Mandigo

Research Award

M. B. Solomon
S. K. Beals
D. R. Campion
M. C. Cassens
T. A. Houser
E. J. Huff-Lonergan
D. K. Larick
R. M. Robson

Research Needs Assesment


S. M. Lonergan
M. S. Brewer
M. E. Cassens
A. W. Kotula
C. A. Payne
G. R. Skaar
A. A. Sosnicki

Research Protocol
C. L. Lorenzen
S. K. Beals
A. M. Booren
J. E. Cannon
D. E. Carpenter
E. A. Decker
J. S. Dickson
M. E. Doumit
J. R. Stouffer

Resolutions & Necrology


M. J. Riemann
R. W. Rogers
J. W. Wise

Scientific Information
K. E. Belk
M. J. De La Zerda
L. R. Graves Delmore
S. K. Duckett
T. Hively
J. H. Hodges
M. C. Hunt
A. King
W. F. Pinkerton
A. E. Rasor
J. M. Regenstein
R. R. Timm
N. C. Tipton
A. T. Waylan

55th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

Student Board
J. Leheska
J. M. Behrends
T. A. Houser
C. Quinlan
J. R. Ransom
J. Stephens
A. T. Waylan

Student Membership

Western Meat Science


Update Conference

C. L. Knipe
G. A. Barkocy-Gallagher
R. J. Delmore
R. L. Dickson
R. A. Hendricks
R. C. Person
D. L. Seman

G. G. Hilton
C. L. Armstrong
P. K. Bates
J. M. Behrends
M. A. Carr
B. Covington
A. King
D. McKenna

Special Appointments

Sustaining Membership

Job Board Coordinator


E. A. E. Boyle

M. S. Franzreb
P. W. Hall
R. D. Huffman
K. L. Kotula
M. T. Lesiak

ICoMST Contact Person


R. B. Sleeth
HACCP Alliance Rep
M. C. Hunt

Teaching Award
S. J. Jones
E. P. Berg
J. C. Brooks
L. C. Faustman
R. M. Harp
M. C. Hunt
N. G. Marriott
F. K. Ray

Undergraduate Scholastic Achievement Award


J. A. Scanga
S. K. Duckett
S. D. Harris
G. G. Hilton
R. C. Person
D. M. Roth

Web Site

S. J. Jones
S. J. Boleman
J. R. Claus
M. J. De La Zerda
C. Jolley
J. Sindelar

iii

American Meat Science Association


Conference Chairs
RECIPROCAL MEAT CONFERENCE
1948-1951 .W. H. Tomhave, The Pennsylvania State University
1952 ............................R. W. Bray, University of Wisconsin
1953 ............................. J. W. Cole, University of Tennessee
1954 .................... L. E. Walters, Oklahoma State University
1955 .................................E. A. Kline, Iowa State University
1956 .................... A. M. Pearson, Michigan State University
1957 ............. T. N. Blumer, North Carolina State University
1958 ........................ V. R. Cahill, The Ohio State University
1959 ...........................C. H. Adams, University of Nebraska
1960 ...........................G. H. Wellington, Cornell University
1961 ....................... L. E. Kunkle, The Ohio State University
1962 ............... J. C. Pierce, U. S. Department of Agriculture
1963 ..............................J. D. Kemp, University of Kentucky
1964 .......................... E. J. Briskey, University of Wisconsin
1965 ....................................E. A. Pierce, Cornell University
1966 ...................... L. J. Bratzler, Michigan State University
1967 ....................... Z. L. Carpenter, Texas A&M University
1968 ............................. R. B. Sleeth, Armour and Company
1969 ................................... M. D. Judge, Purdue University
1970 ............................... A. M. Mullins, University of Idaho
1971 .......................... H. B. Hedrick, University of Missouri
1972 ............................ C. E. Allen, University of Minnesota
1973 ...............J. D. Sink, The Pennsylvania State University
1974 ....................James A. Christian, University of Georgia
1975 .............................G. C. Smith, Texas A&M University
1976 ......................... W. C. Stringer, University of Missouri
1977 ...................D. M. Kinsman, University of Connecticut
1978 ........................ V. R. Cahill, The Ohio State University
1979 .......................M. E. Dikeman, Kansas State University
1980 ................................... E. D. Aberle, Purdue University
1981 ............................D. H. Kropf, Kansas State University
1982 .................... G. R. Schmidt, Colorado State University
1983 ................................... T. R. Carr, University of Illinois
1984 .............................L. J. Ernst, American Can Company
1985 .....................R. G. Kauffman, University of Wisconsin
1986 ................................... J. C. Forrest, Purdue University
1987 ......................... J. A. Carpenter, University of Georgia
1988 .......................... C. L. Kastner, Kansas State University
1989 ................ D. B. Anderson, Lilly Research Laboratories
1990 .......................... W. R. Usborne, University of Guelph
1991 ............................ M. C. Hunt, Kansas State University
1992 .............................J. T. Keeton, Texas A&M University
1993 .......................... C. R. Calkins, University of Nebraska
1994 .................................. R. E. Rust, Iowa State University
1995 ...... W. R. Henning, The Pennsylvania State University
1996 ....................................D. M. Allen, Excel Corporation
1997 .......... L. W. Hand, Protein Technologies International

iv

1998 ................... L. C. Faustman, University of Connecticut


1999 ..................... J. R. Claus, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
2000 ................................ H. G. Dolezal, Excel Corporation
2001 ........................... D. E. Burson, University of Nebraska
2002 ............................................C. D. Bacon, Tyson Foods
2003 ............................... D. S. Hale, Texas A&M University

MEAT INDUSTRY RESEARCH CONFERENCE


1965 .....................A. M. Mullins, Louisiana State University
1966 .................... A. M. Pearson, Michigan State University
1967 ............................. R. B. Sleeth, Armour and Company
1968 ............. T. N. Blumer, North Carolina State University
1969 ................................ P. A. Goeser, Swift and Company
1970 ............................. M. E. Bailey, University of Missouri
1971 ................ W. E. Kramlich, John Morrell and Company
1972 ................................ G. E. Brissey, Swift and Company
1973 .......................R. A. Merkel, Michigan State University
1974 ..................L. L. Borchert, Oscar Mayer and Company
1975 ..............................R. A. Field, University of Wyoming
1976 ........................... H. F. Bernholdt, Swift and Company
1977 ......................R. F. Kelly, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
1978 ............. B. C. Breidenstein, Wilson Foods Corporation
1979 .................................. R. E. Rust, Iowa State University
1980 ......................H. E. Wistreich, B. Heller and Company
1981 ..............................J. D. Sink, West Virginia University
1982 ..................................... R. W. Jabaay, Farmland Foods
1983 ....................... R. W. Mandigo, University of Nebraska
1984 .............. W. C. Schwartz, Peter Eckrich and Sons, Inc.
1985 ...................................J. C. Acton, Clemson University
1987 .......... F. D. Dryden, George A. Hormel and Company
1989 ................................... M. D. Judge, Purdue University
1991 ..................... C. A. Hollingsworth, Bil Mar Foods, Inc.
1992 ............................. R. K. Miller, Texas A&M University
1993 ................... N. B. Webb, Webb Technical Group, Inc.
1994 ...............N. G. Marriott, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
1995 .........S. H. Richert, Protein Technologies International
1996 ............................. J. R. Escoubas, Viskase Corporation
1997 ................... L. C. Faustman, University of Connecticut
1998 ........................................ R. E. Rust, Rust & Associates
1999 ....................................... S. J. Eilert, Excel Corporation
2000 ..................... A. M. Booren, Michigan State University
2001 ....................L. C. Hand, Dupont Protein Technologies
2002 ........................................ L. N. Quint, ConAgra Foods
2003 ................................ S. D. Shivas, The Solae Company

American Meat Science Association

Officers of the
American Meat Science Association
PRESIDENT

PRESIDENT-ELECT

R. W. Bray, University of Wisconsin.............................1965


L. E. Kunkle, The Ohio State University ........................1966
J. W. Cole, University of Tennessee..............................1967
L. J. Bratzler, Michigan State University........................1968
Z. L. Carpenter, Texas A&M University ........................1969
G. H. Wellington, Cornell University ...........................1970
M. D. Judge, Purdue University ....................................1971
A. M. Mullins, University of Idaho................................1972
H. B. Hedrick, University of Missouri ...........................1973
R. B. Sleeth, Armour and Company ..............................1974
J. D. Sink, The Pennsylvania State University................1975
J. D. Kemp, University of Kentucky ..............................1976
G. C. Smith, Texas A&M University..............................1977
L. L. Borchert, Oscar Mayer and Company...................1978
D. M. Kinsman, University of Connecticut ...................1979
R. A. Field, University of Wyoming ..............................1980
R. G. Cassens, University of Wisconsin ........................1981
D. L. Huffman, Auburn University................................1982
M. E. Dikeman, Kansas State University .......................1983
H. R. Cross, Texas A&M University ..............................1984
E. D. Aberle, University of Nebraska ............................1985
D. H. Kropf, Kansas State University.............................1986
W. G. Moody, University of Kentucky..........................1987
R. G. Kauffman, University of Wisconsin......................1988
W. C. Schwartz, Swift-Eckrich, Inc. ..............................1989
J. C. Acton, Clemson University ...................................1990
F. C. Parrish, Jr., Iowa State University..........................1991
R. W. Mandigo, University of Nebraska .......................1992
T. R. Carr, University of Illinois ....................................1993
C. L. Kastner, Kansas State University ...........................1994
D. B. Anderson, Lilly Research Laboratories .................1995
M. C. Hung, Kansas State University ............................1996
C. R. Calkins, University of Nebraska ...........................1997
D. M. Allen, Excel Corporation ....................................1998
J. T. Keeton, Texas A&M University..............................1999
L. W. Hand, Protein Technologies International ...........2000
C. A. Hollingsworth, Better Built Foods ........................2001
J. W. Savell, Texas A&M University..............................2002
J. G. Sebranek, Iowa State University............................2003

L. E. Kunkle, The Ohio State University........................1965


J. W. Cole, University of Tennessee..............................1966
L. J. Bratzler, Michigan State University........................1967
Z. L. Carpenter, Texas A&M University ........................1968
G. H. Wellington, Cornell University ...........................1969
M. D. Judge, Purdue University....................................1970
A. M. Mullins, University of Idaho ...............................1971
H. B. Hedrick, University of Missouri...........................1972
R. B. Sleeth, Armour and Company..............................1973
J. D. Sink, The Pennsylvania State University ...............1974
J. D. Kemp, University of Kentucky ..............................1975
G. C. Smith, Texas A&M University .............................1976
L. L. Borchert, Oscar Mayer and Company...................1977
D. M. Kinsman, University of Connecticut ...................1978
R. A. Field, University of Wyoming ..............................1979
R. G. Cassens, University of Wisconsin ........................1980
D. L. Huffman, Auburn University................................1981
M. E. Dikeman, Kansas State University .......................1982
H. R. Cross, U. S. Department of Agriculture................1983
E. D. Aberle, University of Nebraska ............................1984
D. H. Kropf, Kansas State University ............................1985
W. G. Moody, University of Kentucky..........................1986
R. G. Kauffman, University of Wisconsin .....................1987
W. C. Schwartz, Swift-Eckrich, Inc. ..............................1988
J. C. Acton, Clemson University ...................................1989
F. C. Parrish, Jr., Iowa State University .........................1990
R. W. Mandigo, University of Nebraska .......................1991
T. R. Carr, University of Illinois ....................................1992
C. L. Kastner, Kansas State University...........................1993
D. B. Anderson, Lilly Research Laboratories.................1994
M. C. Hung, Kansas State University ............................1995
C. R. Calkins, University of Nebraska...........................1996
D. M. Allen, Excel Corporation ....................................1997
J. T. Keeton, Texas A&M University..............................1998
L. W. Hand, Protein Technologies International ...........1999
C. A. Hollingsworth, Keystone Foods ...........................2000
J. W. Savell, Texas A&M University..............................2001
J. G. Sebranek, Iowa State University ...........................2002
C. D. Bacon, Tyson Foods............................................2003

SECRETARY-TREASURER
W. C. Sherman, National Live Stock and Meat Board....................................................................... 1965-1975
H. K. Johnson, National Live Stock and Meat Board/National Cattlemens Beef Association ............ 1975-1996
D. J. Meisinger, National Pork Producers Council/National Pork Board............................................ 1996-2002
C. A. Hollingsworth, Better Built Foods ............................................................................................ 2002-

55th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

Proceedings of the
56th Reciprocal Meat Conference
Table of Contents
2002-2003 American Meat Science Association Board of Directors .............................................................................i
2003 Committees of the American Meat Science Association......................................................................................ii
American Meat Science Association Conference Chairs .............................................................................................iv
Officers of the American Meat Science Association.....................................................................................................v
Proceedings of the 56th Reciprocal Meat Conference Table of Contents .....................................................................vi

GENERAL SESSION I

Preparing Undergraduate and Graduate Students to Meet Meat Industry Career Challenges, G. Smith ........................1

GENERAL SESSION II

The Role of Extension in Meeting Meat Industry Challenges, R. Rust ...........................................................................5

MEAT QUALITY
Biological Basis for Pale, Soft and Exudative Pork, M. Doumit*, C. Allison, E. Helman, N. Berry and M. Ritter ...........9
Genetic Basis for Pale, Soft and Exudative Turkey Meat, G. Strasburg*, and W. Chiang ............................................17
Pork Quality: Current and Future Needs of Industry and Academia, E. Huff-Lonergan, J. Melody*, R. Klont, and
A. Sosnicki .................................................................................................................................................................23

SENSORY EVALUATION

Utilizing Consumer Data in Product Development, L. Papadopoulos ........................................................................31

FOOD SAFETY

Current Issues Related to Meatborne Pathogenic Bacteria, J. Sofos*, P. Skandamis, J. Stopforth, and T. Bacon ..........33
Postharvest Pathogen Interventions for Meat and Poultry, F. Pohlman*, and K. McElyea ...........................................39

RECIPROCATION SESSIONS
Livestock and Poultry Care and Welfare, J. Swanson .................................................................................................49
Pork Muscle Profiling, D. Buege*, J. Sebranek, M. Doumit, D. Marple, D. Ahn, E. Huff-Lonergan, S. Lonergan, C.
Fedler, K. Prusa, E. Helman, and D. Meisinger......................................................................................................51
Cow Muscle Profiling, C. Calkins*, D. Johnson, and B. Gwartney .............................................................................53
Beef Muscle Profiling Research, D. Johnson*, K. Johnson*, C. Calkins, and B. Gwartney ..........................................55
Soy Protein Ingredient Technology, L. Hand..............................................................................................................57
Computer Assisted Meat Science Education, S. Jones, V. Singh, and B. Franklin ........................................................59
More Than Words, Tips on Professional Speaking, B. Morgan ...................................................................................63
So You Want to Go to Graduate School: What to Consider, S. Lonergan*, J. Leheska, and D. McKenna ...................65
The Facts About Beef Cattle Growth Enhancement Technology, J.Lauderdale ...........................................................67
The National Pork Quality Benchmarking Study, D. Meisinger..................................................................................71
Enhancing Meat Color Stability, D. Kropf ..................................................................................................................73
Carcinogens Formed When Meat is Cooked, J. Felton*, C. Salmon, M. Knize............................................................77

MUSCLE BIOLOGY: CLONING AND GENETICS


Use of Cloning and Transgenesis in Pigs, R. Prather*, and D. Gerrard .......................................................................83

vi

American Meat Science Association

INGREDIENT TECHNOLOGY
Microbial Problems, Causes, and Solutions in Meat and Poultry Processing Operations, H. Brown.......................... 89
Natural Antioxidants Review, J. Haworth.................................................................................................................. 95

TEACHING
Teaching Strategies for Preparing Students for the Meat Industry, M. Miller .............................................................. 99
Teaching Strategies for Preparing Students for the Meat Industry, T. Carr ................................................................ 103

POSTER ABSTRACTS

Muscle & Lipid Biology........................................................................................................................................... 105


Pre-harvest Effects on Meat Quality......................................................................................................................... 109
Post-harvest Effects on Meat Quality ....................................................................................................................... 115
Processed Meat & Ingredient Technology ............................................................................................................... 127
Food Safety ............................................................................................................................................................. 133
Education................................................................................................................................................................ 137

55th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

vii

American Meat Science Association

OPENING GENERAL SESSION

Preparing Undergraduate and Graduate Students


to Meet Meat Industry Career Challenges
Gary C. Smith
Prelude
Suppose You Wanted To Start A New University
In 1963, serving as Faculty Advisor to the Washington
State University, College of Agriculture Student Council, I
accompanied our student representatives to Winnipeg,
Manitoba, Canada, to attend an International Conference
On Teaching In Agriculture. The keynote speaker (J.R.
Weir, Dean, Faculty of Agricultural & Food Sciences, University of Manitoba) said: (a) If you wanted to start a college (now, a university), and had limited funds, for what
would you initially spend money? First, you would build a
classroomso students could have a place to meet, to discuss things, and to learn to communicate. (b) If additional
money then became available, you would buy a book
with that, students could pursue scholarship, learning to
think critically and, through verbal debate, discussing
(communicating) interpretations of what the facts in the
book were, what the author said vs. meant, and how the
thoughts presented there could be made relevant. (c)
Third, and only if more funds were available, you would
buy pencils and paper so the students could begin to synthesize their thinking, to mull over their logic and interpretations, to commit their thought processes to paper, and to
communicate their ideas in written form. (d) If, and only
if, even more funding became available would a teacher be
hiredand then, only, in the absence of a student leader
grown up through the ranksfor surely, the propensity to
lead would have surfaced from among those present in
candid and open discussion sessions. A teachers presence
is functional, of course, to explain and interpret the book in
the light and context of other books and of the professors
experience of things in and around and pertaining to the
facts and ideas in the book and, secondly, to harness discourse so that not too much time is wasted on frivolous
Gary C. Smith
Department of Animal Sciences
Colorado State University
1171 Campus Delivery
Fort Collins, CO 80523-1171
gsmith@agsci.colostate.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 1-4)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

debate.
My take on what Dean J.R. Weir was saying suggests this:
Is that not the essence of the teaching/learning process
Put em in a room, buy em a book and get em pencils
and paper; what follows will astound youbut it will
come at a price and one we can ill affordit takes too long
and the targets are too obscure. And, so, in our wisdom, we
seek more highly structured thinking and communication
and we sacrifice the opportunity to allow the students to
learn to lead.
It was from such thoughts, and fromby that time28
years of university teaching experience, that I concluded
(Smith, 1989) that To meet employer expectations, to
compete in the workplace and to be perceived as an educated person, the animal science graduate must be able:
(a) to think critically,
(b) to communicate effectively, and
(c) to lead.
By 2001, andby that time40 years of experience as a
teacher of meat, animal and food sciences at three landgrant universities, I expanded my list of skills expected of
graduates (Smith, 2001) to include:
(a) thinking critically,
(b) comparing logically,
(c) deciding independently,
(d) solving problems rationally,
(e) communicating effectively, and
(f)

leading decisively.

I used many of those same thoughts, ideas and concepts


from the 1989 and 2001 papers to write the Introduction
for the Meat Evaluation Handbook (American Meat Science
Association, 2001); this paper extends further the scope and
horizon of coverage, to describe skill-sets needed by M.S.,
M. Agr. and Ph.D. graduates to meet the challenges of successful employment and careers in occupations within, or
closely aligned to, the meat industry.

Preparing Undergraduate Students To Meet Meat


Industry Career Challenges
1. Thinking Critically
To think is to formulate in the mind, to reason about, to
reflect on, to judge, and/or to decide. In the context intended here, critically means characterized by careful and
exact evaluation and judgment. Critical thinking is acquired
in formal courses that emphasize application of previously
ingrained facts/knowledge, use of logic in problem solving,
and implementation of principles involved in systems
analyses. Careful structuring of practical laboratory exercises allows students to learn by doing, and of scienceoriented laboratory exercises allows students to apply critical thinking to the solution of problems. Ability to think
critically can also be achieved in formal courses and in extracurricular activities that involve animal/product selection,
evaluation, grading and/or judging because comparative
reasoning and application of memory standards are integrally involved in the decision-making processes.
2. Comparing Logically
To compare is to examine in order to note the similarities in, or differences between/among, things. Logically is
defined as showing clarity and consistency of use of the
principles of reasoning. Comparative reasoning is used, in
opposition to memorization/regurgitation, in formal courses
that require the weighing of options and/or the consideration of both the pro vs. con aspects in solving problems.
The curriculum should include coursework involving computer-assisted, decision-making principles, likefor examplecomputerized breeding/selection analyses like those
incorporated in the Cow Game. The ability to make logical comparisons can also be taught in meat judging exercises that involve the ranking of cuts or carcasses and the
assignment of quality or yield grades to carcasses.
3. Deciding Independently
To decide is to make up ones mind, to make or reach
a decision, and/or to pronounce a judgment or verdict. Independently means free from the influence of another or
others, autonomously, and/or by self-reliance. Success, in
many aspects of life, depends in large part of independence
of thought and action, andof courseon thinking and
acting appropriately. Ability to make up your mind and
reach a decision based solely upon your own opinion is
vitally important in making personal and business decisions
and is taught in formal courses that involve independent
research study or which emphasize use of logic and rationale for problem solving. Providing students access to audiotutorial learning allows for unstructured and self-paced mastery of subject matter. Experience in independent decision
making is accomplished in meat judging because each
competitoracting independently and using only his/her
own opinionmakes judgments and decisions.
4. Solving Problems Rationally
To solve is to find a solution, an answer, or an explanation for a problem. Rationally means exercising the ability

to reason in a sound, sane and logical manner. Rational


problem solving is taught in formal courses in the general
curriculum involving mathematics, statistical inference,
business administration and economics, as well as in formal
courses in the agricultural sciences dealing with agricultural
economics, animal nutrition, animal breeding and capstone
animal production courses. Offering livestock marketing
courses that require each student to manage a livestock/grain portfolio by making strategic daily/weekly transactions in the futures/options markets provides real-world
problem solving experience. Rational problem solving can
also be taught in judging/evaluation courses because comparative reasoning, mathematical logic, sound judgments,
conformity to an ideal, rank/order principles, memory standards and knowledge integration must be used.
5. Communicating Effectively
To communicate is to have an interchange of thoughts
or ideas and to make known your thoughts or ideas. Effectively means having the intended or expected effect and/or
serving the purpose. Communication skills are formally
taught in speech, technical writing and seminar courses and
are further developed through involvement of students in
meat judging (written reasons), livestock or wool judging
(oral reasons), academic quadrathlons and quiz-bowls (oral
and written presentations), and student clubs (if speaking/
writing opportunities occur). In meat judging, exhibits (carcasses or cuts) are ranked according to relative merit, notes
are taken describing differences between and among exhibits and a written argument is made to justify the student
judges ranking decision. Written reasons are assigned
scores by an expert who emphasizes accuracy and precisionfirst and fore mostand syntax, penmanship, punctuation and grammarsecondarily. Oral reasons are assigned scores by an expert who emphasizesmost
accuracy and precision, and secondarily, grammar, poise,
style and delivery. Having to write or present a set of reasons forces the competitor to make decisions and to justify
thoughts and ideas in a manner that will have the intended
effectto prove to the expert reading or listening to the set
of reasons that the differences and similarities were observed and that decisions (whether right or wrong) were
made rationally and logically.
6. Leading Decisively
To lead is to be first, to be ahead, to steer, to guide,
and/or to show the way by going in advance. Decisively
means having the power to settle a dispute or doubt in a
firm, conclusive, resolute and determined manner. Nothing
is provided in the formal coursework setting to encourage
students to develop skills in leadership. Among the extracurricular circumstances in which undergraduates can learn
to lead and exert leadership skills are student government,
student clubs, and internal or external competitions (livestock exhibition teams, quiz-bowl squads, academic quadrathlons and judging teams). Gerber (2003) said she was a
convert to the importance of the leadership lessons embedded in team participation, that team participation provides powerful and unique leadership training and parAmerican Meat Science Association

ticipation in team sports builds understanding of teamwork


and loyalty; she was discussing team sports from an athletics viewpoint but the principles apply to intercollegiate
judging teams. Unique to student clubs, as contrasted with
contests or competitions, are opportunities for officers and
committee chairs to learn leadership skills in managing financial and human assets, developing and implementing
organizational plans, orchestrating events and activities,
and forming and sharing the vision, mission and goals of the
unit or organization. In 1989, I had been a department head
for nearly 8 years, andfrom that vantagefelt comfortable
in concluding that Administrators must insist that student
clubs and intercollegiate competitions are available to serve
as an integral part of the process of developing student
leadership among baccalaureate-level students in Animal
Science (Smith, 1989).

Preparing Graduate Students To Meet Meat Industry Career Challenges


1. Thinking Critically
To think critically means to reason about, to judge and
to decide by using careful and exact evaluation and judgment. Graduate students learn to think critically by: (a)
Being allowedeven encouragedto doubt, to criticize, to
questionrather than accepting as fact or truth whatever
they read or hear. (b) Writing and reporting scientifically
(improves clarity of thought and correct application of
logic). (c) Reviewing the literature (there are good and bad
studies; appropriate and inappropriate measures; right and
wrong conclusions). (d) Editing and evaluating manuscripts
(critiquing the work of others). (e) Debating, discussing,
defending thoughts/ideas/opinions with subordinates, peers
and superiors plus learning the art of graceful retreat and
tactical concession.
2. Comparing Logically
To compare logically means to note the similarities in,
and differences between or among, things while clearly and
consistently using the principles of reasoning. Graduate
students learn to compare logically by: (a) Applying the
scientific method (observation, formulation of hypotheses
and experimental testingwith controls and treatments) to
detect differences between and among things. (b) Using
tests of hypotheses, statistical inference and probabilities. (c)
Grading papers and exams; scoring lab participation of individuals. (d) Auditingbecause essentially all mistakes, in
GMPs, HACCP plans and animal-welfare programs are
logic-based errors. (e) Judging carcass/product shows,
speeches, science fairs, posters, record books or position
paperslearning to rate/rank without bias, prejudice or
favoritism.
3. Deciding Independently
To decide independently means to make up your mind
and reach a decision or make a judgment based solely upon
your own opinion. Graduate students learn to decide independently by: (a) Realizing they will no longer be spoon
fed but must read, debate, question andultimately
56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

synthesize an opinion of truth. (b) Setting priorities, yet still


meeting critical milestones and deadlines. (c) Managing
time and resources in a multiple-tasking work world. (d)
Determining thatwith pressure appliedthey can push
the envelope, doing more than they thought could be done.
(e) Making decisions, when acting alone but as a representative, that reflect favorably on the group, section, department, college and university.
4. Solving Problems Rationally
To solve problems rationally means to find a solution
and answer for a problem by reasoning in a sound, sane
and logical fashion. Graduate students learn to solve problems rationally by: (a) Assessing the problem and accessing
the information, to formulate and implement a solution. (b)
Assisting with extension activities that deal with meat industry problem-solving scenarios. (c) Evaluating tests, procedures and protocols for use in performing a research assay
or scientific determination. (d) Developing human-capital
networks for present and future assistance in solving problems. (e) Understanding tool and toolbox methodologies
as building blocks and practical ways/means to affect a solution.
5. Communicating Effectively
To communicate effectively means to make known your
thoughts and ideas in a manner that will serve the purpose
and have the intended effect. Graduate students learn to
communicate effectively by: (a) Serving as a teaching assistant, extension assistant, or laboratory instructor for a meat
science course. (b) Developing the skill of speaking in different gears to assure comprehension, irrespective of the
education level of the listener. (c) Writing abstracts, reports
and papers for audiences comprised of members of the laypublic, the industrial complex and the scientific community. (d) Preparing and presenting speeches and posters at
industry and scientific meetings. (e) Interacting with those in
attendance at teaching, research, industry and extension
meetings (using key word conversational skills).
6. Leading Decisively
To lead decisively means to steer, guide or show to
(and, to be first and/or ahead of others) by making decisions
in a firm, conclusive and resolute manner. Graduate students learn to lead decisively by: (a) Being assigned responsibility for entire research projects and serving as projectleader from planning to completion. (b) Coaching intercollegiate judging, grading and evaluation teams. (c) Developing team-building skills while working on company projects in research and outreach endeavors. (d) Mentoring
fellow graduate students on subject matter, lab techniques,
manipulative skills, statistical analyses, etc. (e) Serving as a
substitute lecturer, teaching assistant, extension assistant or
laboratory instructor.

Conclusion
Knowledge, Yes, But Other Things Too.
Albert Einstein said (Gallagher, 2003) A person who devotes all his strength to objective matters will develop into
an extreme individualist who, at least in principle, has faith
in nothing but his own judgment. A.W. Griswold said,
(Campbell, 1972) What is a college education? A college
education is not a quantitative body of memorized knowledgesalted away in a card file. It is a taste for knowledge,
a taste for philosophy, if you willa capacity to explore, to
question, to perceive relationships between fields of knowledge and experience.

References
American Meat Science Association. 2001. Meat Evaluation: Introduction.
pp. 6-8. In: Meat Evaluation Handbook. Copyright 2001; ISBN: 09704378-0-3. AMSA, Savoy, IL.

Campbell, John. 1972. In Touch With StudentsA Philosophy For Teachers. page 63. Copyright 1972; ISBN 0-9600470-1-8. Kelly Press, Inc.
Columbia, MO.
Gallagher, R. 2003. So, you think youre a scientist? The Scientist (April 21
Issue). page 18.
Gerber, Robin. 2003. Team sports create leaders. USA Today (February 26
Issue). page 13A.
Smith, G.C. 1989. Developing critical thinking, communication skills and
leadership in animal science students. pp. 1-6. Presented in a Teaching
Symposium at the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Animal
Sciences (Lexington, KY). Mimeograph Report, Department of Animal
Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX.
Smith, G.C. 2001. Preparing animal science graduates to think critically,
compare logically, decide independently, solve problems rationally,
communicate effectively and lead decisively. pp. 1-8. Presented at the
AMSA Meat Coaches & Administrators Lunch, Reciprocal Meat Conference of the American Meat Science Association (Indianapolis, IN).
Mimeograph Report, Department of Animal Sciences, Colorado State
University, Fort Collins, CO.

American Meat Science Association

INTERNATIONAL AWARD LECTURE

The Role of Extension in Meeting


Meat Industry Challenges
Robert E. Rust
Early History
The idea of extension programs for the meat industry is
relatively new. It is, however, rooted in the concepts of the
entire Cooperative Extension program, which, in itself, is
less than a century old. Actually, Iowa is celebrating 100
years of Extension this year. While extension programs for
production agriculture were well established when I began
my professional career in the early 1950s, programs for
agricultural-related industries were new and even greeted
with some skepticism by the old line Extension administrators.
When I began my career as an extension specialist at
Michigan State, it was to pioneer a new effort to provide
educational programs for the food retailers. Food retailing,
at that time was largely the province of independent entrepreneurs who felt, and rightly so, that their existence was
threatened by the large retail chains. Technologies such as
new merchandising techniques, better sanitation, improved
customer service, prepackaging and self-service meats were
developing rapidly. We saw the leading food chains beginning to hire technically trained personnel to support these
programs. Lacking that technical expertise in house, the
independents turned to their local Land Grant University for
support. In providing that support it became evident that the
intermediate marketing step, the packer/processor, could
also benefit from technical support.

Challenges
One of the major challenges facing us at that time was
the lack of applied research information that is critical to
the support of any viable extension program. Remember
that in the early 1950s Meat Science, as a distinct discipline, was in its infancy. Most of the research was centered
Robert E. Rust
Iowa State University
118 East 16th Street
Ames, IA 50010
rrust@iastate.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 5-8)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

on meat animal composition. Very little was being directed


toward meat processing problems. This meant convincing
some of our researchers to redirect their efforts or relying on
a body of knowledge that was emerging from within the
meat industry itself or from supplier industries. Organizations like the American Meat Institute Foundation Research
Laboratory in Chicago were a most valuable resource. In
retrospect, this was one of the most powerful groups of
meat researchers ever assembled and I feel it was a severe
loss when it was disbanded. This is an area where many
European countries were well ahead of us with their government and industry supported meat research institutes.
Another obstacle was establishing credibility with our
prospective audiences. While the credibility of production
agriculture-related extension activities was firmly rooted,
business and industry still viewed us with some degree of
suspicion. We had to prove the value of what we had to
offer. Remember that, in the mid 1950s, meat extension
activities were confined to home butchering, carcass
evaluation and quantity barbecues! In fact, even the concept of a Meat Science extension program was rare. At
RMCs in the mid 1950s, Roy Snyder at Texas A & M and I
were the only full time Extension Meat Specialists. There
were a few others who shared duties with other extension
activities or with teaching and research.
Believe it or not, one of the hurdles to overcome was the
reluctance of Extension administrations to charge for extension activities. They were still married to the idea that Extension's services had to be free. That philosophy has
changed 180 degrees! I recall one of the criticisms leveled
at our early one-week short courses was that we didnt
charge enough. It didnt take me long to remedy that problem! It is my experience that people tend to value information in direct proportion to the cost of that information.

Industry Activities
Industry was working hard to fill the information gap.
Perhaps one of the most notable programs was the oneweek short course offered by the Films Packaging Division
of the Union Carbide Corporation (now Viskase) under the
able leadership of Warren Tauber. This proved to be an
excellent program to emulate.

The American Meat Institute offered a series of correspondence courses for industry. After revising the text for
the course on Sausage and Processed Meats Manufacturing,
I convinced them to use this text as the basis for a series of
two and one-half day seminars to be presented at various
venues throughout the country. These were a lecture format
using a mix of speakers from industry and academia. These
proved to be popular with the meat industry and usually
played to capacity audiences. Eventually, Iowa State inherited these courses from AMI as they directed their activities
elsewhere.
The one drawback to a lecture type program is the restriction on audience participation. If the audience comes
largely from production operations, these people are not
used to sitting for prolonged periods taking notes. Some
form of hands on activity is far more appealing.

Industry Cooperation
Industry cooperation in our extension programs has
proven to be essential. Many of the activities that we included in our short courses could not have happened without the help of the supplier industry and the participation of
experts from the supplier and the meat processing industry
itself. The early development of Iowa States one-week short
course (now in its 25th year) was helped tremendously by
participation in planning and program development from
people like Hans Schneider of Teepak and consultants like
Erwin Waters and Bill Shannon. The danger in using persons from the supplier industry is one of commercialization
of the program. Nothing can destroy the credibility of a
program, as well as the credibility of the speaker and the
company he/she represents, faster than overt commercialization. This has come through loud and clear when participants turned in their evaluations of the program. Needless
to say, it did not take long to uninvite an industry speaker
who used this as an opportunity to commercialize. Fortunately we have a number of industry representatives who
are thoroughly professional and objective in their approach.
I wont mention them by name here for fear of omitting
someone.
Perhaps one of the prime examples of industry cooperation was the relationship we established that aided in the
development of a Spanish language version of our Sausage
and Processed Meats Short Course. Early on we began to
have a number of Latin American visitors to our regular
summer short course. Some of these even went to the extent
of bringing their own translator along. With this evident
need for a course in Spanish, we made a try at organizing
one. Attempting to market this course was a failure and we
abandoned the idea. We just did not have the contacts in
the Latin American market to secure the required minimum
audience.
Then, along came the late Dr. Abraham Saloma of Protein Technologies International, now Solae, who agreed to
cooperate with us in conducting the course. The result was
successful and this cooperation continues on a more or less
6

annual basis to this day. I should add here that Dr. Saloma
was one of the chief proponents of the AMSA International
Award. I remember talking to him about the award, never
dreaming at the time that I would one day be the recipient.

Translation
Working with technical programs in another language
presents its own set of challenges. There is always the problem of finding translators who are familiar with the technology. Good translators in the Meat Science area are few and
far between. There is an amusing story that goes with this.
For several years we hosted a group from the Czech Republic and Slovakia as part of a US-AID program. The best
translator that we found turned out to be a vegetarian!
We can often find technically competent translators who
can handle alternate translation but finding those that can
handle simultaneous translation is another story. Simultaneous translation is an art in itself. A word or two of caution
when using translators: never trust one that does not keep a
note pad handy. This is how important facts can be lost in
translation. Also, it is always helpful if there is someone in
the audience that knows both languages and can alert you if
the translator goes off course. I have been in a situation
where the translator, who was knowledgeable in the technical area, began to editorialize.
If you have the equipment and the facilities, I would
much rather work with simultaneous translation. It doubles
the amount of material you can cover. The effectiveness of
simultaneous translation is reduced however, when it involves a hands-on demonstration. It does take a good deal
of coordination between presenter and translator. I like to
spend some time with the translator going over the details
of a presentation, particularly if a demonstration is involved.

Working in Foreign Countries


Many of you have been called upon to present technical
programs in other countries. I have learned, as Im sure that
many of you have that this is not as easy a task as it may
seem when you first receive the invitation. My first advice is
the same as the oft repeated line in the opening song in
Music Man, You gotta know the territory. If at all possible,
I like to get some feel of the product and the market that I
will be dealing with. Many times, common US technology,
no matter how good, just doesnt fit the situation. While the
addition of fat in a sausage formulation might reduce the
cost here, it could increase the cost in a tropical country
where fat often costs more than lean. Our US technology
isnt always the best when applied in certain foreign situations.
It is also imperative to get some indication of the level of
the audiences that you will be working with. Just as here in
the US you wouldnt want to present the same technology
to a small processor making 25-pound batches that you
would to someone with a 6000 pound per hour continuous
frankfurter line. One size does not fit all.

American Meat Science Association

If I am asked to put on a technical seminar in a country


that I am not completely familiar with, I like to have at least
a day if not more to observe the products in the local market and also some typical processing operations. In fact, I
try to follow the same plan when doing an in-house seminar
for a US processor. I definitely want to see the operation
toward which I will be directing my remarks.

Demonstrations
As much as I like hands-on demonstrations as a teaching
tool and as much as I enjoy doing them, I try to stay away
from them unless I am thoroughly familiar with the venue. I
have been burned too many times when I was assured that
the facilities were complete and fully operational only to
find, on the day of the program, that half of the stuffer parts
were missing or that nobody in the organization had the
faintest idea how the equipment went together. This even
happened in a well-known meat research institute! After too
many of these fiascoes, I insist on having a day prior to a
demonstration type program for a dress rehearsal.
This same philosophy also applies to visual aids. I recall
one instance where a colleague of mine and I were assured
that PowerPoint projection equipment would be available.
It was available all right but in one program the projector
wasnt compatible with the computer, in the next the projector would not function at all and in a third we were
greeted with We thought that you were bringing the projector. Fortunately, we had our overhead transparencies as
a backup, something I wont leave home without. Relying
on one medium for presentation is always a risky business.
One of the things that I have tried to avoid is a meat cutting demonstration. Generally the cutting pattern used in
another country really does not match ours although it
seems to adequately satisfy the local market. In fact, in
many cases, I have found that cutting systems in use in
some other countries make more sense than some of ours.
Too often the audience gets caught up in technique and, as
a result, loses the message that you are trying to convey. I
recall the days when representatives from the National Livestock and Meat Board would cut up a beef or hog carcass
while wearing a tuxedo and never even got their shirt cuffs
dirty. It wowed the audience but did it really convey any
critical technology?

Extension in Other Countries


As I mentioned earlier, the Extension concept is largely a
US phenomenon. The idea of a university for the people
was the basic concept of the Land Grant system and Extension was a natural offshoot. Many other countries followed
a different route, that of the Meat Research Institute which
often was a government/industry partnership. Technical
conferences organized by these institutes were more the
rule than the format of an applied teaching activity. In effect, they were more like the old Meat Industry Research
Conference where the AMIF presented the results of their

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

research efforts. The proceedings of the AMIF Research


Conferences are still good references, by the way.
Recently I had an opportunity to talk to Dr. Svein Aage
Berg of the Institute for Food and Biotechnology in Goteborg, Sweden. He informed me that he was beginning a
series of short courses for industry based on the format that
he had observed while on sabbatical at Iowa State. I have
also seen similar programs gaining in popularity in other
countries.
Conducting programs in other countries can often bring
some interesting challenges. Among these is the cultural
difference. When working in the Czech Republic, we felt
that it was important to introduce the concept of HACCP.
This was an easy concept for them to embrace up until we
got to the development of HACCP teams. Did you ever try
to teach the concept of participatory management to someone who had grown up under 50 years of totalitarian rule?
For a long period of time meat research institutes in other
countries have offered consulting activities, either on a subscription basis or on a charge per project basis. This format
is gaining popularity in the US and, with tightening budgets,
may well become the Extension paradigm for the future. In
all probability, the days of extension assistance for free
may well be over.

Safety v. Technology
This is an interesting challenge that is facing us with the
ever-increasing demand for food safety and HACCP related
programs. I have talked with many of my former colleagues
and find that they are devoting the larger share of extension
time and effort toward supporting their clienteles needs in
developing and maintaining a viable HACCP program. I
would hope that we, meaning Extension, would not abandon the area of processing technology. If we do, someone
will fill that void, most likely the supplier industry. While
many members of the supplier industry can do an excellent
job, lets face it. They do have a vested interest and it would
be a shame if we deprived the processors of a truly
independent source of information. I hope that we will
continue to maintain good processing technology as one of
our objectives.

Selling a Program
The idea that, If you build it they will come, may have
worked in the movie Field of Dreams but my experience
is that it doesnt work in extension programs. A former
professor of mine that taught adult education, used to say
that there is no felt need for continuing education. The
need or interest must be driven by some outside force such
as economics, the need to comply with regulations, etc. It is
important to be cognizant of these driving forces and to
capitalize on them when promoting a program. A lot of
good programs have died because they were not properly
promoted to the potential audience.

Professionalism
Given my age, experience, white hair and the fact that I
am more than 50 miles away from home, I consider this a
license to philosophize. More and more we find ourselves
caught between the scientific truths and a position that is
politically correct. With our muckraking friends in the
popular news media stirring the spark of a smoldering
breach in meat safety into a full-scale conflagration, someone has to stand for the scientific truth. I have been stuck in
that position many times. It ranged from the trivial like
should we base the ultimate superiority of a meat animal on
performance and carcass value or the opinion of some guru

to the livestock industry with a large hat, a loud voice and a


cane to a serious issue like the perceived danger of nitrite in
our processed meats. In the latter case I was caught
squarely between the Des Moines Register, a couple of
powerful members of Congress and the truth. That was one
time I was really thankful for tenure. In the final analysis if
we, as professional Meat Scientists dont stand up for scientific truths, who will?
Remember too, that if you are going to pioneer a new
program or concept you are going to be viewed as a heretic. More than a few heretics in history got barbecued for
their
efforts!

American Meat Science Association

MEAT QUALITY

Biological Basis for Pale, Soft and Exudative Pork


Matthew E. Doumit*, Chuck P. Allison, Emily E. Helman, Nicholas L. Berry and Matthew J. Ritter
Introduction
Pale, soft and exudative (PSE) pork was recognized a half
century ago by Ludvigsen (1953). The undesirable appearance and texture, limited functionality, and inferior processing yield of PSE pork continue to make it a critical quality
and economic concern (Cannon et al., 1996; Cassens,
2000). Rapid postmortem muscle acidification combined
with high muscle temperature, as well as low ultimate meat
pH, have long been implicated as factors that induce PSE
pork characteristics (Briskey, et al., 1966; Sellier and Monin,
1994). Numerous reports on the development of PSE pork
have focused on major gene effects, including the halothane (stress) gene (Fujii et al., 1991; reviewed by Louis et
al., 1993) and the Napole gene (RN-; reviewed by Sellier
and Monin, 1994; Milan et al., 2000). Despite an abundance of research describing PSE pork characteristics, and a
reduction in the frequency of major genes with known deleterious effects on pork quality, Cassens (2000) concluded
that little progress has been made in reducing the incidence
of PSE pork. The current paper will provide an overview of
several biological processes associated with development of
PSE pork, and highlight recent improvements in our understanding of these processes that may be useful for devising
approaches to reduce the incidence of PSE pork.

Miller and OCallaghan, 2002; Wurtman, 2002). Miller and


OCallaghan (2002) defined stress as any disruption of homeostasis. Following disruption of homeostasis, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic
nervous system (SNS) are activated in an attempt to preserve
homeostasis (Miller and OCallaghan, 2002). Initiation of
the stress response via the HPA axis involves synthesis and
release of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) from the
paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. CRF travels
down the axons of these neurons to the external layer of the
median eminence. Release of CRF into the portal blood
controls processing of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
in anterior pituitary corticotrophs, as well as secretion of
several other pituitary hormones. Figure 1 illustrates the
multi-hormonal control of ACTH release. ACTH released
into the circulation stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce
glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids and adrenal androgens.
One consequence of glucocorticoid release (primarily cortisol in pigs) is an elevation in blood glucose, which provides
the body with fuel necessary to meet the higher metabolic
demands associated with a stressful situation. Local delivery
of cortisol to the adrenal medulla induces the enzyme

Stress Response Associated with Development of


PSE Pork
Animal stressors, such as physical exercise, handling,
transportation, mixing of pigs, noise, and weather extremes
accelerate antemortem muscle metabolism and have adverse effects on meat quality (Tarrant, 1989). The biology of
the stress response in animals has been the subject of several recent reviews (Schaefer et al., 2001; von Borell, 2001;
Matthew E. Doumit
Departments of Animal Science and Food Science & Human Nutrition
3385 Anthony Hall
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48824
doumitm@msu.edu
The authors gratefully acknowledge support from the National Pork Board
and the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station.
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 9-15)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

Figure 1. Multihormonal Control of the Stress Response. Hypothalamic stimulation results in the release of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), vasopressin (V) and vasoactive intestinal peptide. Each of
these factors induces the anterior pituitary to release adrenocorticotropin (ACTH). ACTH stimulates the synthesis of glucocorticoids in
the adrenal cortex. Glucocorticoids can have a stimulatory effect on
the adrenal medulla and result in the synthesis of epinephrine. Glucocorticoids can also act directly on the anterior pituitary to inhibit
ACTH mRNA formation or inhibit ACTH release. The secretion of
epinephrine can have inhibitory effects on the hypothalamus. Additionally, epinephrine and norepinephrine can stimulate the anterior
pituitary to release ACTH. Somatostatin (SRIF) has been shown to
block the ACTH releasing ability of the anterior pituitary. (adapted
from Axelrod and Reisine, 1984)

phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase, which is ratelimiting in epinephrine synthesis from norepinephrine (reviewed by Wurtman, 2002). In turn, epinephrine stimulates
glycogenolysis and is more potent than norepinephrine in
raising body temperature and increasing heart rate and cardiac output. Chronic increases in epinephrine may be expected to reduce adrenomedullary norepinephrine secretion. However, this may be compensated for by the stressinduced increase in the quantity of norepinephrine released
from sympathetic nerve terminals, which may actually increase plasma norepinephrine and subsequently increase
peripheral resistance and raise blood pressure (Wurtman,
2002). Collectively, the release of these hormones serves to
adapt the body to stressors ranging from mildly psychological to intensely physical by affecting cardiovascular, energy
producing, and immune systems (Axelrod and Reisine,
1984). Antemortem activation of the HPA axis and the
plethora of related catabolic biochemical events also increase heat production and the likelihood of producing PSE
pork (Schaefer et al., 2001).

Stress Reduction through Feed Manipulation


Schaefer et al. (2001) and Rosenvold and Andersen
(2003) recently reviewed the role of nutrition in reducing
antemortem stress and meat quality aberrations. Nutritional
manipulation has included attempts to manipulate stress
hormone levels (Schaefer et al., 2001), as well as direct attempts to buffer the well-known decrease in pH associated
with antemortem stress (Boles et al. 1994). With regard to
the latter, feeding bicarbonate resulted in moderate improvements in texture and pH, whereas feeding an acidotic
solution increased the incidence of PSE pork (Boles et al.,
1994).
Attempts to modify the synthesis of hormones involved in
the stress response in pigs by nutritional manipulation have
produced inconsistent results. Magnesium may affect an
animal's response and resistance to stress by antagonizing
the effects of calcium on calcium-release channel function
(Zucchi and Ronca-Testoni, 1997) or by altering the release
of stress hormones (Classen et al., 1987). Feeding magnesium aspartate to pigs has been shown to improve pork
quality and reduce the incidence of PSE carcasses in pigs
subjected to inferior handling (D'Souza et al., 1998; Schaefer et al., 1993). Conversely, Caine et al. (2000) reported
that supplementary magnesium exacerbated the PSE condition in pigs heterozygous for the halothane gene, leading
these authors to conclude that the efficacy of magnesium
aspartate hydrochloride was dependent on diet and genotype. Hamilton et al. (2002) observed no consistent effects
of short-term feeding of magnesium sulfate on pork color
and drip loss.
Exposure to stress increases catecholamine synthesis and
turnover, thereby increasing the demand for tyrosine, which
is the amino acid precursor of dopamine, norepinephrine
and epinephrine. If catecholamine synthesis is compromised, animals become less resistant to stress and may lose

10

the ability to respond appropriately to stimuli. Likewise,


insufficient serotonin is associated with violent behavior,
but supplementation with tryptophan, the substrate for serotonin synthesis, may produce sedation (Schaefer et al.,
2001). Adeola et al. (1993) reported that stress-susceptible
pigs had lower brain levels of serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine than stress-tolerant pigs. Similarly, Weaver et al. (2000) observed that boars heterozygous
for the stress gene had lower basal plasma ACTH and cortisol concentrations compared to wild-type boars. However,
the neuroendocrine response to stress did not differ between boars of these genotypes, despite a higher incidence
of PSE meat in heterozygous boars. Feeding excess dietary
tryptophan and tyrosine to pigs appears to have little effect
on the incidence of PSE pork (Adeola and Ball, 1992;
Schaefer et al., 2001).

Genetic Basis for PSE Pork


Porcine stress syndrome (PSS), also referred to as malignant hyperthermia, is a genetic abnormality that compromises a pig's ability to cope with stressors. Malignant hyperthermia is inherited in an autosomal recessive fashion with
incomplete penetrance (Mickelson and Louis, 1996). Pigs
with this condition produce PSE pork more frequently than
stress-resistant genotypes due to a combination of low pH
and high early postmortem temperature, which results in
extensive protein denaturation (Briskey et al., 1966; Louis et
al., 1993). Initial studies to identify pigs affected by PSS utilized the anesthetic, halothane gas (Eikelenboom and
Minkema, 1974; Webb and Jordan, 1978). For over a decade, halothane screening of pigs was used to identify animals that were susceptible to PSS. This test was effective at
identifying homozygous positive pigs, but did not distinguish between heterozygous and homozygous normal pigs
(Webb and Jordan, 1978). Cheah and Cheah (1976) showed
that halothane enhanced the rate of calcium release by twofold in pigs that were sensitive to halothane compared to
those that were not. Advances in the understanding of calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) led to the
discovery of a substitution of T for C at nucleotide 1843
(HAL-1843) of the SR calcium-release channel cDNA (Fujii
et al., 1991). This substitution is responsible for an alteration
in amino acid sequence from an arginine to cysteine at
residue 615 in the calcium-release channel protein, also
called the ryanodine receptor (RYR1; Fujii et al., 1991). The
polymorphism results in hypersensitive gating of the calcium release channel, which results in elevated sarcoplasmic calcium. Numerous functions of sarcoplasmic calcium
ions have been reviewed by Berchtold et al. (2000). A few
of the many critical functions of sarcoplasmic calcium ions
are depicted in Figure 2. Calcium release from the SR stimulates muscle contraction, SR calcium ATPase (calcium
pump) activity, mitochondrial ATP synthesis, glycolytic ATP
production, heat production, as well as calpain-mediated
proteolysis. Excessive SR calcium release through defective
RYR1 is often associated with rapid antemortem and postmortem ATP utilization; increase rate of anaerobic glycoly-

American Meat Science Association

Figure 2. Calcium ions regulate skeletal muscle function. Calcium


ions stimulate muscle contraction, sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) calcium ATPase, glycogenolysis and glycolysis. Collectively, these processes result in accumulation of lactate, hydrogen ions, and heat. A
rapid accumulation of hydrogen ions and heat in postmortem muscle
is associated with excessive protein denaturation and development of
PSE pork. Pigs with the HAL-1843 polymorphism exhibit hypersensitive calcium release channels, and therefore a compromised ability to
regulate sarcoplasmic calcium ion concentrations.

sis, and the accelerated accumulation of hydrogen ions and


heat associated with the development of PSE pork.
Based on the findings of Fujii et al. (1991), a DNA based
test was established that could distinguish between homozygous positive, heterozygous carrier, and homozygous
normal pigs with respect to the HAL-1843 mutation. This
genetic test largely replaced halothane gas testing of swine,
and efforts were made to eliminate the HAL-1843 mutation
from commercial populations. Nonetheless, Murray and
Johnson (1998) reported that in a population of 1006 pigs
harvested in two packing plants, 90% of the PSE condition
was caused by factors other than the HAL-1843 gene. Additionally, Rempel et al. (1993) compared the DNA-based test
with the halothane challenge test and found that several
pigs classified as HAL-1843 free were responsive to halothane. One explanation for these results is that other RYR1
polymorphisms may exist and result in altered halothane
sensitivity and calcium regulation. Indeed, more than
twenty mutations in the human RYR1 have been linked to
MH (Girard et al., 2001). Strasburg and Chiang (2003) provide a more complete overview of RYR function and abnormalities in these proceedings.
The Napole gene is another genetic abnormality that can
lead to inferior pork quality. LeRoy et al. (1990) described
the Napole gene as a dominant allele (RN-) and recessive
allele (rn+) that is simply inherited. The dominant RN- allele
results in higher than normal muscle glycogen stores and an
extended postmortem pH decline that leads to pork with a
lower than normal ultimate meat pH, higher reflectance
(lighter meat), reduced water-holding capacity, and dramatically reduced processing yield (LeRoy et al., 2000).
Monin and Sellier (1985) referred to this condition as the
Hampshire effect, due to its prevalence in the Hampshire
breed. The causative polymorphism was identified in the
PRKAG3 gene, which encodes a muscle specific isoform of
the regulatory subunit of adenosine monophosphate56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

activated protein kinase (AMPK; Milan et al., 2000). Activated AMPK turns on ATP-producing pathways, inhibits
ATP-consuming pathways, and can inactivate glycogen
synthase (Hardie et al., 1998). The RN- allele results from
an R200Q substitution in AMPK. This modification has little
effect on early postmortem pH values, but the inferior color
and water-holding capacity of RN- pork are associated with
lower 24-hour pH values. The reduced water-holding capacity of pork with low ultimate pH has been attributed to a
reduced net protein charge that decreases repulsion between myofilaments (Hamm, 1994), as well as a more pronounced denaturation of myosin tails and sarcoplasmic
proteins (Deng et al., 2002). Conversely, Ciobanu et al.
(2001) reported the presence of important alleles of the
gene encoding AMPK that are associated with low glycogen
content and improved pork quality. These findings demonstrate that additional alleles of genes involved in major
mutations may be important contributors to pork quality.

Physical and Biochemical Aspects of PSE Pork


Water-holding capacity of pork is influenced by protein
denaturation, myofibrillar lattice spacing, cytoskeletal links,
membrane permeability, and the size of fluid channels in
the extracellular space (reviewed by Purslow et al., 2001;
Warner et al., 2001; Honikel, 2002). Recent nuclear magnetic resonance measurements on pork longissimus muscle
indicated that drip loss is an ongoing process involving the
transfer of water from myofibrils to the extracellular space,
and this process is affected by structural features at several
levels of organization within muscle tissue (Bertram et al.,
2002). The physical features of muscle that affect, or result
from, fluid loss also influence pork color. Increased extracellular fluid results in a pale product due to greater light
reflectance and scatter. Pale color may also be associated
with low myoglobin concentration or stability (reviewed by
Faustman and Cassens, 1990). Zhu and Brewer (1998)
found PSE pork to have lower metmyoglobin reductase and
a higher proportion of metmyoglobin at the longissimus
muscle surface than normal pork.
Many of the structural features of meat or meat proteins
that affect color and water-holding capacity are dictated by
early postmortem events. Schfer et al. (2002) reported that
early postmortem temperature and pH were sufficient to
account for 89% of the variation in drip loss from pork.
Klont and Lambooy (1995) also demonstrated the effects of
temperature on water-holding capacity by experimentally
inducing rectal and muscle temperature differences between 36.9 and 39.6C in anesthetized pigs. While these
may be considered within the normal range of body temperature for pigs, an increase to the upper level of this normal range caused an increased incidence of PSE meat in all
halothane genotypes (Klont and Lambooy, 1995). It is also
interesting to note that functional tests of mitochondria from
normal and HAL-1843 heterozygous or homozygous pigs
revealed that homozygous HAL-1843 pigs had more than
twice the exo-NADH oxidase activity compared to normal
pigs, whereas heterozygous MH pigs were intermediate
11

(Rasmussen et al., 1996). These authors speculated that exoNADH oxidase activity might help sustain accelerated glycolysis by re-oxidizing the cytosolic NADH as an alternative to NADH shuttle activity. This process would be expected to result in production of heat, but not ATP. Whether
or not differences in exo-NADH oxidase contribute to variation in heat production and pork quality in muscle of normal pigs is currently unknown.
Poulanne et al. (2002) indicated that heat production accounts for 69% of the energy produced during the splitting
of ATP to yield ADP and Pi. Thus, the activity of the myosin
and/or calcium ATPases (Figure 2) during the antemortem
and early postmortem periods are likely to play an important role in determining pork quality due to the heat production and glycolytic stimulation associated with ATP
utilization. Although myosin ATPase activity is associated
with specific myosin heavy chain (MyHC) isoforms, the
relationships between MyHC isoforms and pork loin drip
loss or color are generally low (Eggert et al., 2002; HuffLonergan et al., 2002; Ritter, 2002). Our attempts to explain
harvest day effects on pork loin fluid loss revealed that a
lower proportion of type IIA MyHC and a higher proportion
of type IIB and/or IIX MyHC appear to contribute to accelerated pH decline and increased fluid loss when less favorable antemortem or early postmortem conditions are encountered (Ritter, 2002).
Relatively low pH combined with high muscle temperature during the early postmortem period causes denaturation and reduced solubility of sarcoplasmic proteins (Sayre
and Briskey, 1963; Scopes, 1964; Joo et al., 1999) and myosin (Offer, 1991; Warner et al., 1997). Pale color and reduced water-holding capacity associated with PSE pork
have been primarily attributed to denaturation of sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar proteins, respectively (Joo et al.,
1999). However, Wilson and van Laack (1999) demonstrated that when myofibrils from either PSE or normal pork
were combined with sarcoplasmic extract from PSE meat,
the water-holding capacity of the myofibrils was lower than
when combined with extract from normal pork. These authors concluded that sarcoplasmic proteins also influence
water-holding capacity, through as yet undefined mechanisms. One possibility is that denatured sarcoplasmic proteins adsorb onto the surface of myofibrils, thereby shielding the charged groups available for fluid binding (Bendall
and Wismer-Pedersen, 1962; Boles et al., 1992). Additional
research is required to elucidate the mechanisms whereby
sarcoplasmic proteins may influence water-holding capacity
of meat.
Since the rate and extent of hydrogen ion accumulation
have profound effects on pork quality, and hydrogen ion
accumulation results from anaerobic glycolysis, regulation
of glycogenolysis and glycolysis are important aspects of
pork quality development. Muscle glycogen stores at the
time of slaughter have long been recognized to influence
meat quality (Briskey et al., 1966).

12

Proglycogen and macroglycogen can be distinguished on


the basis of size and protein content, and have been described in detail by Lomako et al. (1993). In pigs, proglycogen is degraded preferentially during the first 45-60 minutes
postmortem (Rozenvold et al., 2003). Furthermore, total
glycogen and the proportion of acid-insoluble proglycogen
are higher in muscles that exhibit rapid postmortem pH
decline and PSE pork (Briskey and Wismer-Pedersen, 1961).
Although the macroglycogen pool can be reduced by dietary manipulation, a subsequent reduction in postmortem
glycolysis is due to reduced metabolism of the proglycogen
pool (Rosenvold et al., 2003). In a recent review, Rosenvold
and Andersen (2003), citing unpublished observations of B.
Essen-Gustavsson, suggested that early postmortem glycolysis in RN- pigs may be similar to that of non-carriers of the
RN- mutation because the increase in glycogen in RN- pigs
is due to greater macroglycogen stores. Consequently, total
glycogen appears to be inversely associated with ultimate
meat pH, whereas the rate of pH decline appears to be
positively associated with the proportion of proglycogen.
In living skeletal muscle, energy utilization and energy
production are highly coordinated events. In fact, Conley et
al. (1997) suggested that elevated sarcoplasmic calcium
activates muscle contraction, glycogenolysis and glycolysis
in parallel (Figure 2), since glycolytic rate is dependent on
muscle stimulation frequency and independent of ADP,
AMP and Pi concentrations. Once again, this highlights the
importance of calcium regulation on muscle metabolism.
Control over glycolytic flux, or the flow of intermediates
through glycolysis, may also be controlled by covalent
modification (enzyme phosphorylation and dephosphorylation), substrate control, and allosteric control mediated by
changes in metabolite and co-factor concentrations (reviewed by Connett and Sahlin, 1996). The reversible binding of enzyme-enzyme and enzyme-contractile protein interactions provide additional possibilities for the regulation
of glycolytic flux in skeletal muscle. The proportions of several glycolytic enzymes bound to contractile proteins increase with increased rates of glycolysis, and this may provide a mechanism for enhancing metabolite transfer rates
(Parkhouse, 1992). Lee et al. (1989) summarized several
studies demonstrating that phosphofructokinase (PFK) is
phosphorylated in contracting muscle when the need for
energy is high. Modification of PFK by phosphorylation favors enzyme binding to actin by increasing its apparent
affinity for F-actin. It is currently not clear if enzyme modifications that occur under normal physiological conditions
will also occur under postmortem conditions, or if enzyme
binding has adverse consequences relevant to pork waterholding capacity and color.
In a classical study of postmortem glycolysis, Kastenschmidt et al. (1968) quantified levels of glycolytic intermediates and co-factors in longissimus muscles that exhibited
fast and slow rates of postmortem glycolysis. These authors
concluded that accelerated glycolytic rates resulted from
coordinated stimulation of glycogen phosphorylase, PFK,
and pyruvate kinase (PK). These enzymes have traditionally
American Meat Science Association

been considered to catalyze rate-determining steps of glycogenolysis and glycolysis in skeletal muscle, since the reactions are far from equilibrium and reactions catalyzed by
PFK and PK also proceed with a large decrease in free energy.
Phosphofructokinase has been regarded as the primary
regulatory enzyme of glycolysis. It was on this premise that
Sayre et al. (1963) investigated PFK activity in porcine muscle extracts. These authors determined that in vitro PFK and
phosphorylase activities were not associated with the rate of
pH decline in longissimus muscle of Hampshire, Poland
China and Chester White pigs. Surprisingly, Allison et al.
(2003) found that maximal in vitro PFK activity extracted
from longissimus samples obtained at 20 minutes postmortem was inversely correlated with loin chop fluid loss. This
observation may reflect early postmortem inactivation of the
acid labile PFK enzyme in muscle undergoing rapid glycolysis.
Schwgele et al. (1996) demonstrated that muscle from
halothane-sensitive pigs had four times more total PK activity than control pigs. Additionally, PK isolated from muscle
of halothane-sensitive pigs lost only 30% of its activity
when assayed at pH 5.5 rather than pH 7.0. In contrast, PK
from control pig muscle lost >90% of its activity when assayed at pH 5.5. The higher activity and pH stability of PK
from muscle of halothane-sensitive pigs were attributed to
the presence of a more highly phosphorylated enzyme
(Schwgele et al., 1996). These enzyme properties may allow continued rapid accumulation of lactate and hydrogen
ions in PSE muscle under conditions that would result in
slow glycolysis in muscle producing higher quality pork.
We recently reported that differences in PK capacity do not
explain variation in color and water-holding capacity of
pork loin muscle from HAL-1843-negative pigs (Allison et
al., 2003). Additionally, when we measured PK activity at
pH 5.5, we observed a loss of >88% activity in all loin
muscle samples at this pH compared to activity measured at
pH 7.0. Thus, factors that contribute to the PSE condition of
pork from halothane-sensitive pigs may not be broadly applicable to pigs that do not possess the HAL-1843 polymorphism.
Xu et al. (1995) suggested that ATP may be functionally
compartmentalized in both skeletal and cardiac muscle
cells. These authors demonstrated that the entire chain of
glycolytic enzymes from aldolase onward are bound to SR
membranes from cardiac and skeletal muscle. Additionally,
immunogold labeling of ultrathin sections revealed that
pyruvate kinase was located on SR vesicles immediately
adjacent to the calcium ATPase (Xu and Becker, 1998). Aldolase and glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase were
also found in close proximity to the calcium ATPase (Xu
and Becker, 1998). ATP produced via SR associated glycolytic enzymes was shown to be preferentially used to fuel
the calcium ATPase ion pump, suggesting that this ATP is
transferred to the calcium pump in a protected microenvironment and is functionally coupled to calcium transport
(Xu et al., 1995). How (or if) the functional coupling of gly56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

colytic enzymes to the major sites of energy utilization (myosin ATPase and calcium ATPase) affects pork quality is
currently unknown. However, this coupling may influence
glycolytic rate, ultimate enzyme location and the degree of
denaturation of sarcoplasmic proteins, which, in turn, may
influence the color (Joo et al., 1999) and water-holding capacity of pork (Wilson and van Laack, 1999).
Postmortem muscle glycolysis is frequently monitored by
measuring pH at specified times. This measurement undoubtedly reflects the pH of tissue, as opposed to that of
individual muscle fibers, and may not accurately reflect the
nature of postmortem glycolysis in individual muscle fibers.
Oscillatory behavior of the glycolytic pathway has been
well documented (reviewed by Smolen, 1995; Tornheim,
1979). In cell-free extracts of skeletal muscle, glycolytic
oscillations are generated by repeated bursts of PFK activity.
When the [ATP]/[ADP] ratio decreases to a trigger level, this
initiates a sudden increase, or burst, in glycolytic flux that
restores a high [ATP]/[ADP] ratio. In postmortem tissue,
glycolytic bursts may also result in rapid and localized
acidification, which could exacerbate protein denaturation.
Using a protocol adapted from Tornheim et al. (1991), we
have observed oscillatory behavior of glycolysis in
sarcoplasmic protein extracts from porcine longissimus
muscle (unpublished observations). The potential
contribution of these oscillations to the development of PSE
pork warrants further investigation.

Conclusions
The complexity of the PSE pork problem is highlighted by
the fact that removal of genetic polymorphisms known to be
associated with a higher incidence of PSE pork has not reduced the incidence of the problem. Providing biological
explanations for conditions that result in production of PSE
pork is essential for development of new strategies to improve the quality and consistency of pork. Calcium ions
play a key role in regulating skeletal muscle metabolism
and function, and much remains to be resolved regarding
the regulation of calcium signaling. Additional information
is also required to identify factors that contribute to rapid
postmortem glycolysis. A detailed understanding of factors
that regulate postmortem glycolysis in porcine skeletal muscle will improve efforts to control the rate of muscle pH
decline, and reduce the incidence of PSE pork.

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American Meat Science Association

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15

16

American Meat Science Association

MEAT QUALITY

Genetic Basis for Pale, Soft and


Exudative Turkey Meat
Gale M. Strasburg* & Wen Chiang
Introduction
Consumer demand for poultry products over the last
three decades has led to unprecedented increases in poultry
production, with turkey production alone increasing approximately 180% since 1975 (National Turkey Federation,
2003). This increase was achieved, in part, by enhancements in growth rate and carcass yield, coupled with increases in breast proportion and reductions in abdominal
fatness. The improvements on these traits are mainly due to
the high heritabilities of body weight and body composition
during breeding (Le Bihan-Duval et al., 1998). These
achievements of breeding, however, have come with a hidden cost in the form of increased frequency of meat quality
problems (Sosnicki, 1993).
One of the most frequently recurring quality problems is
that of pale, soft and exudative (PSE) meat. The term PSE is
a descriptor for a meat product, typically pork or turkey,
which has an abnormally light color, a flaccid consistency,
poor water-holding capacity, and substantially reduced
cook yield (Wismer-Pedersen 1959; Topel et al., 1976;
DeSmet et al., 1996). Although the undesirable appearance
of fresh meat cuts exhibiting the PSE condition may lead to
rejection of the product by consumers, it is the poor protein
functionality in processed meat products that is considered
to be the primary cause of financial loss associated with PSE
meat by the turkey processing industry.
The topic of meat quality problems, including PSE pork
and turkey, was reviewed at this conference ten years ago
by Louis et al. (1993) and Sosnicki (1993), respectively.
Since then, numerous advances have been made in our
understanding of the molecular mechanisms associated
with excitation-contraction coupling in muscle, and of their
potential relationship to meat quality. This paper provides
Gale M. Strasburg
334B G.M. Trout Bldg.
Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition
Michigan State Un iversity
East Lansing, MI 48824
stragale@msu.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 17-22)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

an update of the salient literature in this area, presents a


hypothesis for a genetic component to development of PSE
turkey, and describes some recent studies from our laboratory that address this hypothesis.

Factors Influencing the Development of PSE Meat


The mechanism by which PSE meat develops is still
poorly understood. It is generally accepted that PSE meat is
closely associated with rapid, early-post-mortem glycolysis
in muscle tissue (Ma and Addis, 1973; Pietrzak et al., 1997),
which in turn results in accelerated rigor mortis development and low pH (<5.8) while the breast muscle temperature is still high (Sosnicki and Wilson, 1992). The combination of low pH and high temperature in the early stages of
the conversion of muscle to meat leads to the denaturation
of myofibrillar proteins and consequent loss of protein functionality.
Studies over the past decade have identified several antemortem environmental factors and post-mortem processing
approaches that can enhance or mitigate meat quality (reviewed by Sams, 1999). Stresses such as the onset of a prolonged heat wave, transportation, and struggling of birds
prior to slaughter have been shown to trigger the acceleration of postmortem glycolysis in turkeys producing PSE
meat (McCurdy et al., 1996; McKee and Sams, 1997).
Genetic factors are likely to play a role in a birds relative
stress susceptibility and its ability to adapt to stressors,
thereby influencing the probability of developing PSE meat.
Evidence for a genetic component of PSE turkey is limited,
and is suggestive rather than direct. McCurdy et al. (1996)
used color score measurements (L values) to assess the frequency of the PSE problem. Based on their observation that
high L values were correlated with poor water-holding capacity, they used a cut-off L value > 50 to classify turkey
breasts as PSE. On this basis, they observed considerable
flock-to-flock variation, with several flocks having as little
as 1% and one flock as much as 29% of birds above this
cut-off. Pietrzak et al. (1997) reported that turkeys could be
classified as having fast or slow post-mortem glycolytic
rates, and they suggested there was a genetic basis for these
differences.
The striking similarity in development of the PSE condition in turkey and pork, together with the identification of a
17

genetic component of stress susceptibility in pigs, suggest


that there is a genetic basis for stress susceptibility in turkeys. Therefore, it is instructive to briefly review the experience of the pork industry with respect to the role of genetics
in development of PSE meat.
During the 1950s and 1960s, genetic selection for lean,
fast-growing pigs inadvertently led to increased frequency
of severe stress susceptibility, known as porcine stress syndrome (PSS), in various breeds of swine. Stresses such as
transportation, heat, and mating in stress-susceptible pigs
frequently led to episodes of malignant hyperthermia (MH),
an inherited muscle disorder characterized by severe muscle contracture, excessive heat and lactic acid production
(Mitchell and Heffron, 1982). An MH episode often results
in death prior to slaughter, whereas live, stress-susceptible
pigs that go through the slaughter process tend to yield a
higher incidence of PSE meat than non-stress-susceptible
pigs (Lundstrm et al. 1989).
By the 1980s it was recognized that an abnormal calcium
release mechanism was a key factor in the development of
PSS/MH, and by extension, the increased frequency of PSE
meat from these pigs (Nelson, 1983; Cheah et al., 1984).
The genetic basis of PSS/MH was subsequently identified as
a point mutation in the skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) calcium-release channel (sometimes referred to as
the ryanodine receptor or RYR1) (Fujii et al., 1991). The
relationship of this mutation in RYR1 to muscle disease and
meat quality will be explored below. Based on the apparent
similarities of the basis for PSE pork and PSE turkey, we hypothesize that one or more mutations exist in turkey RYR
which make a sub-population of turkeys stress-susceptible
and thus, more likely than normal birds to develop PSE
meat.

whereas channel activity is inhibited by mM Ca2+, mM


Mg2+, and M ryanodine among many others.
Analysis of the RYR1 primary structure indicates that
there are between four and ten membrane-spanning regions, and that about four-fifths of the molecular mass is
localized on the cytoplasmic side of the SR membrane
(Takeshima et al., 1989, Zorzato et al., 1990). The transmembrane domains of each subunit monomer combine to
form the pore of the channel that enables Ca2+ diffusion
from the SR lumen to the sarcoplasm. The cytoplasmic domain can be observed by electron microscopy as a squarelike foot structure, which extends across the triad junctional gap between the SR terminal cisterna and the transverse tubule (t-tubule) membrane. The foot region of RYR
also binds modulatory proteins including calmodulin (CaM)
and FK-506 binding protein (FKBP). CaM binds to RYR1
with a stoichiometry of 4CaM/RYR1 (1 CaM per RYR1 subunit). CaM enhances channel activity at nM Ca2+ (corresponding to resting muscle Ca2+ concentrations), and it inhibits channel activity at M Ca2+ (corresponding to contracting muscle Ca2+ concentrations) (Reviewed by Hamilton et al., 2000). FKBP also binds with RYR1 with a
stoichiometry of 4 FKBP/RYR1 and it appears to be important as a stabilizer of channel function (reviewed by
Franzini-Armstrong and Protasi, 1997).
In skeletal muscle, ordered arrays of RYR molecules may
couple with a protein complex known as the dihydropyridine receptor (DHPR) (Figure 1). DHPRs are clustered in the
t-tubule as tetrads, and each unit of the tetrad can interact
with a RYR1 molecule in the SR. However, a puzzling fea-

Ryanodine Receptors and Calcium-Release


in Muscle Contraction
In all muscle cells, the cytosolic free calcium concentration exerts primary control over the initiation, time course,
and force of contraction. The process of coupling chemical
and electrical signals at the cell surface to the intracellular
release of Ca2+ and ultimate contraction of muscle fibers is
termed excitation-contraction coupling (E-C coupling). The
calcium release channel was initially identified in SR vesicles of rabbit skeletal muscle as a ryanodine binding protein
(RYR1) because of its high affinity for ryanodine, a neutral
plant alkaloid (Jenden and Fairhurst, 1969). This ligandreceptor interaction facilitated purification and characterization of the SR calcium release channels (reviewed by
Franzini-Armstrong and Protasi, 1997).
The ryanodine receptor is a homotetrameric channel protein with subunit molecular mass of 565 kDa, consisting of
about 5000 amino acids. RYR channel activity is modulated
by numerous physiological and pharmacological factors
(reviewed by Franzini-Armstrong and Protasi, 1997). Agonists of channel activity include M Ca2+, mM caffeine,
adenine nucleotides, halothane, and nM ryanodine,
18

Figure 1. The E-C Coupling Complex in Mammalian Skeletal Muscle.


The dihydropyridine receptor (DHPR) is a heterotetrameric protein
embedded in the t-tubule that serves as the voltage sensor. The ryanodine receptor (RYR1) is located in the SR. The cytoplasmic portion of
RYR1 (also called the junctional foot) binds the modulatory proteins
calmodulin (CaM) and FKBP (not shown). Upon depolarization of the
t-tubule, the DHPR undergoes a conformational change, which is
transmitted to RYR1, causing it to open. Calcium ions flow from the
SR lumen through the transmembrane portion of RYR1 and into the
cytoplasmic space. The structure of RYR1 is a low-resolution model
derived from electron microscopy and image reconstruction. Greek
letters represent DHPR subunits (From Hamilton et al., 2000 with
permission).

American Meat Science Association

ture of the structural disposition of DHPR tetrads relative to


RYRs is that only half of RYR1 units are actually coupled to
a DHPR, whereas alternate RYR1 foot proteins are not
linked to DHPR proteins (reviewed by Franzini-Armstrong
and Protasi, 1997). The mechanistic implications of this
arrangement will be discussed below.
Skeletal muscle E-C coupling is initiated by action potentials, which are conducted along the sarcolemma and into
the interior of the muscle fiber via the t-tubule. The stochastic-gating theory proposes that surface membrane
depolarization alters the conformation of the DHPR, which
triggers release of Ca2+ from the SR through RYR1 via a
mechanical DHPR-RYR1 link, whereas the neighboring
RYR1s, which are not physically coupled to the DHPR, are
activated through a Ca2+-induced Ca2+-release mechanism
(Franzini-Armstrong and Protasi, 1997). An alternative, coordinated-gating theory suggests that adjacent RYR1s are
mechanically linked and that the linked RYR1s open and
close in a coordinated fashion (Marx et al., 1998). Release
of Ca2+ from the SR results in a rise in intracellular Ca2+
concentration, which activates the troponin complex,
thereby initiating the contraction of the muscle.

Ryanodine Receptor Isoforms and


Transcript Variants
The RYRs actually comprise a family of proteins, each
with specific functions in different tissues. Messenger RNAs
for three RYRs have been cloned and sequenced from
mammalian tissues, and were identified as being encoded
by separate genes (Mattel et al., 1994): ryr1 from skeletal
muscle (Phillips et al., 1996), ryr2 from cardiac muscle (Nakai et al., 1990), and ryr3 from brain and other non-muscle
tissues (Hakamata et al., 1992). These genes share sequence
identities in the overall range of 60-70% (Mattel et al.,
1994). In contrast to RYR1, RYR2 and RYR3 are believed to
operate solely by Ca2+-induced Ca2+-release (CICR).
Unlike mammalian muscle, two RYR isoforms termed
and are present in nearly equal abundance in most avian,
amphibian and piscine skeletal muscles (Airey et al.,
1993b). On the basis of sequence comparisons with the
mammalian isoforms, the amphibian and avian and
RYRs are most similar in primary structure to the mammalian RYR1 and RYR3 isoforms, respectively (Ottini et al.,
1996). The sequence similarity suggests that RYR functions
by depolarization-induced Ca2+ release (DICR), while
RYR operates through CICR. This hypothesis is supported
by the observation that the Crooked Neck Dwarf mutant
chicken, which lacks normal RYR, fails to develop DICR
on electrical or neuronal stimulation (Airey et al., 1993a).
Also, the purified RYR of bullfrog is about 20 times as sensitive to Ca2+ as RYR in the Ca2+ dependent ryanodinebinding assay (Murayama and Ogawa, 1992). These and
other observations led to a two-component model proposed
by OBrien et al. (1995) for the calcium release mechanism
in non-mammalian vertebrate skeletal muscle (Figure 2). In

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

this model, the RYR isoform is the RYR isoform directly


coupled to DHPR, and the isoform is the calciumactivated RYR isoform. Ca2+ released through the isoform
by DICR would bind to the cytoplasmic domain of the
RYR channel and trigger its opening by CICR. Recent evidence in support of this model has come from the work of
Felder and Franzini-Armstrong (2002) who demonstrated
that the isoform in frog skeletal muscle SR is located at the
periphery of the t-tubule/SR junction and thus does not
make contact with DHPR.
Sarcolemma

DHPR

RYR

Ca2+

cytoplasm
Ca2+
Ca2+ Ca2+

Sarcoplasmic
Reticulum

Ca2+
Ca2+
Ca2+

t-tubule

Ca2+

Ca2+

Ca2+ Pump

RYR

Figure 2. Schematic Diagram of E-C Coupling in Avian Skeletal Muscle. During E-C coupling, depolarization of the t-tubule triggers Ca2+release via the RYRs (blue), which are physically coupled to the
voltage-sensing DHPR (red). The local increase in Ca2+ concentration
results in Ca2+-induced-Ca2+-release from RYRs (white), which are
located at the periphery of the t-tubule/SR junction. Ca2+ is resequestered during relaxation by the Ca2+ pump (yellow).

Adding another layer of functional complexity, several


variant mRNAs for RYR1, RYR2, and RYR3 have been identified which are produced as a result of alternative splicing.
Most of the splice variants are characterized by the presence or absence of amino acid residues in either the modulatory or transmembrane domain (Zorzato et al., 1994; Futatsugi et al., 1995; Marziali et al., 1996; Miyatake et al.,
1996; Tosso and Brenig, 1998; Jiang et al., 2003). For example, the deletions of Ala3481-Gln3485 and Val3865-Asn3870 in
mouse RYR1 are near the regions postulated for phosphorylation, and binding of Ca2+, calmodulin, and ATP. His4406Lys4434 in rabbit RYR3 encompasses a predicted transmembrane helix. The possibility that the alternative splicing of
RYR proteins may have unique functional roles is supported
by the findings that: 1) the RYR splice variant mRNAs are
expressed in both a tissue- and a developmental stagespecific manner; 2) they are co-expressed in some tissues. A
recent study showed that a RYR3 splice variant, which had
a 29-amino-acid deletion of His4406-Lys4434, did not form a
functional channel as expressed alone in HEK293 cells.
However, when it was co-expressed with the wild type
RYR3, it formed functional heteromeric channels with reduced caffeine sensitivity (Jiang et al., 2003).

Ryanodine Receptor Mutations, Muscle Disease,


and Pale Soft, and Exudative (PSE) Meat
Mutations in the mammalian RYR1 have been associated
in humans with two muscle diseases: malignant hyperthermia (MH) and central core disease (CCD). MH has been
19

recognized in humans since 1960 as an inherited skeletal


muscle disorder characterized by accelerated muscle metabolism, glycogenolysis and glycolysis, severe muscle contracture, and rapidly rising temperature in response to administration of certain anesthetics such as halothane (Gronert, 1986; Ellis and Heffron, 1985). CCD is characterized by
muscle weakness and the histological absence of oxidative
or phosphorylase activity in central regions of muscle fibers
(MacLennan, 2000). Moreover, CCD patients are generally
considered to be at risk for development of MH upon administration of halothane.
To date, thirty missense mutations and one single amino
acid deletion mutation in the primary structure of RYR1
have been described for MH. The mutations are clustered in
three distinct regions of the RYR1 primary structure. The
first region (mutation hot spot 1) ranges from amino acid
residues 35 to 614 of the N-terminal domain, while the
second region (mutation hot spot 2) ranges from residues
2162 to 2458 (Jurkat-Rott et al., 2000; Sambuughin et al.,
2001). Both of these regions appear to form regulatory domains of the ryanodine receptor, which control sensitivity of
the channel protein to regulatory ligands modulating Ca2+
release. The recent discovery of the Thr4826Ile mutation for
MH (Brown et al., 2000), together with the identification of
at least seven mutations for CCD in the region of amino
acids 4550 4940 (reviewed by Jungbluth et al., 2003),
suggests that the C-terminal region of RYR1 may represent a
third mutation hot spot. The overall physiological effect of
the MH/CCD mutations is elevation of resting muscle Ca2+
levels as a result of increased Ca2+ permeabilities of the mutant channels (MacLennan, 2000). The extent to which Ca2+
levels are raised depends on the nature of the mutation and
on the ability of the muscle to elaborate compensatory
mechanisms by increasing expression of the Ca2+ pump to
maintain Ca2+ homeostasis.
One mutation, Arg614Cys, found in human MH is also associated with porcine MH as an Arg615Cys mutation. This
mutation of RYR1 causes the channel to be hypersensitive
to stimulators of opening and does not close readily. Thus,
as pigs carrying the homozygous mutated ryr1 gene encounter stress before or during slaughter, their muscle cells
would be flooded with excess Ca2+, leading to sustained
muscle contraction and enhanced glycolytic and anaerobic
metabolism. The resultant excess lactic acid and heat production would lead to the ultimate development of PSE
meat.

Evidence for Genetic Differences in Turkey RYRs


The potential for a genetic predisposition in turkeys to
yield PSE meat prompted us to conduct a series of experiments to determine if differences exist in turkey skeletal
muscle RYR channels. Since the PSE-susceptible turkey is
thought to be associated with modern, rapidly growing
commercial turkeys, we proceeded with the hypothesis that
genetic selection has resulted in increased frequency of
altered RYRs in modern commercial turkeys. We compared

20

the frequency of PSE incidence between a random-bred,


genetically unimproved line and a commercial line of turkeys intensively selected for rapid growth and increased
muscling. Birds were subjected to the same level of heat
stress immediately before slaughter. Over 50% of the commercial turkeys were categorized as PSE, while only 25% of
the random-bred birds had the PSE characteristics, thus
supporting our hypothesis.
To determine whether altered ryanodine receptors were
responsible for the differences in meat quality, we developed a modified ryanodine-binding assay based on that of
Mickelson et al. (1988). These workers had shown that
RYR1 in SR from genetically defined stress-susceptible pigs
had higher affinity (lower Kd value) for ryanodine than that
of non-stress-susceptible pigs. The difference in affinity was
ascribed to differences in primary structure of RYR1. We
used the ryanodine binding assay to screen skeletal muscle
SR preparations of the two turkey populations for the possible altered RYR activity. Our ryanodine binding results
(Wang et al., 1999) indicated that indeed there were differences in affinity of ryanodine for the RYRs in these two
populations, similar to that observed between the two lines
of pigs. We identified a commercial turkey group with a
significantly higher affinity for ryanodine compared to that
from genetically unimproved turkeys. We found another
commercial turkey group with approximately the same affinity for ryanodine as the random-bred turkey group
(Zhang, 2000; Table 1). These differences suggest that there
is heterogeneity of the RYR channel activity between the
random-bred and commercial turkey populations.
Table 1. Dissociation constant (Kd) of RYR among different turkey
groups obtained from [3H]ryanodine binding assay.
Turkey Groups
Random Bred (R, N=8)

Kd
16 2 nMa

Commercial Group A (Ca, N=17)

8 1 nMb

Commercial Group B (Cb, N=5


a,b
significantly different (P<0.01)

19 2 nMa

Until recently, it was unclear whether this difference in


ryanodine-binding activity represents differences in the
RYR or in the RYR, or in both isoforms. A recent study of
bullfrog RYR channel activity in SR vesicles by Murayama
and Ogawa (2001) may prove informative. They demonstrated that in frog SR vesicles, which are structurally and
functionally similar to turkey SR, the RYR ryanodine binding activity is almost completely suppressed. They further
demonstrated that ryanodine binding in frog SR is the result
of RYR activity. If confirmed in turkey SR, our results
would suggest that the differences RYR channel activities in
our study could be ascribed to differences in amino acid
sequence in the RYR isoform.
In addition to the possible genetic difference identified in
the turkey RYR isoform, we also have identified differences
in the RYR isoform. At least three transcript variants differing by the presence or absence of 81 bp or 193 bp have
been found. The missing nucleotides would be located
American Meat Science Association

within the region of mutation hot spot 1. Two different


RYR alleles were also identified in our laboratory. Comparison of genomic DNA and cDNA sequences suggested
that the absence of these nucleotides in the cDNA sequence
results from alternative splicing. The splicing could occur in
both alleles. The frequency of splicing and factors influencing the expression of these transcript variants and their relationship to meat quality are under investigation in our laboratory.

Conclusions
The genetic basis for PSE turkey meat is still not clear, but
advances in our understanding of ryanodine receptor activity and variation make it likely that one or more mutations
in turkey skeletal muscle RYR predispose birds to the development of PSE. Mutations could exist in either the RYR or
RYR isoform or in both isoforms. Here we have presented
evidence of genetic differences in both isoforms, which
might be related to the occurrence of PSE turkey. Future
research will focus on the correlation of the genotypes of
turkey with their phenotypes including meat quality traits.
The ultimate goal of our research is to provide reliable genetic tests for breeding stock that will yield optimal quality
turkey meat.

Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
Dr. Todd Byrem, Dr. Al Booren, Dr. John Linz, Dr. Li-Ju
Wang, Dr. Kevin Roberson, Ms. Haiyan Zhang, Mr. Chuck
Allison and Mr. Mike Maile to the work reported here. This
work was supported by the USDA National Research Initiative, the Michigan Animal Industry Coalition, and the
Michigan Agriculture Experiment Station.

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American Meat Science Association

MEAT QUALITY

Pork Quality: Current and Future Needs of


Industry and Academia
Elisabeth Huff-Lonergan, Jamie Melody*, Ronald Klont, and Andrzej Sosnicki
Introduction
It is generally recognized by the meat (pork) industry and
academia that a status quo has been reached between
production of pork quantity (carcass leanness) and quality
(meat eating and processing attributes), and that the new
directions for the industry are being clearly defined by consumer trends. As a consequence, the pork industry focuses
on least cost practices to produce the desired Quality
Lean. When looking at a bell-shaped curve for pork quality, it is usually the bottom tail that results in the greatest
losses or otherwise, known as pale, soft, exudative (PSE)
pork. The industry has made great strides in reducing the
incidence of PSE over the past 30 to 40 years. The prevalence of PSE in the US industry was 18% in 1963 (hams;
Forrest et al., 1963) and 16% in 1992 (loins; Kauffman et
al., 1992). In a more recent study, the incidence of PSE was
9.8% (loins; Scheller et al., 1996).
Although the incidence of PSE has dramatically decreased in the last 30 years, the concerns about the variation of meat quality continue. Implementation of statistical
process control principles by the industry has dramatically
helped to control and optimize the genetic and environmental factors, which influence meat quality. Rapid advancement in life sciences; i.e., TGRM (Total Genetic Resource Management), functional genomics, proteomics, and
muscle biology, is also generating new quantitative genetics, molecular biology, physiological and biochemical tools
for creation and sustainability of pork supply systems orientated towards meat quality (Rothschild and Plastow, 1999;
Kinghorn et al., 2002; Knap et al., 2002).
The objective of this paper is to summarize the current
status of academic knowledge of pork quality and its application by the industry. Conceivable directions for the academic research and industry implementation are also proA. A. Sosnicki
3033 Nashville Road
Franklin, KY 42134
Andrzej.Sosnicki@pic.com
th

Proceedings of the 56 American Meat Science Association


Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 23-29)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

vided.

Pork Industry Achievements


The world meat industry, like many other agricultural
and non-agricultural industries, is constantly undergoing
changes. The most prominent change of the last few years
has been consolidation leading to bigger, and more complex, vertically integrated and/or coordinated meat industry
entities. Also, in most parts of the world, the percentage of
further processed meats is increasing at the expense of fresh
meat consumption. End users, like meat/food processing
companies, although tending to view meat as just raw
material or more precisely as a protein source, are becoming more aware that raw meat proteins must have consistent and specific quality/functionality characteristics. Retail
and food service businesses are also becoming more interested in consistently-sized case-ready products, better
tasting product varieties, and cuts of meat that are suited to
todays consumer cooking demands, including demands for
ready-to-eat products. These consumer demands have also
led to product differentiation and greater focus on the value
of meat quality parameters, especially tenderness, juiciness
and flavor of fresh and value-added pork products
(Gresham et al., 1994; Hofmann, 1994; Madsen and Thodberg, 1994).
It is commonly acknowledged that meat quality is a difficult characteristic to assess as many different aspects, both
objective and subjective, make up the overall trait (Hofmann, 1994). Some systems/markets require specific quality
characteristics such as high intramuscular fat content or
dark color; i.e. dry cured ham production or the Japanese
market. Several markets have started to demand different
slaughter weights; e.g., in the UK to minimize boar taint of
intact males, or to market portion-controlled size meat cuts
in the US for case-ready products. A further increase in
product diversification has stimulated growth of niche markets with different requirements for raw materials and
ready-to-cook and ready-to-eat, branded consumer products.
As a response to the growing meat quality awareness of
the consumer, the pork industry has successfully implemented several processes to improve meat quality, and still
simultaneously has improved production performance and

23

carcass quality. There are several relatively inexpensive


meat quality measurements, such as initial and ultimate pH,
that have been successfully included in some breeding programs (Eikelenboom et al., 1995; Sosnicki et al., 1998), and
by several industry entities.
Food safety issues have accelerated the introduction of
different quality assurance control systems in the meat industry, like Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points
(HACCP), General Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Total
Quality Management (TQM), International Standards Organization (ISO), or Six-Sigma (Wood et al. 1998; www.6sigma.com). It is important to note that several food safety
critical control points apply to meat quality control processes (Hoen, 1996; Sosnicki et al., 1998).
At the same time there is a growing consumer concern
about the quality of meat production. There is no doubt
that the consumer is now at the center of a considerable
turmoil involving the entire food supply chain. Food safety
crises and livestock epizooties have shaken both consumers
and political confidence in animal/food science, and the
meat chain at large. Harringtons (1994) list of consumer
concerns: ethical, food safety, nutrition and fat, animal welfare, third world, the environment and genetic engineering, remains as true today as it was a few years ago.

Directions for Basic & Applied Research


Muscle Biology Research
Muscle differentiation. The control of muscle growth involves many genes and a complex array of transcription
factors. Terminal myogenic differentiation is characterized
by expression of four transcription factors that are members
of the myogenic determination factor (MDF) family: myogenin, MyoD, Myf5 and MRF4 (Mulvaney, 1994; Molkentin
and Olson, 1996; Arnold and Winter, 1998; Arnold and
Braun, 1996; Te Pas et al., 2000). Additional transcription
factors, particularly the MEF2 family, cooperate with the
MDFs to activate muscle-specific gene transcription (Black
and Olson, 1998; Ridgeway et al., 2000). A third group of
transcription factors, termed NFAT (Nuclear Factor of Activated T cells) has also been found to affect the transcription
of certain genes. At least five different NFAT isoforms have
been identified (NFAT1-5), with NFAT2 and NFAT4 being
present in larger amounts in skeletal muscle (Hoey et al.,
1995).
Muscle growth/Muscle fiber types. Myogenesis is followed by fiber hypertrophy and maturation, including DNA
addition through satellite cell proliferation and fusion, to
yield adult muscle fibers (Swatland, 1973; Lengerken et al.,
1994). The biochemical profile of adult muscle greatly influences its metabolic responses during pre-slaughter handling and, subsequently, postmortem conversion of muscle
to meat and meat quality. One of the main factors determining muscle biochemical pathways is fiber type composition:
skeletal muscle is composed of different types of fibers,
which are the results of co-ordinated expression of distinct
sets of structural proteins and metabolic enzymes (Pette and
24

Staron, 1990; Musaro et al., 1995; Schiaffino and Reggiani,


1996). Fiber types are often defined by the isoforms of myosin heavy chain (MyHC) that are present. There are four
major fiber types in postnatal pig muscle characterized by
the expression of the slow/I/, 2a, 2x and 2b MyHC gene
isoforms. The slow/I/ and 2b fibers, also known as slowoxidative and fast-glycolytic, respectively, represent two
extreme metabolic profiles. The 2a and 2x fibers are intermediate fast oxidative-glycolytic fibers. (Chang and Fernandes, 1997; Greaser et al., 2001). In addition, fiber type is
affected by several environmental factors; for example diet
or physical activity (Karlsson et al., 1993; Klont et al., 1998;
Petersen et al., 1998; Karlsson et al., 1999).
Fiber type can also be affected by thyroid hormone
status. T3 binds to specific receptor proteins in the nucleus
(TR) that in turn bind to DNA thyroid response element regions (TRE) upstream of the promoter region of many muscle genes (for example - type I myosin heavy chain, the sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium-ATPase, and the GLUT4 glucose transporter). Four different TR isoforms are produced
by alternative splicing; thus, changing expression of many
genes and changing the fiber type proportions (Caiozzo et
al., 1993).
The impact of muscle fiber type composition on lean
quality is not well understood (Essen-Gustavsson and Fjekjer-Modig; 1985; Degens and Veerkamp, 1994; Lefaucheur
et al., 1995; Larzul et al., 1997; Tanabe et al., 1997). However, a relative high volume of Type IIb fibers was related to
poor meat quality by many authors (Brocks et al., 1998;
Essen-Gustavsson and Fjekjer-Modig; 1985; Fiedler et al.,
1999; Lefaucheur et al., 1995; Larzul et al., 1997; Sosnicki,
1987). Published heritabilities (h2) of muscle fiber traits are
moderate to high; i.e. h2 of Type I fiber CSA = .59; h2 of
Type I fiber percentage = .46; h2 of Type IIb fiber percentage = .58 (Larzul et al, 1997). Published genetic correlations (rg) indicate that Type I and Type IIb fiber percentage
are negatively related (rg = -.85; Larzul et al., 1997). This
particular genetic correlation indicates that breeding for
higher percentage of Type I fibers would decrease the proportion of Type IIb fibers; thus directionally improving meat
quality without negatively affecting Type IIa and IIx percentage (rg = .16) or mean fiber CSA (rg = -.15). This approach would enable selection for fast lean tissue growth
rate without negatively affecting meat quality (Larzul et al.,
1997; Klont et al., 1998).
In summary, continuation of skeletal muscle biology research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms of
muscle differentiation, growth and metabolism, thus to better understand how to efficiently produce high quality meat.
Stress Welfare Research
The interaction between skeletal muscle and environmental stress before slaughter complicates even further the
understanding, measurement and control of the major
sources of variation in meat quality. Stress experienced by
the animal prior to harvest can have a profound impact on
muscle metabolism in the first few hours after exsanguinaAmerican Meat Science Association

tion. There is a major need for more information regarding


specific physiological impacts of the stress response in early
postmortem muscle. Understanding the basic mechanisms
involved could ultimately lead to better carcass and/or animal management schemes to reduce the variation in pork
quality. For example, the magnitude of stress response depends on the individual characteristics of the animal; i.e.,
the individual difference in behavior and physiology may
have consequences for the ability of the pig to cope with
unfamiliar stimuli such as pre-slaughter stress (Benus et al.,
1987; Tarrant, 1989; Lawrence et al., 1991; Hessing et al.,
1994). The two main neuro endocrine systems involved in
physiological adaptation and metabolic regulation are the
hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis (HPA) and the autonomic nervous system (Harbuz and Lightman, 1992). The
genetic differences in the basic functioning of these neuro
endocrine systems or in their response to stress need to be
fully explored and implemented in the breeding programs
(Benus et al., 1991; Habuz et al., 1992; Mormde et al.,
2002).
Quantitative and Molecular Genetic Research
Meat quantity and quality are determined by a combination of genetic, nutritional and environmental factors and
their interactions (for review see Cassens et al., 1975; Tarrant, 1989; Cameron, 1990; Sosnicki et al., 1998). Genetic
effects play a crucial role in designing pig carcass composition and quality; although the heritability of pork quality is
lower than of meat quantity; i.e., generally between 10%
and 30% of the variation in meat quality traits such as ultimate pH, color, water holding capacity, drip loss, tenderness, etc; is determined by the genetic make-up of the animal (De Vries et al., 1994; Sosnicki et al., 1998). The use of
quantitative genetics, selection indexes, estimated breeding
values (EBVs), and total genetic resource management
(TGRM) for carcass and meat quality has enabled the pork
industry to make progress on these traits (Hanenberg and
Merks, 2000; Hill, 1999; Woolliams et al., 1999). The EBVs
of some of the breeding organizations now include meat
quality traits in addition to efficient production of carcass
lean (Sosnicki et al., 1998; Kinghorn et al., 2002; Knap et
al., 2002).
Identification of genetic markers and candidate genes for
meat quality characteristics in combination with Marker
Assisted Selection (MAS) programs has started to greatly
enhance genetic improvement for meat quality whilst not
compromising lean percentage (Meuwissen and Goddard,
1996; Short et al., 1997; Rothschild and Plastow, 1999;
Ciobanu et al., 2002; Fields et al., 2002). For instance, the
linkage and physical maps of the pig genome have developed considerably (for review see Rothschild and Plastow,
1999). These maps have been exploited to search for genes
influencing variation in commercially important traits. Several quantitative trait loci (QTL) scans and candidate gene
analyses have identified important chromosomal regions
and major genes associated with traits of economic interest
in the pig (Milan et al., 2000; reviewed in Bidanel and
Rothschild 2002; Fields et al., 2002). It is anticipated that
56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

the developments in genomic technologies will increase the


number of markers that can be used in MAS, so that selection for meat quality can be carried out on live animals.
Biochemical Foundation of Meat Quality Research
Many pork quality factors (such as water-holding capacity and tenderness) develop as a result of early postmortem
biochemical and biophysical processes that occur in muscle. Currently, there is a lack of knowledge regarding specifically how and why many variations in tenderness and
water-holding capacity develop. In order to have a solid
foundation for making decisions that will reduce the variation in meat quality and that will be economically viable,
several aspects of fresh meat research need to be grounded
in understanding the biochemical processes occurring as
muscle is converted to meat. In-depth biochemical studies
of early postmortem muscle biology will provide the information needed to alleviate unforeseen problems that may
develop in the future.
Variations in water-holding capacity in fresh pork are observed as measurable differences in drip loss or purge.
Many recent studies have shown that low water-holding
capacity of pork longissimus dorsi may be caused by genetic differences other than the Halothane gene or the RNgene (for review see Cameron, 1990; Knap et al., 2002) .
Other research has shown that differences in water-holding
capacity also exist between muscles within the same animal. In fact, some studies have observed as much as 35%
more product lost as purge in the semimembranosus compared to the longissimus dorsi (Lonergan et al., 2001). The
specific biochemical and/or biophysical mechanisms of
differences in meat water-holding capacity between animals
and/or between muscles are not known. One possible explanation resides in the structure of the muscle cell itself. As
the pH of the muscle declines due to build-up of lactic acid,
the intricate latticework of the myofibril within the muscle
cell shrinks. If the proteinacous linkages between the myofibril and the muscle cell membrane (sarcolemma) are intact, this shrinkage can be translated into constriction of the
entire muscle cell, thus creating channels between cells and
between bundles of cells that can funnel drip (moisture) out
of the product. It has been suggested that reduced degradation of proteins that tie the myofibril to the sarcolemma
(such as desmin) results in increased shrinking of the muscle
cell, which is ultimately translated into drip loss (Kristensen
and Purslow, 2001; Melody et al., 2003).
Another aspect of fresh pork quality that is important to
the industry is tenderness. A lack of tenderness is one of the
most often reported sensory defects in fresh meat. The development of fresh meat tenderness is associated with proteolysis of proteins that make up or are associated with the
myofibril (Huff-Lonergan et al., 1996). Since myofibrils
make up nearly 80% of the volume of the muscle cell, disruption of these structures will greatly influence meat tenderness as well as water-holding capacity. As early as 24
hours after slaughter, disruptions in the proteins linking
myofibrils to the sarcolemma and to each other can be observed (Taylor et al., 1995; Huff-Lonergan et al., 1996).
25

Other changes that are correlated with increased tenderness


include breakages within the myofibrils themselves, particularly within the I-band (Davey and Gilbert, 1969; Taylor et
al., 1995; Ho et al., 1996). These breakages lead to increased fragility and fragmentation of the myofibrils. The
increase in myofibrillar fragmentation has been shown to be
indicative of the amount of tenderization that has taken
place (Culler et al., 1978). These structural changes are the
result of proteolysis by endogenous enzymes. One naturally
occurring enzyme that is often implicated is the calcium
dependent protease -calpain. This enzyme not only requires the presence of free calcium to be active, but once
activated also undergoes autolysis. Autolysis of -calpain in
fresh meat has often been used to indicate whether calpain
has been active.
Microenvironmental factors such as pH and ionic
strength appear to influence the ability of calpain to degrade myofibrillar substrates. As muscle is converted to
meat, many changes occur, including: 1) a gradual depletion of available energy, 2) a shift from aerobic to anaerobic
metabolism favoring the production of lactic acid and resulting in the pH of the tissue declining from near neutrality
to 5.4-5.8, 3) a rise in ionic strength, in part, because of the
inability of ATP-dependent calcium, sodium, and potassium
pumps to function, and 4) an increasing inability of the cell
to maintain reducing conditions. All of these factors may
impact the rate and extent of proteolysis that occur in meat.
(Kendall et al., 1993; Huff-Lonergan and Lonergan, 1999).
Alterations in pH and/or ionic strengths may cause conformational changes that might allow for an increase in hydrophobicity and lead to aggregation of calpains. Likewise,
pH/ionic strength changes may alter the conformation of
substrate proteins and render them less susceptible to
cleavage by -calpain (Huff-Lonergan and Lonergan, 1999).
A slightly accelerated pH decline has been shown to be
associated with more rapid attainment of ultimate tenderness (Marsh et al., 1987; 1988; Hopkins and Thompson,
2002a) and more rapid proteolysis (Rowe et al., 2001; Melody et al, 2003; Hopkins and Thompson 2002b). These
conditions have been shown to result in a very limited aging potential. Hypothetically, a rapid pH decline would
lead to increased activity of catheptic enzymes and increased proteolysis. However, in most cases, this does not
seem to occur (Hopkins and Thompson 2002a). Product
that has an exceptionally rapid pH decline has been shown
to also have limited proteolysis of muscle proteins involved
in tenderization (PSE product - Boles et al., 1992; Warner et
al., 1997; RSE product Lonergan et al., 2001a). Low pH
values may destabilize -calpain and to promote more
rapid autolysis and/or activation and subsequent inactivation in in vitro studies (Koohmaraie, 1992) and could do the
same in muscle tissue (Rowe et al., 2001).
Therefore, the rate of pH decline may play a very pivotal
role in the attainment of ultimate tenderness. The rate of pH
decline in addition to ultimate pH should continue to be
monitored in future studies that attempt to elucidate the

26

mechanisms behind the development of tenderness in fresh


meat products.
Another change that occurs in postmortem muscle during
aging is increased oxidation of myofibrillar proteins (Martinaud et al., 1997) resulting in the conversion of some
amino acid residues, including histidine, to carbonyl derivatives (Levine, 1984; Martinaud et al., 1997). This can cause
the formation of intra and/or inter protein disulfide crosslinks (Stadtman, 1990; Martinaud et al., 1997). Both of these
changes can reduce the functionality of proteins (Xiong and
Decker, 1995). Because calpain enzymes contain both histidine and SH-containing cysteine residues at their active
sites, they may be particularly susceptible to inactivation by
oxidation. Therefore, oxidizing conditions in postmortem
muscle may lead to inactivation or modification of calpain
activity. Harris et al (2001) showed that meat that had ample calcium but higher indices of oxidation actually had an
initially slower rate of proteolysis and slower initial rate of
tenderization than did product with ample calcium and
significantly lower measures of oxidation. There is evidence
that suggests oxidizing conditions may reversibly inhibit
proteolysis by -calpain, but might not inhibit autolysis
(Rowe et al., 2003a;2003b; Guttmann et al., 1997;1998). In
postmortem muscle, there are differences in the rate that
postmortem oxidation processes occur (Martinaud et al.,
1997) making this a potentially interesting area to explore.
It is clear that there is a need for more in-depth studies
focusing on the early postmortem biology of muscle/meat in
order for the industry to make long-range decisions that will
reduce the variation and improve the overall quality of
pork. The use of protein chemistry, muscle biology and genomic and proteomic tools will have a major impact on
discovering the biological mechanisms that underlie the
development of meat quality (Huff-Lonergan et al., 2002;
Lametsch et al., 2002).

Implementation
Below we listed conceivable steps that the pork industry
should consider to guarantee that pork has a fresh appearing reddish-pinkish color, is high in water holding capacity,
and it is consistently tender and juicy.
1.

A greater understanding of perimortem and early


postmortem muscle biology is needed to determine the mechanisms underlying the development of pork quality traits. This will allow the
industry to shift from detection of poor quality
product to preventing its occurrence;

2.

Breeding companies need to fully understand


the economic value of meat quality attributes to
optimally select for best cost of high quality
pork;

3.

Precise guidelines should be established and


implemented to insure acceptable on-farm production management and welfare procedures;

American Meat Science Association

4.

5.

6.

Pork processing companies should implement


statistical process control procedures for preslaughter handling and post-slaughter processing
to minimize quality variation and develop more
robust equipment for on-line measurement of
lean quality;

Davey, C. L.; Gilbert, K. V. 1969. Studies in meat tenderness: 7. Changes


in the fine structure of meat during aging. Journal of Food Science.
34:68-74.

Procedures should be put in place to electronically identify and evaluate individual groups of
pigs slaughtered for carcass weight, leanness,
and quality;

De Vries, A.G.;, van der Val,P.G.; Long, T.; Eikelenboom,G.; Merks,


J.W.M. 1994. Genetic parameters and production traits in Yorkshire
populations. Livestock Production Science. 40: 277-289.

Finally, the total value paid for market pigs


should reflect accurate value differentials (as
dictated by supply-demand forces) between desirable and undesirable pork quantity and quality.

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30

American Meat Science Association

SENSORY EVALUATION

Utilizing Consumer Data in


Product Development
Linda S. Papadopoulos
The most successful products in the market place are
born from consumer needs and expectations. These products are developed with the end user in mind. Successful
products are developed for the consumer, by the consumer.
Traditionally, the more innovative or cutting edge the product is, the more consumer feedback is needed in the product development process. And once products are developed, consumer feedback is required to keep your products
in the lead. While consumer feedback is critical in the concept development phase, this paper will focus primarily on
the use of consumer feedback on the actual products, not
the concept.
Consumer feedback is used throughout the product life
cycle. During the product development stage, it is used in
these phases:
In the beginning for concept development and evaluation process
In the middle for prototype building and evaluation
In the final stage for concept/product fit
To minimize product development time and maximize
the changes for in-market success, you should start prototyping only after you have a well-defined, optimized concept. Too many times product developers are shooting in
the dark in what they think the product should be like
based on a poorly defined concept. The better defined the
concept is, the fewer prototypes will need to be developed,
the fewer iterative tests will be done and the greater the
chances will be that product will match the concept in the
final testing step.
Test the prototypes with the concept early on in the testing cycle. Dont wait until the final go/no go Home-Use
Test to test the product with the concept or you might be in
for a surprise. Instead, by setting the context in the early
Linda S. Papadopoulos
ConAgra Foods, Inc.
Six ConAgra Dr.
Omaha, NE 68102
Linda.papadopoulos@conagrafoods.com
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 31-32)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

product testing phase by first presenting the concept, you


can determine not only the best tasting prototype, but also
which prototype best matches the concept. Too often in
product testing, the winning prototype is identified but it
may or may not match the concept.
Additionally, consumer testing should be done using
your target consumer. This is especially true for childrens
products. How many times have parents bought or prepared
meals for their children assuming that oh, my kids are going to love this only to find a half eaten plate of food sitting
at the dinner table after everyone has finished eating? We
cant assume that we know what our target consumer is
going to like or dislike; we must do our testing among our
target consumers in order to achieve reliable results.
Dont let current manufacturing capabilities or cost constraints completely limit what you test. Sometimes you have
to test prototypes that are outside of your current manufacturing capabilities or cost parameters in order to better understand what consumers really want in the products. Limiting the array of product prototypes often leads to subtle
modification of an existing product. However, testing with a
wider array helps you identify what consumers truly want in
the products as well as the most important elements of these
products even if the best prototype is beyond current capability or is too costly to produce. At least the product developers will be able to shoot for a target that they can creatively develop against.
To test more efficiently, use experimental design. A systematic approach to product development and product testing is a much more efficient manner of understanding what
consumers want in the appearance, flavor and texture characteristics. By systematically varying the ingredients, the
levels or amounts of the ingredients, as well as key aspects
of the production process, you can isolate specific factors of
the product that drive consumer liking. Consumers are great
about telling you if they like or dislike something, but are
less able to tell you why. They are even less able to adequately rate attributes independently; they often dump on
several attributes of a given product not because those attributes are negative but because they dislike another aspect
of the product or the meal. For example, in testing two beef
and gravy products made with different gravies but the
same meat, consumers will often down rate the texture of

31

one of the meats because they dont like the gravy with that
meat.

category appraisals should be tested among category


users.

Check the test results for segmentation. Flavor profiles


can sometimes be polarizing, which can result in distinct
consumer segments. One such example is barbeque sauce;
some consumers like a sweet, smoky flavor profile, while
others like a more tangy vinegar. In a test conducted with
two barbeque sauce samples with each of these flavor profiles, the sauces may score at parity on overall liking but a
closer look at the data would reveal two consumer groups
or segments with strong opinions on each sauce. Depending on the size of the segments, launching products targeted
to different segments could expand your product offerings.

Should the test be conducted as a CLT or a Home-Use


test? If product preparation will be affected by the reformulation, a Home-Use test would be advisable.
CLTs are more sensitive in detecting product differences as product preparation, serving order and testing
environment is controlled. However, the evaluator
does not get to interact with the product during the
preparation step.

Identifying the optimum formulation and optimum process is only part of creating a successful product. Packaging
also plays a key role in marketing to the consumer, and in a
products success. By testing the product with the package
with the consumer, you can determine if you have the optimum packaging. Packaging tests can be done through
Central Location tests (CLTs), Home-Use tests, focus groups
or observational research, depending on what it is you want
to know about the packaging. Not only does the package
convey the perception of quality and food safety, it also
offers consumer convenience through easy open features or
cook and serve features. Observing your target consumers
interacting with the package and product can offer valuable
insight into how effective the easy open features are to
use. These observations can also offer valuable insight into
how they prepare and eat the products.
Prior to launching a new product, the shelf life must be
determined. Sensory shelf life can be determined using
trained assessors, consumer panelists, or a combination of
both. Trained assessors will be able to detect subtle changes
in the sensory attributes that untrained, consumer assessors
may not be able to detect and would therefore be the most
sensitive tool in protecting product quality. As these
changes become more pronounced, the products will need
to be assessed by consumers to understand the point at
which these changes result in a significant drop in acceptability.
After the product is launched and is on shelf, the product
maintenance phase of the product life cycle begins. In the
product maintenance phase, the goal is to gain or sustain a
competitive edge. Brand maintenance objectives include
ingredient substitutions and formulation/process/package
changes. These changes can be for product improvement or
cost reduction initiatives.
The specific test method and test parameters are determined by the test objectives. Key points to consider when
deciding what and how to test include:
Should you be testing among your heavy users or the
general population? Testing among heavy users is
much more sensitive than testing among the general
population, which would be preferable in a costreduction test. However, product improvements and
32

How much risk are you willing to assume in being


wrong in your conclusions? In a cost-reduction test,
the critical error would be in failing to detect that the
cost-reduced product is in reality liked less than current product (Type II error, ). Conversely, the critical
error in a product improvement test would be in concluding that the revised product is superior to current
product when in reality it is not (Type I error, ). Test
results showing that products are not significantly different in overall liking does not mean that the two
products are equally acceptable; concluding equal acceptance risks committing a Type II error. Protection
against making a Type II error is best addressed
through the test design.
Sample size: how many consumers should you test?
That depends on the type of test, objective of the test,
how the results will be used, how many samples are in
the test, how large of a difference you want to be able
to detect and how certain you want to be in the conclusions. Further discussions on sample size can be
found in various sensory reference books (Gacula and
Singh, 1984; Lawless and Heymann, 1998).
How many samples per person? When the number of
samples or products in the test exceeds the number of
products that can be reasonably evaluated in a given
session, the test must either be broken into multiple
days, or presented as a balanced, incomplete block
design. Depending on the flavor intensity of the product, the magnitude of the differences among products,
and the number of questions on the questionnaire, a
good rule of thumb is no more than six products per 1
hr. session.
Consumer feedback is critical not only in the development phase of a product, but also throughout all phases of a
products life cycle. Getting consumer feedback early in
product development and often throughout the maintenance phase will increase the chances of gaining and sustaining a strong market share.

References
Gacula, M.; Singh, J. 1984. Statistical Methods in Food and Consumer
Research. Academic Press, Orlando. FL.
Lawless, H.T.; Heymann, H. 1998. Sensory Evaluation of Food: Principles
and
Practices.
Chapman
&
Hall,
New
York,
NY.

American Meat Science Association

FOOD SAFETY

Current Issues Related to Meatborne


Pathogenic Bacteria
John N. Sofos*, Panagiotis Skandamis, Jarret Stopforth & Todd Bacon
Introduction

products in order to enhance the safety of our meat supply.

Food animals may be infected, contaminated or be asymptomatic carriers of pathogenic microorganisms and together with the environment they serve as sources of contamination for carcasses during the slaughtering process and
for meat products during processing, storage and handling,
or for water and other foods through contaminated manure
(Sofos, 2002a). Foodborne microbial hazards have a devastating impact on human suffering because they are estimated to cause approximately 76 million cases of illness,
325,000 hospitalizations, and 5,000 deaths in the United
States each year (Mead et al., 1999). It is estimated that bacterial agents are responsible for only 30% of the total foodborne illnesses; however, 72% of total deaths are due to
consumption of foods contaminated with bacteria (Mead et
al., 1999). The United States National Health Objectives for
2010 aim at reducing the incidence of illness caused mainly
by four foodborne pathogens, namely Campylobacter, Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes, to 12.3, 6.8, 1.0, and 0.25 cases per 100,000 population, respectively (DHHS, 2000). According to the latest
(2002) surveillance data (CDC, 2003), Salmonella are responsible for causing the highest total number of cases of
gastrointestinal illness among bacteria; however, despite the
high incidence of illness, the case-fatality rate is <0.05%.
Campylobacter is responsible for the second highest total
number of gastrointestinal illnesses and like Salmonella, it
has a case-fatality rate of <0.05% (CDC, 2003). Although E.
coli O157:H7 has a much lower rate of incidence compared to Salmonella and Campylobacter, this organism has
a higher case-fatality rate (0.1%). Compared to the abovementioned pathogens, L. monocytogenes has the lowest rate
of incidence but a significantly higher (approximately 20%)
fatality rate (Mead et al., 1999). Thus, there is a need to
control pathogenic microorganisms in animals and their

An outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 in the western United


States in 1992-1993 was attributed to consumption of undercooked ground beef patties and led to development of
illness in several hundred people and four deaths (Bell et
al., 1994). This highly publicized outbreak may be considered as the beginning of intensified public scrutiny on food
safety that has led to major developments, including the
complete change of the United States meat inspection system, which was in place since the early 1900s. The new
United States Meat and Poultry Inspection Regulation was
published in 1996 (FSIS, 1996) and requires federally inspected meat and poultry plants: (1) to establish sanitation
standard operating procedures to serve as a foundation in
meat processing; (2) to implement the hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) system of process control
(NACMCF, 1998); and, (3) to apply performance criteria in
the form of microbial testing for Escherichia coli counts and
Salmonella incidence as criteria of HACCP verification and
pathogen reduction, respectively (FSIS, 1996; Sofos, 2002a;
Sofos and Smith, 1998; Sofos et al., 1999). Furthermore,
publicity over food safety issues has led to the establishment
of national food safety initiatives such as: (1) the United
States National Food Safety Initiative and associated programs or activities such as the FoodNet and PulseNet
foodborne illness surveillance networks; (2) the FightBac
and Thermy educational programs; (3) emphasis on risk
assessment studies and evaluations; and, (4) an increase in
federal funding for food safety research and education issues (http://www.foodsafety.gov).

J.N. Sofos
Department of Animal Sciences, Room 7B
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1171 USA
E-mail: John.Sofos@colostate.edu
th

Proceedings of the 56 American Meat Science Association


Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 33-37)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

The following sections provide brief information on general characteristics of the bacterial pathogens of most concern in recent years (Bacon and Sofos, 2003), brief summaries of current research activities and interventions to control bacterial pathogens in meat products, and an introduction to certain concerns associated with efforts to control
pathogens.

Characteristics of Bacterial Pathogens


Escherichia coli O157:H7: Escherichia coli are mostly
harmless natural colonizers of the gastrointestinal tract of
humans and other warm-blooded animals; however, pathogenic E. coli strains exist and are associated with syndromes

33

of diarrheal illness (Bacon and Sofos, 2003). Strains producing Shiga-like toxins (SLT), also known as verotoxins (VT),
are associated with hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome in humans and are regarded as enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC). The predominant EHEC serotype associated with foodborne illness is E. coli O157:H7. Escherichia coli O157:H7 are gram-negative, facultatively
anaerobic, nonspore-forming rods that are mostly motile,
and grow at temperatures ranging from 7 to 46C, with an
optimum between 35 and 40C. Escherichia coli O157:H7
require a water activity (aw) of at least 0.95 and are able to
grow in the presence of 6.5% sodium chloride. Although
they grow best at pH 6.0 to 7.0, they can also grow at pH
4.4 to 9.0 and, unlike most foodborne pathogenic bacteria,
they are tolerant to acidic environments. Illness associated
with E. coli O157:H7 results through fecal-oral transmission
by contaminated hands or consumption of contaminated
foods or water. Between 1993 and 1998, most (72%) of the
E. coli O157:H7 outbreaks were foodborne and of the foods
implicated in the outbreaks, beef was responsible for 45%
of the cases and 90% of the time the beef product was
ground. Following ingestion (>101 cells) and a 3 to 9 day
incubation period, E. coli O157:H7, can cause a wide range
of symptoms including mild or severe bloody diarrhea
(hemorrhagic colitis), hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS)
and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) (Bacon
and Sofos, 2003).
Listeria monocytogenes: They are nonspore-forming,
aerobic, microaerophilic or facultatively anaerobic, grampositive rods that are motile by means of peritrichous flagella (Bacon and Sofos, 2003). This organism is ubiquitous
in the environment and is harbored in approximately 11 to
52% of animals. Listeria monocytogenes has become a concern to the industry as it has been isolated from an extensive range of meat plant environments including floors,
drains, condensed and standing water, and food residues on
processing equipment. It is notable that L. monocytogenes
forms resistant biofilms on equipment surfaces under conditions of limited nutrient availability. Listeria monocytogenes
have also been isolated from <1-70% of whole and processed red meats, up to 60% of ready-to-eat poultry and 80
to 90% of raw or processed poultry. Listeria monocytogenes
is psychrotrophic and can grow at temperatures as low as
0.4C and up to 45C (optimum of 30 to 37C). Growth of
L. monocytogenes occurs in environments of pH 4.4 to 9.4,
at aw levels above 0.92, and survives at sodium chloride
levels of up to 30%. Listeriosis is mainly an infection of the
central nervous system (meningitis and meningoencephalitis), bacteremia and resulting in stillbirth, fetal death or
spontaneous abortion in pregnant woman. The infectious
dose of listeriosis is speculated to be as low as 100 cells/g,
and the illness has an incubation period of a few days to 2
to 3 months (Bacon and Sofos, 2003).
Salmonella: They are gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, nonspore-forming rods. The only two species recognized are S. enterica, possessing six subspecies, and S.
bongori. There are approximately 2,600 Salmonella sero34

types of which S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis are the


most prevalent in the U.S. (Bacon and Sofos, 2003). Salmonella can grow at temperatures as low as 5.2 and as high as
46.2C, pH values of 3.8 to 9.5, and at aw levels above
0.93. The primary reservoir for Salmonella is the intestinal
tract of infected hosts or carriers, where cells are subsequently sloughed and excreted in the feces. Nontyphoidal
Salmonella strains usually cause gastroenteritis after an incubation period of 5 h to 5 days resulting in diarrhea, nausea, mild fever, chills, vomiting and abdominal cramping.
Infectious doses of salmonellae may range from as low as
100 to 103, depending on the serotype, vehicle of transmission and on the individuals immune system (Bacon and
Sofos, 2003).
Campylobacter jejuni: They are gram-negative nonsporeforming rods that are slender and curved, which along with
the single, polar flagellum located at one or both ends contributes to the organisms characteristic corkscrew-type
motility (Bacon and Sofos, 2003). The bacterium is microaerophilic, growing best in environments with 2.0 to
5.0% oxygen and 5.0 to 10.0% carbon dioxide, while
growth is inhibited in the presence of 21% oxygen. The
temperature and pH ranges for growth of C. jejuni are 30 to
45C (optimum 37 to 42C) and 4.9 and 8.0 (optimum 6.5
to 7.5), respectively. Campylobacter jejuni are sensitive to
salinity (>0.5% sodium chloride), drying (require aw above
0.912), freezing, heat and acidic conditions (< pH 5.0).
Campylobacteriosis may result from as few as 500 viable
cells and infection typically requires 2 to 10 days before
onset of gastroenteritis-associated symptoms. Infection typically involves acute colitis combined with fever, malaise,
abdominal pain, headache, watery or sticky diarrhea with
minor traces of blood (occult), inflammation of the lamina
propria, and crypt abscesses. Infection may result in further
sequelae, the most severe including the acute paralytic disease of the peripheral nervous system known as GuillainBarre syndrome and Reiters syndrome (autoimmune disease caused by infection) (Bacon and Sofos, 2003).
Other Meatborne Bacterial Pathogens: Several other bacterial pathogens are associated with meat and poultry products but their contribution to foodborne disease has been
overshadowed by the impact of the above-mentioned four
pathogens in recent years. They include Yersinia enterocolitica, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens, and Bacillus cereus. For more information on these and other pathogens see Bacon and Sofos
(2003).

Current Approaches to Bacterial Pathogen Control


in Meat Products
The increasing prevalence of pathogens, such as E. coli
O157:H7, on animals before slaughter in recent years (Elder
et al., 2000) necessitates employment of interventions for
their control. In its efforts to promote control of the incidence of E. coli O157:H7 and other pathogens in meat, the
FSIS/USDA has been enforcing a zero tolerance policy for

American Meat Science Association

visible soil on carcasses during slaughter and has declared


E. coli O157:H7 an adulterant in fresh ground beef and
other non-intact fresh beef cuts (http://www.fsis.usda.gov).
Testing of fresh beef for this pathogen has resulted in several, highly publicized, product recalls from the marketplace. All segments, including, regulators, educators, consumers, health authorities, research scientists and the industry agree that efforts should be made to reduce incidence
and eliminate or control pathogenic bacteria at all stages of
the food chain (Sofos, 2002a). The producers of food animals in the United States have contributed to the overall
effort of improving food safety by supporting development
and applying quality assurance programs and by financially
supporting, through their associations, research and development studies on microbial reduction and pathogen control interventions applied during animal slaughter and meat
processing. The meat processing industry has also undertaken initiatives and efforts to comply with consumer demands for food safety, customer specifications or criteria,
and regulatory requirements included in the new meat and
poultry inspection regulations (FSIS, 1996). The target of the
meat processing industry has been to improve operations
through implementation of HACCP programs, and employment of various carcass decontamination or pathogen control interventions.
A variety of processes have been developed with the objective of reducing contamination on carcasses. Decontamination processes include animal cleaning, chemical
dehairing at slaughter, spot-cleaning of carcasses before
evisceration by knife-trimming or steam and vacuum, spraying, rinsing, deluging or dipping of carcasses before evisceration and/or before chilling with water or chemical solutions (e.g., organic acids, acidified sodium chlorite, peroxyacetic acid-based products, trisodium phosphate, etc.)
or steam. These interventions are applied at various concentrations or intensities, pressures (2-20 bar), temperatures
(15-80C) and for different lengths of time (5-20 sec), individually or in sequential combinations. Decontamination
interventions are used extensively in the United States and
they are integrated into food safety management systems,
such as HACCP, which, as indicated, is required by regulation (Bacon et al., 2000; Smulders and Greer, 1998; Sofos
and Smith, 1998). Most processors of fresh meat in the
United States may employ more than one decontamination
intervention, in sequence, and this "multiple hurdle" approach to decontamination should result in microbiologically cleaner carcasses and may assist plants in meeting
regulatory requirements (Bacon et al., 2000; Sofos et al.,
1999). Thus, application of decontamination processes
should contribute to the enhancement of product safety,
provided that chilling, cutting, processing, storage, distribution and preparation for consumption are also performed
properly and under hygienic conditions. It is important to
realize, however, that control or management of food safety
risks should be based on an integrated effort and approach
that addresses all sectors, from the producer through the
packer, processor, distributor, retailer, food service worker
and consumer. Reduction of pathogen prevalence on ani56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

mals pre-harvest may lead to a reduced probability that


errors occurring in subsequent parts of the food chain will
lead to foodborne illness. Additional interventions to help in
enhancing food safety or to eliminate pathogens in readyto-eat meat products are applied during processing and include heating, chilling, freezing, drying, fermentation, use
of chemicals as acidulants or antimicrobials, packaging,
proper storage and distribution, and appropriate handling
and preparation for consumption. Indeed, food safety assurance involves activities and responsibilities throughout the
food chain.
Recently the FSIS/USDA (http://www.fsis.usda.gov) has
issued directives, notices and guidances for meat operations
to consider E. coli O157:H7 a food safety hazard that is
reasonably likely to occur in fresh beef. Thus, they should
re-evaluate their HACCP plans and establish plant-validated
control measures (FSIS Directive 10,010.1/February 1,
1998; FSIS Notice 44-02/November 4, 2002; Proposed FSIS
Directives in Federal Register October 7, 2002/Volume 67,
Number 194, Pages 62-325-62334; FSIS Guidance for
Minimizing the Risk of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella in Beef Slaughter Operations; FSIS Guidance for
Beef Grinders and Suppliers of Boneless Beef and Trim
Products).
In addition to E. coli O157:H7, L. monocytogenes has
become a major concern for the meat processing industry
worldwide. Following a listeriosis outbreak in the United
States in 1998-1999, which caused 21 deaths and at least
100 illnesses in 14 states due to consumption of postprocessing contaminated hot dogs and luncheon meats
(CDC, 1999), L. monocytogenes has re-emerged as a meatborne pathogen of concern in the United States. Another
listeriosis outbreak in 2002 caused 50 illnesses, 7 deaths
and 3 miscarriages in 8 northeastern states of the United
States and was associated with consumption of contamination ready-to-eat poultry products (CDC, 2002). These fatal
outbreaks and the frequent and highly publicized recalls of
meat products potentially contaminated with the pathogen
have alerted the industry, public health authorities and researchers to develop and establish effective measures and
procedures to maintain product safety and increase consumer confidence in ready-to-eat meat products (Bernard
and Scott, 1999; Tompkin, 2002; Tompkin et al., 1999).
Results of our studies have shown that use of modified
marinades in the form of multiple hurdles are effective in
enhancing destruction of pathogenic bacteria during drying
of meat products as well as post-drying contaminants during
product (i.e., beef jerky) storage (Calicioglu et al., 2002a,b,
2003). Inclusion of antimicrobials (acetates, diacetates, lactates, benzoates, sorbates, glucono-delta-lactone, and their
combinations at reduced concentrations) in the formulation
or their application as dipping solutions after product slicing
and before packaging were found effective in controlling L.
monocytogenes in ready-to-eat cured meat products contaminated after cooking (Bedie et al., 2001; Samelis et al.,
2001a, 2002a).

35

For ready-to-eat meat and poultry products, the


FSIS/USDA has proposed the following performance criteria: (1) a 6.5 log reduction of Salmonella during processing
of ready-to-eat meat products; (2) a 7.0 log reduction of
Salmonella during processing of ready-to-eat poultry products; (3) a 5.0 log reduction of E. coli O157:H7 during
processing of fermented meat products containing beef; (4)
no more than 1.0 log growth of Clostridium perfringens and
no growth of Clostridium botulinum during cooling of all
ready-to-eat meat products (hhtp://www.fsis.usda.gov).
Relative to control of L. monocytogenes in ready-to-eat
meat and poultry products, the USDA/FSIS has published a
directive (10,240.3/December 9, 2002) titled Microbial
Sampling of Ready-To-Eat (RTE) Products for the FSIS Verification Testing Program.

Potential Concerns Associated with Bacterial Pathogen Control Approaches


As they have done in the past, microorganisms continue
to evolve and their large genetic variability and short generation times increase their potential for survival in less than
favorable environments. The emergence of resistant bacteria
as a result of the ubiquity of antimicrobials in their environment, has led to public health concerns centered around
increased morbidity and mortality associated with failing
antimicrobial treatments (Bacon et al., 2002). In addition to
the emergence of antibiotic resistance, common foodborne
pathogenic bacteria have demonstrated resistance and
cross-protective capabilities to food preservation stresses as
well as increased virulence. The induction of bacterial resistance to environmental stresses such as temperature and pH
extremes involves the production of protective shock proteins, some of which possess cross-protective capabilities,
or the ability to confer protection to more than one type of
stress. Recent and continuing research efforts in our laboratory have focused on potential food safety risks and critical
control points concerning stress-adapted pathogens (Samelis
et al., 2001b,c, 2002b,c; Stopforth et al., 2002, 2003). It
was shown that E. coli O157:H7 has greater potential to
survive in organic acid (more so in acetic than lactic acid)
beef decontamination runoff fluids (washings) compared to
L. monocytogenes and S. Typhimurium, even with moderate
previous acid-adaptation (Samelis et al., 2001b). Acidadaptation was shown to enhance survival of E. coli
O157:H7 for up to 14 d in mixtures of both acetic and lactic acid (2%) washings mixed with water washings at ratios
of 1:1, 1:9 or 1:99 (Samelis et al., 2002b). In addition, it was
shown that acid-adaptation of E. coli O157:H7 negatively
influenced the pathogens ability to readapt to a sudden
shift to higher pH (6.5 to 7.5) conditions of beef water
washings (Samelis et al., 2002b). Results have demonstrated
that acid decontamination interventions may alter the microbial ecology of meat plant environments (Samelis et al.,
2002b; Stopforth et al., 2003), selecting for the growth and
attachment to equipment surfaces of the natural meat flora
and may enhance the survival of attached pathogens following long-term stressing (Stopforth et al., 2003). In gen-

36

eral, exposure to sublethal stress during food processing


may result in stress-hardened pathogens surviving more
readily subsequent antimicrobial treatment applications
aimed at improving microbiological food quality, potentially resulting in persistent microbiological populations
possessing elevated virulence factor expression (Samelis
and Sofos, 2003; Sheridan and McDowell, 1998; Sofos,
2002b). Overall, however, interventions for decontamination of carcasses are useful because they reduce levels of
contamination and allow plants to meet regulatory performance criteria and standards as well as contractual specifications for product contamination. Evidence indicates that
these interventions cause major reductions in prevalence of
pathogens such as E. coli O157:H7 (Elder et al., 2000). It
should be noted, however, that these interventions are generally instantaneous or of short intensity and inadequate for
complete microbial inactivation or removal. Issues such as
those associated with microbial penetration in muscle tissues, biofilm formation, bacterial sublethal injury, alteration
of metabolic activity potentially resulting in development of
stress adaptation and cross protection, and changes in meat
and plant environment microbial association need to be
considered. As we develop knowledge to better understand
these concerns, we will be able to select and apply intervention treatments of optimum intensity and in a sequence
that maximize antimicrobial effects.
Overall, the microbiological status of the products that
reach the consumers, either as raw meat or processed products, will depend on exposure to contamination and its control during all steps of the food production, processing, distribution, storage, retailing and preparation for consumption
chain. Proper application of the processes described above
will yield products that should be safe for consumption following proper cooking and/or serving.

References
Bacon, R.T.; Sofos, J.N. 2003. Biological Food Hazards: Characteristics of
Biological Food Hazards. In: Current Issues in Food Safety. Willey, NY,
pp. 155-193.
Bacon, R. T.; Belk, K. E; Sofos, J. N.; Clayton, R. P.; Reagan, J. O.; Smith,
G. C. 2000. Microbial populations on animal hides and beef carcasses
at different stages of slaughter in plants employing multiple-sequential
interventions for decontamination. Journal of Food Protection 63:10801086.
Bacon, T.R.; Sofos, J.N.; Belk K.E.; Hyatt, D.R.; Smith, G.C.. 2002. Prevalence and antibiotic susceptibility of Salmonella isolated from beef
animal hides and carcasses. Journal of Food Protection 65:284-290.
Bedie, G.K.; Samelis, J.;Sofos, J.N.; Belk, K.E.; Scanga, J.A.; Smith, G.C.
2001. Antimicrobials in the formulation to control Listeria monocytogenes post-processing contamination on frankfurters stored at 4C in
vacuum packages. Journal of Food Protection 64:1949-1955.
Bell, B.P.; Goldoft, M.; Griffin, P.M.; Dans, M.A.; Gordon, D.C.; Tarr, P.J.;
Bartleson, C.A.; Lewis, J.H.; Barret, T.J.; Wells, J.W.; Baron, R.; Kobayashi, J. 1994. A multistate outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7- associated bloody diarrhea and hemolytic uremic syndrome from hamburgers, the Washington experience. Journal of the American Medical Association. 272:1249-1353.
Bernard, D.T.; Scott V.N. 1999. Listeria monocytogenes in meats: New
strategies are needed. Food Technology 53:124.

American Meat Science Association

Calicioglu, M.; Sofos, J.N.; Samelis, J.; Kendall, P.A.; Smith, G.C. 2002a.
Inactivation of acid-adapted and nonadapted Escherichia coli O157:H7
during drying and storage of beef jerky treated with different marinades.
Journal of Food Protection 65:1394-1405.

Samelis, J.; Sofos, J.N.; Kendall, P.A.; Smith, G.C. 2001c. Influence of the
natural microbial flora on the acid tolerance response of Listeria monocytogenes in a model system of fresh meat decontamination fluids. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 67:2410-2420.

Calicioglu, M.; Sofos, J.N.; Samelis, J.; Kendall, P.A.; Smith, G.C. 2002b.
Destruction of acid- and non-adapted Listeria monocytogenes during
drying and storage of beef jerky. Food Microbiology 19:545-559.

Samelis, J.; Sofos, J.N.; Kain, M.L.; Scanga, J.A.; Belk, K.E.; Smith, G.C.
2002a. Control of Listeria monocytogenes with combined antimicrobials following post-process contamination and extended storage of
frankfurters at 4C in vacuum packages. Journal of Food Protection
65:299-307.

Calicioglu, M.; Sofos, J.N.; Kendall, P.A. 2003. Fate of acid-adapted and
non-adapted Escherichia coli O157:H7 inoculated post-drying on beef
jerky treated with marinades before drying. Food Microbiology 20:169177.
CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 1999. Update: Multistate outbreak of listeriosis - United States, 1998-1999. Morbidity and
Mortality Weekly Report 47:1117-1118.
CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2002. Update: Outbreak of Listeriosis-Northeastern United States, 2002. Morbidity and
Mortality Weekly Report 51:950-951.
CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2003. Preliminary
FoodNet Data on the Incidence of Foodborne Illnesses - Selected Sites,
United States, 2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 52:340343.
DHHS (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). 2000. Healthy
people 2010 (conference ed., 2 vols). Washington, DC:U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Elder, R. O.; Keen, J. E.; Siragusa, G. R.; Barkocy-Gallagher, G. A.; Koohmaraie, M.; Laegreid, W.W. 2000. Correlation of enterohemorrhagic
Escherichia coli O157 prevalence in feces, hides, and carcasses of beef
cattle during processing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 97:2999-3003.
FSIS (Food Safety and Inspection Service). 1996. Pathogen Reduction;
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) Systems: Final
Rule. 9CFR Part 304, et al., Federal Register 61:38805-38989.
Mead, P.S.; Slutsker L.; Dietz, V.; McCaig, L.F.; Bresee, J.S.; Shapiro, C.;
Griffin, P.M.; Tauxe, R.V. 1999. Food-related illness and death in the
United States. Emerging and Infectious Diseases 5:607-625.
NACMCF (National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for
Foods). 1998. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Principles and
Application Guidelines. Journal of Food Protection 61:762-775.
Samelis, J.; Sofos, J.N. 2003. Strategies to Control Stress-Adapted Pathogens
and Provide Safe Foods. In: Microbial Adaptation to Stress and Safety of
New-Generation Foods. Yousef, A.E.; Juneja, V.K. (Eds.). CRC Press,
Inc. Boca Raton, FL. ISBN 1-56676-912-4, pp.303-351.

Samelis, J.; Sofos, J.N.; Kendall, P.A.; Smith, G.C. 2002b. Effect of acid
adaptation on survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in meat decontamination washings fluids and potential effects of organic acid interventions on the microbial ecology of the meat plant environment. Journal
of Food Protection 65:33-40.
Samelis, J.; Sofos, J.N.; Ikeda, J.S.; Kendall, P.A; Smith, G.C. 2002c. Exposure to water meat decontamination washing fluids sensitizes Escherichia coli O157:H7 to organic acids. Letters in Applied Microbiology 34:7-12.
Sheridan, J. J.; McDowell, D. A. 1998. Factors affecting the emergence of
pathogens on foods. Meat Science 49:S151-S167.
Smulders, F.J.M.; Greer, G.G. 1998. Integrating microbial decontamination
with organic acids in HACCP programmes. Intl. J. Food Micro. 44:149169.
Sofos, J.N. 2002a. Approaches to pre-harvest food safety assurance. In:
Smulders, F.J.M.; Collins, J.D. (Eds.) Food Safety Assurance and Veterinary Public Health; Volume 1, Food Safety Assurance in the PreHarvest Phase, Publ. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen,
The Netherlands. pp. 23-48.
Sofos, J.N. 2002b. Stress-adapted, cross-protected, resistant: a concern?
Food Technology 56:22.
Sofos, J.N.; Smith, G.C. 1998. Nonacid meat decontamination technologies: Model studies and commercial applications. International Journal
of Food Microbiology 44:171-188.
Sofos, J.N.; Belk, K.E.; Smith, G.C. 1999. Processes to reduce contamination with pathogenic microorganisms in meat. Proceedings of the International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (Yokohama, Japan).
45:596-605.
Stopforth, J.D.; Samelis, J.; Sofos, J.N.; Kendall, P.A.; Smith, G.C. 2002.
Biofilm formation by acid-adapted and nonadapted Listeria monocytogenes in fresh beef decontamination washings and its subsequent inactivation with sanitizers. Journal of Food Protection 65:1717-1727.
Stopforth, J.D.; Samelis J.; Sofos, J.N.; Kendall P.A.; Smith, G.C. 2003.
Potential for biofilm formation by acid-adapted Escherichia coli
O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes in diluted organic acid residual
meat decontamination washing fluids. Food Microbiology (In Press).

Samelis, J.; Sofos, J.N.; Kain, M.L.; Scanga, J.A.; Belk, K.E.; Smith, G.C.
2001a. Organic acids and their salts as dipping solutions to control Listeria monocytogenes inoculated following processing of sliced pork bologna stored at 4C in vacuum packages. Journal of Food Protection
64:1722-1729.

Tompkin, R.B. 2002. Control of Listeria monocytogenes in the foodprocessing environment. Journal of Food Protection 65:709-725.

Samelis, J.; Sofos, J.N.; Kendall, P.A.; Smith, G.C. 2001b. Fate of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium DT104 and Listeria
monocytogenes in fresh meat decontamination fluids at 4 and 10C.
Journal of Food Protection 64:950-957.

Tompkin, R.B.; Scott, V.N.; Bernard, D.T.; Sveum, W.H.; Gombas, K.S.
1999. Guidelines to prevent post-processing contamination from Listeria monocytogenes. Dairy, Food and Environmental Sanitation 19:
551-562.

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

37

38

American Meat Science Association

FOOD SAFETY

Postharvest Pathogen Interventions for


Meat and Poultry
Fred W. Pohlman* & Kathy S. McElyea
Introduction
Although progress has been made in regard to pathogen
reduction technologies, the incidence and retardation of
pathogens in the meat supply remains a high priority. As
examples, on October 7, 2002, the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) issued a notice in the Federal Register
mandating HACCP reassessments for E. coli O157:H7 and
indicated that testing exemptions would furthermore be
revoked. As promised, and due to the E. coli summer season, on April 18, 2003, the FSIS issued Notice 11-03 indicating that the FSIS will begin sampling raw ground products for E. coli O157:H7 at all grinding facilities, regardless
if an establishment was previously exempt from routine
sampling, in effect removing all exemptions. To this end, inplant inspectors will receive sampling request forms and
draw samples regardless of the plants own testing program.
Therefore, the use of decontamination methods for meat
remains important to ensure the safety of muscle foods.
Long recognizing the importance of these technologies,
substantial research has focused on development of antimicrobial interventions. Antimicrobial interventions researched for meat have included various organic acids and
their salts, chlorinated compounds, quaternary ammonialike compounds, various buffers, rinses, ozone/oxidizers,
hot water, steam pasteurization and vacuum, chelators and
baceriocins to name a few. Reductions from these technologies have ranged from less than one log10 (log) reduction to several log reductions depending on efficacy of the
treatment and initial microbial loads before treatment. To
this end, a number of these technologies are currently being
used in the meat industry to improve meat safety. However,
the vast body of these technologies have been researched,
developed and implemented for carcass decontamination
Fred W. Pohlman
University of Arkansas
Department of Animal Science
B103D AFLS Bldg.
Fayetteville, AR 72701
fpohlma@uark.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 39-47)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

applications. While these technologies either are or have


the potential for reducing pathogens in the meat supply, a
substantial opportunity for pathogen reduction exists postharvest. While carcass interventions are an important part of
a concerted intervention strategy, they do not render the
carcass sterile. Therefore, subsequent fabrication where cuts
are exposed to conveyor belts, knives, human hands etc.
through the normal course of fabrication expose meat cuts
to cross and recontamination vectors which therefore may
not lead to microbial reductions in final products. Therefore, substantial opportunity exists to not only decontaminate carcasses but also decontaminate cuts and meat pieces
postharvest, closer to the packaging phase to provide microbial reductions that can be achieved in the final package
selected by the consumer. With either the postharvest or
carcass then postharvest intervention strategies in a multiple
intervention approach, it is only recently that research has
addressed these types of applications. However, a wealth of
knowledge can be gleaned from past carcass intervention
research, particularly where muscles were excised then
treated with various antimicrobial interventions. While
these studies focused on applying the reductions achieved
on excised tissues back to the carcass, they certainly could
have applications forward to retail cuts or trimmings destined for ground beef and lead to reductions in pathogens in
the meat supply directly purchased by the consumer.

Postharvest interventions for beef cuts or tissues


While substantial research has been conducted on microbial interventions for carcasses, less work has been conducted and published on postharvest interventions. However, a number of carcass intervention studies have used
excised tissue to test antimicrobial effectiveness and although the focus was for carcass decontamination, these
carcass decontamination technologies might have application for retail cuts or ground beef. For studies where tissue
was excised and treated with antimicrobial interventions,
one can get a sense of how these technologies might perform on primals, subprimals, retail cuts or trimmings, if that
was their intended application. Therefore, for brevity, this
paper reviews only selected tissue studies and not carcass
applications for direct reductions in microorganisms. Likewise, for brevity, irradiation, although a postharvest pathogen reduction technology, is also not discussed.

39

Table 1 illustrates selected studies for postharvest pathogen reductions on beef cuts or tissues, beef trimmings destined for ground beef and direct ground beef interventions.
This table also shows possible ranges for microbial reductions with the use of these individual interventions. Numerous technologies have been researched for the reduction of
microorganisms on beef tissues. Organic acids such as lactic acid, acetic acid, formic acid, citric acid and gluconic
acid have shown abilities to reduce E. coli, coliforms, aerobic bacteria and Salmonella spp. However, like other intervention technologies, organic acids have shown variability
in their ability to reduce microbial loads. These variations
can sometimes be explained by concentrations, duration of
application, application techniques, microbial load or microbial resilience, but substantial unexplained variation still
exist. Lactic acid has been observed to reduce E. coli on
beef tissue by 0.2 log (Kotula and Thelappurate, 1994) up to
greater than 3 log reductions (Dorsa et al., 1998a). In additional studies some enhancement in microbial reduction,
including E. coli reduction might be accomplished by heating organic acids before application to beef tissue (Anderson and Marshall, 1990a,b; Anderson et al., 1979). With
coliforms, a common fecal bacterial contaminant, lactic
acid has shown reductions from 0.6 log to greater than 1
log reduction (Anderson and Marshall, 1990b). Aerobic
bacteria are also susceptible to lactic acid treatments and
can be reduce from 0.8 (Anderson and Marshall, 1990b) to
greater than 2 log reductions (Dorsa et al., 1997). Salmonella has also shown a similar susceptibility response to
lactic acid as E. coli with reductions from 0.7 log to greater
than 3 logs possible (Dorsa et al., 1998a). Acetic acid has
produced similar microbial reductions as lactic acid. Using
acetic acid on beef shortloins, Bala et al. (1977) was able to
reduce E. coli in excess of 3 logs. Furthermore, Dickson
(1991) was able to reduce Salmonella typhimurium on beef
trimmings by up to 3 logs using acetic acid.
Other organic acids tested on beef tissue have included
formic (Bell et al., 1986), citric (Brackett et al., 1994) and
gluconic (Garcia-Zepeda et al, 1994) acids. In general,
these have not shown the same effectiveness for maximum
microbial reductions on beef tissues or cuts as lactic and
acetic acids, although they have not been as widely researched. Microbial reductions reported have generally
been below 1 log for any given microorganism using these
organic acids.
Another approach for using organic acids has been multiple organic acid mixtures (Anderson and Marshall, 1990a;
Goddard et al., 1996). However, in limited studies, mixtures
of organic acids seem to yield similar microbial reductions
as single organic acid applications (Table 1).
Sodium hypochlorite and hypochlorous acids have also
been evaluated on beef tissue for aerobic bacteria reduction. Aerobic bacteria reductions have been reported between 0.2 log and 1.0 log (Anderson et al., 1979; Johnson
et al., 1979).

40

One of the most effective antimicrobial inhibitors in beef


tissue reported has been cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC), a
compound commonly found in oral hygiene products. Cutter et al. (2000) reported up to 6 log reductions to virtually
undetectable levels for E. coli and Salmonella on beef lean
when beef shortplates and cutaneous trunci muscles were
treated with 1% CPC. Another compound, which has
shown abilities to reduce microorganisms on beef tissue, is
trisodium phosphate (TSP). Dorsa et al. (1998a) reported
trisodium phosphate reduced E. coli and Salmonella typhimurium by greater than 4 logs on beef neck tissue.
Other interventions such as cold water and hot water
rinses have also been evaluated for reducing microorganisms on beef tissues. In general and as expected, hot water
has often produced higher microbial reductions than cold
water. Reductions up to and in excess of 2 logs have been
reported for aerobic plate counts (APC), E. coli, and Salmonella spp. using hot water rinses (Anderson et al., 1979;
Dorsa, 1998a). In addition to water, steam has also been
evaluated on beef tissues for microbial reduction. However,
although there has been substantial research conducted
with steam on beef carcasses, surprisingly little data has
been reported for the use of steam in postharvest applications. In one study, Anderson et al. (1979) reported only 0.1
log reduction in APC using steam, however, based on carcass research, it would appear likely that substantially
greater microbial reductions could be achieved using steam
applications postharvest. In other work, instead of chemical
interventions, Pohlman et al. (1997) had some effect on
aerobic bacteria reduction on beef muscle using low intensity ultrasound.
An area that may hold promise regarding maximum microbial reductions might be the use of multiple antimicrobial interventions at multiple stages of production. The use
of hurdle technology may show particularly advantageous
benefits should the most effective antimicrobials be utilized
in a multiple intervention approach. Utilizing multiple interventions, Kang et al., (2001a and 2001b) and Kondaih et
al. (1985) demonstrated that it is possible to reduce pathogens and aerobic bacteria in excess of 2 logs on beef tissue.

Postharvest interventions for beef trimmings


destined for ground beef
While the safety of beef cuts remains a concern, perhaps
more importantly is the safety of ground beef. Because
ground beef is often produced from beef trimmings from
numerous animals and because of grinding and mixing operations, which more equally distribute any microorganisms
present as well incorporating air, the potential for ground
beef to harbor pathogens remains a concern. Therefore,
decontamination of trimmings before grinding or of ground
beef post grinding might be advantageous to reduce microbial loads in ground beef. These postharvest applications
have only been recently explored.
Using cold or hot water on beef trimmings before grinding has been shown to reduce E. coli and Salmonella typhiAmerican Meat Science Association

murium by up to 2 logs in ground beef (Dorsa et al., 1998a;


Ellebracht et al., 1999 and Stivarius et al., 2002)(Table 1).
Additionally, lactic and acetic acid treatments have also
been used to decontaminate beef trimmings before grinding
(Stivarius et al., 2002a; Conner et al., 1997 and Dorsa et al.,
1998a) and have achieved E. coli and Salmonella typhimurium reductions by up to 3 logs in ground beef. Using
gluconic acid and trisodium citrate, Stivarius et al. (2002b)
reduced E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium, coliforms and
aerobic bacteria in ground beef by less than 1 log. However, Stivarius et al. (2002c) reported slightly greater reductions for these same microorganisms in ground beef using
chlorine dioxide or ozonated water wash of beef trimmings
before grinding.
Although ground beef is one of the most difficult meat
products to reduce microorganisms in, trisodium phosphate
has been demonstrated to reduce E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium, coliforms and aerobic bacteria in ground beef
when applied to beef trimmings (Pohlman et al., 2002b;
Dorsa et al., 1998a; Dorsa et al., 1998b). Reductions in E.
coli in ground beef in excess of 2 logs and Salmonella typhimurium in excess of 3 logs has been observed from
treated trimmings. Another intervention, cetylpyridinium
chloride, used on beef trimmings before grinding, has been
reported to reduce E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium, coliforms and aerobic bacteria in ground beef by <1 log
(Pohlman et al., 2002b). These findings illustrate the difficulty for reducing microorganisms in ground beef when
compared to reductions in microorganisms on beef tissue
when comparing up to a 6 log reduction when cetylpyridinium chloride was used on beef tissue surfaces (Cutter et al.,
2000).
Interestingly, using multiple hurdle interventions on
beef trimmings prior to grinding has been shown to be more
effective for reducing microorganisms in ground beef than
its single intervention counterparts. In a series of studies
(Pohlman et al., 2002b; Pohlman et al., 2002c) showed reductions in E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium, coliforms and
aerobic bacteria in ground beef up to and in excess of 2
logs when multiple interventions were applied to beef
trimmings before grinding. Therefore, the use of multiple or
hurdle technology might show promise for the safety improvement of ground beef.
In addition to treatment of beef trimmings before grinding
to improve ground beef safety, a number of direct additives
or technologies have been applied to ground beef. Ajjarapu
and Shelef (1999) found that the addition of sodium lactate
or diacetate to ground beef delayed growth of E. coli in
storage. Likewise, Meca et al. (1997) reported that direct
addition of sodium acetate reduced aerobic bacteria in
ground beef from 0.1 to 0.6 logs and that buffered citrate/sodium citrate reduced APC by up to 0.2 logs. Egbert et
al. (1992) found that potassium lactate reduced coliforms by
up to 1 log and aerobic bacteria by up to 0.8 log in ground
beef. An additional technology for reducing pathogens in
ground beef is that of hydrostatic pressure. Using hydro-

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

static pressure, Carballo et al. (1997) was able to reduce E.


coli in ground beef by up to approximately 2 logs.

Postharvest interventions for poultry, pork & lamb


As with beef, much of the published research regarding
microbial interventions for poultry, pork and lamb has involved carcass decontamination. While the industry has
done substantial research on postharvest interventions, less
peer-reviewed research is available. This is particularly true
for poultry with much of the work involving chill decontamination of carcasses. Additionally, due to the small carcass size and rapid fabrication rates, it is also likely that this
has lead to a history of more carcass decontamination work
and less postharvest decontamination research. However, it
is apparent that the poultry industry also recognizes the
benefits that postharvest decontamination may provide.
Since many of the same interventions as beef have been
attempted on poultry, Table 2 shows examples of selected
postharvest interventions for poultry, pork and lamb as well
as a some additional interventions researched on poultry
carcasses not previously discussed.
Using acidified sodium chlorite, Kemp et al. (2001) was
able to reduce E. coli, Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter
spp. on chicken carcasses by 2.3, 2.0 and 2.6 logs, respectively. Additionally, Kemp et al. (2000) found that acidifying
with citric acid gave substantially better microbial reductions than acidifying with phosphoric acid. Trisodium phosphate, lactic acid, cetylypyridinium chloride and sodium
bisulfate have also been researched for reducing microorganisms on poultry (Yang and Slavik, 1988; Lillard, 1994;
Wang et al., 1997; Breen et al., 1997 and Xiong et al.,
1998). Reductions in aerobic bacteria up to 4.9, 1.8, 2.3
and 1.7 logs have been reported for trisodium phosphate,
lactic acid, cetylypyridinium chloride and sodium bisulfate,
respectively. For postharvest interventions, Hwang and
Beuchat were able to reduce Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and E. coli by 2.5,
1.0, 0.5, 1.5, and 1.3 logs, respectively on chicken wings
using lactic acid and sodium benzoate.
In other poultry postharvest research, hydrostatic pressure
has been used to reduce pathogens and microorganisms in
ground chicken and various meat models. Hydrostatic pressure up to 700MPa has been reported to reduce Listeria
spp., Salmonella spp., E. coli and S. aureus by up to 7.5,
2.0, 6.0 and 6.0 logs, respectively in ground poultry (Patterson et al., 1995; Patterson et al., 1998; Yuste et al., 1999).
Postharvest decontamination of turkeys has also seen research activity. Kalinowski and Tomkin (1999) were able to
reduce Clostridium spp. on turkey breast cores by up to 0.8
logs using sodium diacetate or a combination of sodium lactate
and sodium diacetate. Whereas Schlyter et al. (1993) was able
to reduce L. monocytogenes in ready to eat turkey breasts by
up to almost 5.0 logs using combinations of sodium lactate,
diacetate and nitrate. However, Schlyter et al. (1993) found the
greatest reductions in L. monocytogenes occurred when pediocin was combined with sodium diacetate.
41

Table 1. Selected postharvest interventions for beef tissue, cuts or in ground beef.
Antimicrobial

Microorganism

Inhibition (logs)

Reference

Lactic acid
Ambient or heated

E. coli
Coliforms
APC
S. typhimurium

0.2-3.1
0.6-1.1
0.8-2.5
0.7-3.0

Anderson & Marshall, 1990b; Brackett et al., 1994; Kotula & Thelappurate, 1994;
Dorsa et al., 1998a; Dorsa et al., 1997

Acetic acid
Ambient or heated

E. coli
Coliforms
APC
S. typhimurium

0.3-3.2
0.7-1.75
1.1-3.4
0.5-3.0

Anderson & Marshall, 1989; Anderson et al., 1979; Bala et al., 1977; Bell et al.,
1986; Brackett et al., 1994; Dickson, 1992; Dickson, 1991; Dickson & Siragusa,
1994; Kotula & Thelappurate, 1994; Dorsa et al., 1998b; Dorsa et al., 1997

Formic acid

E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium

<1.0
<1.0
<1.0

Bell et al., 1986

Citric acid

E. coli

<0.3

Brackett et al., 1994

Gluconic acid

Psychrotrophs
Lactic acid bacteria

0.2-0.5
0.7

Garcia-Zepeda et al., 1994

Mixed organic acids


Ambient or heated

E. coli
Coliforms
APC
S. typhimurium

0.4-0.9
0.7-1.6
0.6-1.7
0.8-1.7

Anderson & Marshall, 1990a; Goddard et al., 1996

Sodium hypochlorite/
Hypochlorous acid

APC

0.2-1.0

Anderson et al., 1979; Johnson et al., 1979

Cetylpyridinium chloride

E. coli
S. typhimurium

5.0-6.0
5.0-6.0

Cutter et al., 2000

Trisodium phosphate

E. coli
Coliforms
APC
S. typhimurium

0-4.3
0.1-0.3
0.1-2.9
0.5-4.1

Dorsa et al., 1998a; Dorsa et al., 1998b; Fratamico et al., 1996; Dickson et al.,
1994; Delmore et al., 2000; Kim & Slavik, 1994; Dorsa et al., 1997

Cold water

APC
E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium

0.1-1.2
0.3-1.0
1.1
0.3-0.9

Anderson et al., 1979; Kang et al., 2001b; Dorsa et al., 1998a

Hot water

APC
E. coli
S. typhimurium

1.5-2.2
1.3-2.7
2.5-2.2

Anderson et al., 1979; Dorsa et al., 1998a

Steam

APC

0.1

Anderson et al., 1979

Low intensity Ultrasound

APC

0.2

Pohlman et al., 1997

Multiple interventions

E. coli
Coliforms
APC

Beef cuts/tissues

1.3-2.2
1.2-2.2
1.0-2.5

Kang et al., 2001a; Kang et al., 2001b; Kondaih et al., 1985

Beef trim then ground beef

42

Hot water/cold water

E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC

0-2.4
0.1
0-2.0
0.1-1.1

Stivarius et al., 2002a; Ellebracht et al., 1999; Dorsa et al., 1998a

Lactic acid

E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC

0.1-2.9
0.7
0.2-3.2
0-0.6

Stivarius et al., 2002a; Conner et al., 1977; Dorsa et al., 1998a

Acetic acid

E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC

0.1-2.8
1.3
1.5-2.8
0.1-1.3

Stivarius et al., 2002b; Conner et al., 1977; Dorsa et al., 1998a

American Meat Science Association

Table 1 (continued). Selected postharvest interventions for beef tissue, cuts or in ground beef.
Antimicrobial

Microorganism

Inhibition (logs)

Gluconic acid

E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC

0.3
0.2
0.1
0.5

Reference
Stivarius et al., 2002b

Trisodium citrate

E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC

0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2

Stivarius et al., 2002b

Chlorine dioxide

E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC

0.7
0.6
0.6
0.7

Stivarius et al., 2002c

Ozone

E .coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC

0.1
0.2-0.4
0.5-0.8
0.3-0.6

Stivarius et al., 2002c

Trisodium phosphate

E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC

0.8-2.3
0.7
0.7-3.1
0.6-0.7

Pohlman et al., 2002b; Dorsa et al., 1998a; Dorsa et al., 1998b;

Cetylpyridinium
chloride

E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC

0.6
0.6
0.7
0.6

Multiple interventions

E. coli
Coliforms
S. typhimurium
APC

0.6-2.6
0.4-1.9
0.3-2.0
0.3-1.8

Pohlman et al., 2002b

Pohlman et al., 2002a; Pohlman et al., 2002c;

Ground Beef - Direct


Sodium lactate

E. coli
APC

Delayed growth
0-0.8

Ajjarapu & Shelef, 1999; Harmayni et al., 1991; Maca et al., 1997; Eckert et al., 1997

Sodium diacetate

E. coli
APC

Delayed growth
Delayed growth

Ajjarapu & Shelef, 1999

Sodium acetate

APC

0.1-0.6

Maca et al., 1997

Buffered citrate/Sodium
citrate

APC

0-0.2

Maca et al., 1997

Potassium lactate

Coliforms
APC

0.5-1.0
0.1-0.8

Egbert et al., 1992

Hydrostatic
~2.2
Carballo et al., 1997
E. coli
pressure
Multiple interventions evaluated are many including two or more combinations of heated mediums, organic acids, buffers, quaternary ammonia like mediums
and oxidizers.
~ symbol means that reductions were approximated.

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

43

Table 2. Selected postharvest interventions for poultry, pork and lamb whole muscle or comminuted products.
Item

Antimicrobial

Parameter

Microorganism

Inhibition (logs)

Reference

Chicken carcass

Acidified sodium chlorite and


citric acid spray

1,100 ppm sodium


chlorite
9,000 ppm citric acid

E. coli
Salmonella ssp.
Campylobacter spp.

2.3
2.0
2.6

Kemp et al., 2001

Kemp et al., 2000

Chicken carcass
H2O prewash(PR)

Acidifed Sodium
Chlorite- ASC (A)
Phosphoric (P) or Citric (C) activated
Dip or spray

500-1,200 ppm ASC

E. coli
Coliforms
Aerobic

Phos. activated
E coli- .72
Coliforms 1.51
Aerob- .72
Citric activated
E coli ~ 2.3
Coliform ~.8-2.0
Aerob ~ .7-1.0

Chicken carcass

Trisodium phos. (TSP)


Lactic acid (L)
Cetlypyridinium chloride (CPC)
Sodium Bisulfate (SB)

TSP-10%
L- 2.0%
CPC- 0.5%
SB- 5.0%
spray

Salmonella typhimurium
Aerobes

TSP- .74-4.87
L-1.03- 1.77
CPC- 0.9-2.3
SB- 1.66

Yang and Slavik, 1998,


Lillard, 1994, Wang et
al., 1997; Breen et al.,
1997; Xiong et al., 1998;
Kim and Slavik, 1996

Chicken wings

Lactic acid
Sodium benzoate
Wash (dip)

0.5% lactic
0.05% sodium benzoate

Salmonella ssp.
Campylobacter spp.
L. monocytogenes
S. aureus
E. coli

2.5
1.0
0.5
1.5
1.25

Hwang and Beuchat,


1995

Ground
chicken

Hydrostatic pressure

0-700MPa

Listeria
Salmonella
E. coli
S. aureus

Up to ~ 1.7-7.5
Up to ~ 2.0
Up to ~ 5.7-6.0
Up to ~ 5-6

Patterson et al., 1995,


Patterson et al., 1998,
Yuste et al., 1999

Meat models

Hydrostatic pressure

500MPa

E. Coli, Staph spp.,


Listeria

1.3-5.54

Hugas et al., 2002

Turkey Breast,
core 10 days

Sodium lactate (SL)


Sodium diacetate (SD)

SL- 2.0%
SD- .1%
SL+SD- 2.0%+.1%

Clostridium spp.

SL- 0.2
SD- .85
SL+SD- 0.8

Kalinowski and Tomkin,


1999

Ground turkey
from RTE turkey
breast

Sodium diacetate (D)


Sodium nitrate (N)
Sodium lactate (L)
Pediocin (P)

D = 0.5, 1.0, 3.0%


N = 30 ppm
L = 2.5%
P = 5000 AU/ml

L. monocytogenes

N+0.5%D- 3.41
L+0.5%D- 4.9
0.5%D- 4.96
P+0.5%D- 6.62

Schlyter et al., 1993

Pork Rib and


Loin Chops

Acetic acid (A)


Proprionic acid (P)
Hypochlorite (H)

1.36M A+P
250 ppm H
H+1ppb acetic acid
sprays

Mesophilic bacteria

A+P - 0-1.0
H- 0- 0.1
H+A- 0.2-0.5

Carpenter et al., 1986

Pork Chops

Acetic acid- (A)


Lactic acid- (L), dip

1% A
1% A+1.0% L

Lactobacillus
Enterobacters

.1-.25
1.0-2.5

Mendonca et al., 1989

Pork Loins

Acetic acid
Lactic acid
Citric acid

1.5% A
1.5% L
1.5% C

Coliforms
APC
E. coli

A- 2.5, L- 0.5
A- 1.25, L- 0.0
A- 0.5, L- 0.1

Fu et al., 1994

Pork trim meat


Cores (dip)

Lactic acid
Hot water
Hot air

Water + 2% L (WL)
Water, HA, + L(WHL)

Aerobic
Coliforms
E. coli

WL- 3.0, WHL- 2.0


WL- 2.25,WHL- 2.2
WL- 2.0, WHL- 2.0

Castelo et al., 2001

Lamb Carcass
Muscle cores

Acetic acid

1.5 or 3.0%, Dip or


Spray

B. thermosphaeta
Aerobic
Coliform

B.T. - 2.5 log 3% dip


No other trt effects

Anderson et al., 1988

Sheep Subcutaneous

Hot water

Spray

Salmonella spp.
E. coli

4.0 log
4.0 log

Smith andGraham, 1978

44

American Meat Science Association

For pork, a number of postharvest decontamination studies have been performed on various pork loin chops. Using
acetic acid on pork loin chops, reductions in various bacterial populations have been reported from 0-2.5 logs (Carpenter et al., 1986; Mendonca et al., 1989 and Fu et al.,
1994). Reductions in microorganisms on pork loin chops
have also been reported for 0-2.5 logs with lactic acid used
singly or in combination with acetic acid (Mendonca et al.,
1989 and Fu et al., 1994). In other work, Castelo et al.
(2001) was able to reduce APC, coliforms and E. coli by 3.0,
2.3 and 2.0 logs, respectively on pork meat trim using water
and a 2% lactic acid treatment.
Although much limited in the body of research on lamb
postharvest interventions, a few studies have been conducted. While Anderson et al. (1988) was able to reduce B.
thermosphaeta on lamb muscle cores by 2.5 logs using a
3.0% acetic acid dip, they reported no reductions in APC or
coliforms with acetic acid treatment. However, Smith and
Graham (1978) reported 4.0 log reductions of both Salmonella spp. and E. coli on sheep subcutaneous tissue using
hot water.
While the technologies discussed previously represent a
cross-section of intervention technologies that have been
researched, there are still a number of additional technologies with antimicrobial properties for reducing microbial
loads on or within meat products. Examples of these might
be hydrogen peroxide, pulsed light, copper sulfate pentahydrate, ultraviolet light, x-rays and irradiation to name a few.
While a number of these technologies might hold promise
for postharvest pathogen reductions and interventions, because of the infancy of postharvest research, the regulatory
status for use of a number of these technologies has not
caught up to the science. While a number of these technologies have been approved for carcass decontamination
applications, less have been approved for postharvest
pathogen reduction. While some interventions have been
approved and commercialized for use such as the use of
ozone, a chlorous acid system and a peroxyacid system,
others await regulatory approval. In addition to approval
and microbial reduction effectiveness, other issues for technology adoptions include the impact of postharvest pathogen reduction technologies on processing characteristics,
color, shelf-life and sensory characteristics. While occasionally research has addressed these concerns, the largest
body of information remains on antimicrobial effectiveness
alone. Therefore, as more interventions are approved for
postharvest applications, additional research will be necessary to answer processing and quality issues.

Conclusions
While substantial research has been conducted using antimicrobials for carcass decontamination, it is only more
recently that research has begun to focus upon postharvest
pathogen reduction. Although intervention technologies
have led to declines in microbial loads on carcass surfaces,
since these technologies do not render the carcass sterile,

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

processing contamination of cut surfaces can occur when


carcasses are fabricated due to contamination through meat
contact with knives, conveyors, human hands etc. Therefore, the use of postharvest interventions may offer an additional pathogen reduction that might benefit the consumer
directly in the package. Additionally, since ground beef can
be of special concern with regard to meat safety, the use of
these intervention technologies might also hold promise for
reducing microorganisms and pathogens in this product.
However, using the multiple intervention approach, the
greatest benefits might be achieved with concerted intervention strategies at several steps through the processing
chain.

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Castelo, M.M.; Kang, D. -H.; Siragusa, G.R.; Koohmaraie, M.; Berry, E.D.
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acetic-lactic acid treatments applied to beef trim on populations of Esherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes in ground beef. Journal of Food Protection 60:1560-1563.

45

Cutter, C.N.; Dorsa, W.J.; Handie, A.; Rodriguez-Morales, S.; Zhou, X.;
Breen P.J.; Compadre, C.M. 2000. Antimicrobial activity of
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G.C. 2000. Interventions to reduce microbiological contamination of
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Dickson, J.S. 1992. Acetic acid action on beef tissue surfaces contaminated
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Dickson, J.S. 1991. Control of Salmonella typhimurium, Listeria montocytogenes, and Esherichia coli O157:H7 on beef in a model spray chilling
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beef tissues and removal using selected sanitizing rinses. Journal of
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Fu, A-H.; Sebranek, J.G.; Murano, E.A. 1994. Microbial and quality characteristics of pork cuts from carcasses treated with sanitizing sprays. Journal of Food Science 59:306-309.

Hugas, M.; Garriga, M.; Monfort, J.M. 2002. New mild technologies in
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Kalinowski, R.M.; Tomkin, R.B. 1999. Psychrotrophic Clostridia causing
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Kang, D-H.; Koohmaraie, M.; Dorsa, W.J.; Siragusa, G.R. 2001a. Development of a multiple-step process for the microbial decontamination of
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Kang, D-H.; Koohmaraie, M.; Siragusa, G.R. 2001b. Application of multiple antimicrobial interventions for the microbial decontamination of
commercial beef trim. Journal of Food Protection 64:168-171.
Kemp, G.K.; Aldrich, M.L.; Guerra, M.L.; Schneider, K.R. 2001. Continuous online processing of fecal- and ingesta- contaminated poultry carcasses using an acidified sodium chlorite antimicrobial intervention.
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Kemp, G.K.; Aldrich, M.L; Waldroup, A.L. 2000. Acidified sodium chlorite
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Maca, J.V.; Miller, R.K.; Acuff, G.R. 1997. Microbiological, sensory and
chemical characteristics of vacuum-packaged ground beef patties
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Patterson, M.F.; Kilpatrick, D.J. 1998. The combined effect of high hydrostatic pressure and mild heat on inactivation of pathogens in milk and
poultry. Journal of Food Protection 61: 432-436.

Garcia-Zepeda, C.M.; Kastner, C.L.; Willard, B.L.; Phebus, R.K.; Schwenke,


J.R.; Fijal, B.A.; Prasai, R.K. 1994. Gluconic acid as a fresh beef decontaminant. Journal of Food Science 48:825-828.

Patterson, M.F.; Quinn, M.; Simpson, R.; Gilmour, A. 1995. Sensitivity of


vegetative pathogens to high hydrostatic pressure treatment in phosphate-buffered saline and foods. Journal of Food Protection 58:524529.

Goddard, B.L.; Mikel, W.B.; Conner, D.E.; Jones, W.R. 1996. Use of organic acids to improve the chemical, physical, and microbiological
attributes of beef strip loins stored at 10C for 112 days. Journal of
Food Protection 59:849-853.

Pohlman, F.W.; Dikeman, M.E.; Zayas, J.F. 1997. The effect of lowintensity ultrasound treatment on shear properties, color stability and
shelf-life of vacuum-packaged beef semitendinosus and biceps femoris
muscles. Meat Science 45:329-337.

Harmayani, E.; Sofos, J.N.; Schmidt, G.R. 1991. Effect of sodium lactate,
calcium lactate and sodium alginate on bacterial growth and aminopeptidase activity. Journal of Food Safety 11:269-283.

Pohlman, F.W.; Stivarius, M.R.; McElyea, K.S.; Johnson, Z.B.; Johnson,


M.G. 2002a. The effects of ozone, chlorine dioxide, cetylpyridinium
chloride and trisodium phosphate as multiple antimicrobial interven-

46

American Meat Science Association

tions on microbiological, instrumental color, and sensory color and


odor characteristics of ground beef. Meat Science 61:307-313.
Pohlman, F.W.; Stivarius, M.R.; McElyea, K.S.; Waldroup, A.L. 2002b.
Reduction of E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium, coliforms, aerobic bacteria and improvement of ground beef color using trisodium phosphate or
cetylpyridinium chloride prior to grinding. Meat Science 60(4):349-356.
Pohlman, F.W.; Stivarius, M.R.; McElyea, K.S.; Johnson, Z.B.; Johnson,
M.G. 2002c. Reduction of microorganisms in ground beef using multiple intervention technology. Meat Science 61:315-322.
Schlyter, J.H.; Glass, K.A.; Loeffelholz, J.; Degan, A.J.; Luchansky, J.B.
1993. The effects of diacetate with nitrite, lactate, or pediocin on the
viability of Listeria monocytogenes in turkey slurries. International Journal of Food Microbiology 19:271-281.
Smith, M.G.; Graham, A. 1978. Destruction of Escherichia coli and Salmonellae on mutton carcasses by treatment with hot water. Meat Science
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Stivarius, M.R.; Pohlman, F.W.; McElyea, K.S.; Waldroup, A.L.. 2002a.
Effects of hot water and lactic acid treatment of beef trimmings prior to
grinding on microbial, instrumental color and sensory properties of
ground beef during display. Meat Science 60(4):327-334.

Stivarius, M.R.; Pohlman, F.W.; McElyea, K.S.; Apple, J.K. 2002c. Microbial, instrumental color and sensory color and odor characteristics of
ground beef produced from beef trimmings treated with ozone or chlorine dioxide. Meat Science 60(3):299-305.
Wang, W.-C.; Li, Y.; Slavik, M.F.; Xiong, X. 1997. Trisodium phosphate
and cetylpyridinium chloride spraying on chicken skin to reduce attached Salmonella typhimurium. Journal of Food Protection 60:992994.
Xiong, H.; Li, Y.; Slavik, M.F.; Walker, J.T. 1998. Spraying chicken skin
with selected chemicals to reduce attached Salmonella typhimurium.
Journal of Food Protection 61:272-275.
Yang, Z.; Li, Y.; Slavik, M. 1998. Use of antimicrobial spray applied with
an inside-outside birdwasher to reduce bacterial contamination on prechilled chicken carcasses. Journal of Food Protection 61:829-832.
Yuste, J.; Mor-mur, M.; Capellas, M.; Guamis, B.; Pla, R. 1999. Listeria
innocua and aerobic mesophiles during chill storage of inoculated mechanically recovered poultry meat treated with high hydrostatic pressure. Meat Science 53:251-258.

Stivarius, M.R.; Pohlman, F.W.; McElyea, K.S.; Apple, J.K. 2002b. The
effects of acetic acid, gluconic acid and trisodium citrate treatment of
beef trimmings on microbial, color and odor characteristics of ground
beef through simulated retail display. Meat Science 60(3):245-252.

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

47

48

American Meat Science Association

RECIPROCATION SESSION

Livestock and Poultry Care and Welfare


Janice C. Swanson
Introduction
Attempts to regulate on-farm care of livestock and poultry
have, for the most part, been unsuccessful at the federal
level. However, states are the new staging grounds for setting public policy and practices for farm animal care. The
most notable event was the passage of the Florida referendum banning sow gestation stalls. Couple this with the recent actions by food retailers and you have an industry under siege. Is this the clarion call for setting national standards for the care of livestock and poultry? Is the public
concerned about the conditions and practices to which our
livestock and poultry are subjected?
A carefully planned, expertly worded, third party survey
into the values and attitudes of the public relative to the
care and treatment of farm animals would be enormously
useful to plotting the course for industry. However, many
surveys fall short of this goal. For example, an industry
commissioned survey of consumers (defined as an individual who eats their product) is conducted at randomly selected grocery sites. The survey reveals that consumers of
the product do not rank animal welfare at the top of their
list of concerns. Does this mean industry is not obligated to
change except when a specific consumer public commands? Are product consumers the only stakeholders in the
welfare of the animal? History tells us that a more democratic process has been used to determine outcome of animal
treatment issues (Garner, 1998). Be it through state referendum or federal legislation or social mandate. Therefore the
process by which action is taken (public at large) should
also be reflected in the process by which concerns are assessed. Current survey work may fall short of inclusiveness,
but does reveal that the nature of the questions posed concentrate on factors that can be collectively described as
quality of life.

Janice C. Swanson
Kansas State University, Manhattan
129 Weber Hall
Manhattan, KS 66506-0201
jswanson@k-state.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 49-50)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

Quality of Life
What makes up the quality of life of animals and birds
under our care? We can start by recognizing that each species has been shaped by years of natural and artificial selection. Specialized beaks or muzzles, two or four legs, wings,
digestive differences, breeding differences, and the list goes
on. In some instances artificial selection has not sought to
change a fundamental need, for example, social behavior.
Our domestic livestock and poultry evolved from ancestors
with a strong (and naturally reinforced) behavior to live in
social groups. This behavior was also conducive to domestication and successful exploitation in agriculture. Fitness
and survival were greatly enhanced by the successful execution of social behavior thus this trait remains solidly embedded within the framework of farm species. For example,
sheep display an extreme stress response to social isolation
and restraint that can affect meat quality (Apple et al.,
1995). Therefore the quality of life of many of our domestic
agricultural species includes social interaction or contact.
Although undesirable social behavior has been manipulated
(e.g. temperament, feather pecking) there has been no concentrated effort to eliminate sociality as a whole. Other factors such as lack of fear, avoidance of unnecessary pain and
distress, and ability to adapt and perform a reasonable
range of normal behavior under production conditions contribute to the quality of life an animal will experience.
In addition to behavior, known physiological demands
such as food, water, shelter, bedding, temperature, preventive health measures, control of indoor environments and
atmospheric quality, etc. round out the picture. The more
restrictive and contained an environment becomes the
greater the number of variables we control (versus the animal) for the quality of life. Quality of life can be impinged
or certain aspects sacrificed as economic conditions dictate
another two hens in the cage, pigs in the pen, or cattle in
the lot. Striking a balance between the quality of life demands by stakeholders is the challenge.

Science and Values


Perhaps the most troublesome aspect of livestock and
poultry care is setting a baseline for the quality of life. A
cheap, abundant and safe food supply has been one of the
guiding principles in agricultural production. Agricultural
researchers use scientific methods to elucidate how to best
reach the goal of producing an affordable, abundant and
49

safe food supply. Thus, science is driven by values, whether


it is to value human life by curing disease or to discover
efficient ways to raise animals for food. However, values
can and do differ within a culture (public, corporate, scientific, etc.) . Variables selected to assess quality of life for a
species can be influenced by these values (Fraser, 1999;
Rollins, 1995; Thompson, 1993). For example, space allotment is a highly debated issue. Even the unsophisticated
can conceptualize the value of space and related freedom
of movement. But, animal and poultry scientists may seek to
minimize space, maximize productivity and capture new
efficiencies to satisfy a competing set of values. So the baseline for quality of life will differ depending on which set of
values become operational. This also explains the differences in animal care standards acceptable to members of
the European Union versus the United States. Operating
values should be weighed into the development and assessment of animal care when setting the baseline for quality of life.

International Standards
Food retailer activity in the arena of livestock/poultry
care and welfare indicate their concern with providing assurance to their customers. The clout of the American public appears to be arriving by way of social pressure rather
than traditional politics (Schweikhardt and Browne, 2001).
In an intensely competitive industry such as the grocery and
quick serve restaurant, sensitivities run high to customer
concerns. After all, they hand the product directly to the
consumer.
Considering the global nature of the food retail business,
and the legislative actions by westernized countries, will
international standards for animal welfare emerge? The
World Organization for Animal Health, also known as the
Office of International Epizooties (OIE), established an Animal Welfare Working Group in October 2002 (OIE, 2002).
The mandate of the working group is to address public demand for animal welfare, to develop knowledge on the subject, propose recommendations at the international level
and to integrate ethical, scientific, economic and political
dimensions of the issue to achieve balance in decision making. Since animal welfare is not specifically addressed un-

50

der the World Trade Organizations Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement, member countries of the OIE requested
guidelines and recommendations establishing best animal
management practices that are congruent with good animal
welfare. The OIE has identified priority issues for animals
used in agriculture and aquaculture as follows: transportation, slaughter, killing for disease control, housing, and
management practice. Members of the working group have
been appointed from Canada, New Zealand, Belgium (EU),
Kenya, India and Egypt. At the time of this writing there are
no members from the United States appointed to the primary working group. The development of this international
working group, coupled with the announcements of food
retailers such a McDonalds Global Animal Welfare Standards (McDonalds, 2002), signal a social and political impetus to coordinate and address the issue.

References
Apple, J.K.; Dikeman, M.E.; Minton, J.E.; McMurphy, R.M.; Fedde, M.R.;
Leith, D.E.; Unruh, J.A. 1995. Effects of restraint and isolation stress and
epidural blockade on endocrine and blood metabolite status, muscle
glycogen metabolism, and incidence of dark cutting longissimus dorsi
muscle of sheep. Journal of Animal Science 73:2295-2307.
Fraser, D. 1999. Animal ethics and animal welfare science: Bridging the
two cultures. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 65:171-189.
Garner, R. Political Animals: Animal Protection Politics in Britain and the
United States. The Ipswich Book Company, Ipswich. 1998.
McDonalds Corporation. 2002. McDonalds Corporate Social Responsibility:
Global
Animal
Welfare
Progress
Report:
2002.
http://www.mcdonalds.com/corporate/social/marketplace/welfare/updat
e/index.html
Office of International Epizooties. 2002. The OIE Initiatives in Animal
Welfare. http://www.oie.int/eng/bien_etre/en_introduction.htm
Rollin, B. E. Farm Animal Welfare: Social Bioethical, and Research Issues.
Iowa State University Press, Ames. 1998.
Schweikhardt, D. B.; Browne, W. P. 2001. Politics by other means: The
emergence of a new politics of food in the United States. Review of Agricultural Economics 23:302-318.
Thompson, P. B. 2001. Animal welfare and livestock production in the
postindustrial milieu. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 4:191205.

American Meat Science Association

RECIPROCATION SESSION

Pork Muscle Profiling


Dennis R. Buege*, Joe Sebranek, Matt Doumit, Dennis Marple, Dong Ahn, Elisabeth Huff-Lonergan,
Steve Lonergan, Chris Fedler, Ken Prusa, Emily Helman, David Meisinger
The shoulder and ham primals of pork carcasses have
traditionally been marketed to processors and retailers in
intact form, for fabrication and manufacture into consumer
products containing the variety of muscles found in those
cuts. In recent years, the meat processing industry has
sought to develop new value-added products by discovering unique properties of single muscles or groups of muscles from primal cuts. To facilitate this effort, it is very important to understand the characteristics of individual muscles. The objective of this project was to determine the
physical and chemical properties of significant muscles
from the ham and shoulder, to enhance selection of raw
materials from these primals to use in developing new
value-added pork items.

Methods
This research was cooperatively conducted by scientists
and technical staff from Iowa State University, Michigan
State University and the University of Wisconsin. The work
was financially supported by the National Pork Board.
Pork carcasses were selected from a single packer, which
purchases pigs on the open market from a variety of producers employing a wide range of genetic lines. Carcass
selection followed pre-determined guidelines for specific
carcass weight ranges, estimated carcass percent muscle
and pH at 45 minutes postmortem (an indicator of lean
quality), to assure an appropriate distribution of carcasses
varying in these criteria. After 24 hours of chilling, carcasses
were transported to the Meat Science Laboratory at Iowa
State University.
Between 48 and 80 hours postmortem hams and shoulders from both sides of selected carcasses were fabricated
into individual muscles. Muscles of significant size (0.5
pounds or larger) were evaluated for the following properD. R. Buege
Muscle Biology and Meat Science Laboratory
University of Wisconsin
1805 Linden Drive
Madison, WI 53706
drbuege@ansci.wisc.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 51-52)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

ties: weight, physical dimensions, pH, sensory properties,


objective tenderness, objective color, water-holding capacity, protein solubility, gel strength, pigment concentration,
total collagen and nutrient content.

Results
The results from the chemical, physical and nutritional
evaluation of 25 significant shoulder and ham muscles have
been organized into a multi-level classification system for
each parameter measured. For example, the mean pH value
of each muscle is classified as low, medium or high pH,
and the mean sensory tenderness of muscles is described
according to a five descriptor scale, encompassing very
tender, moderately tender, average tenderness, moderately
tough and very tough. With such descriptions defined for all
muscle parameters evaluated, a determination can be considered for the most appropriate potential use of individual
muscles or closely-adjacent muscle groups. A section of
longissimus muscle from each carcass (from the fifth rib
forward) was included in these evaluations, to serve as a
familiar benchmark. As an example of the output generated
from this work, Table 1 presents the results of the evaluations and analyses performed on the Semitendinosus and
Longissimus dorsi.
Representatives from the pork processing industry will
review and react to these findings on the characteristics of
individual muscles, and provide input into their merchandising potential. Not only are the size, shape and characteristics of individual muscles important to their potential application, but also the accessibility of the muscles and their
ease of removal from the shoulder and ham primals, using
current and possible future fabrication methods, will be
critical factors in determining muscle use.
The desired outcome of this comprehensive determination of the properties of the individual ham and shoulder
muscles is to identify those muscles which possess appropriate characteristics and realistic fabrication potential, to
be able to be merchandised as higher-value products. Such
an outcome would increase the overall value of these primals to the processing industry, and ultimately add value to
the total pork carcass, to the benefit of pork producers and
pork processors.

51

Acknowledgments
Iowa State University
Aaron Asmus
Jerry Knight
Matt Gardner
Terry Houser
Travis Krause
Elaine Larson
Graciela Mendez

Byongrok Min
Kwangsoon Park
Randy Petershon
Matt VanUtrecht
Haijie Yan
Jacob Yates
Amy Yelden

Michigan State University


Charles Allison
Nick Berry
Courtney Dilley
Sarah Erickson
Brigitte Grobbel
Matt Ritter
Stacy Scramlin

University of Wisconsin
Elizabeth Dobbs
Wayne Ellefson
Laura Trumble

Table 1. A comparison of the chemical and physical properties of raw


pork Semitendinosus and longissimus dorsi.
Semitendinosus
1.23

Longissimus dorsi
1.53

pH Classification
mean value

average
(6.12)

low
(5.81)

Water-Holding Capacity
mean value (%)

low
(91.77)

low
(92.29)

Color
mean L*
mean a*
mean b*

average
(48.3)
(20.1)
(6.1)

light
(53.0)
(17.5)
(5.3)

two-toned

uniform

average
(5.7)

average
(3.2)

Total Iron
mean iron (mg/100 g)

(0.98)

(0.78)

Heme Pigment
mean value (mg/g)

(0.99)

(0.82)

Collagen
mean value (mg/g)

(6.53)

(3.96)

Protein Solubility

high

high

average
(102/150)
(4.18)

moderately tender
(104/150)
(4.49)

Texture

fine-textured

average

Flavor

moderate pork flavor

light meat pork flavor

Recommended Category

fresh-- enhanced

fresh -- enhanced

Product Suggestions

medallions, roast

chops, roast

Weight (lbs).

Color Uniformity
Fat Content
mean fat (g/100

Overall Tenderness
mean sensory
mean star probe

52

American Meat Science Association

RECIPROCATION SESSION

Cow Muscle Profiling


Chris R. Calkins, D. Dwain Johnson and Bucky L. Gwartney
Building on the success of the muscle profiling research,
the University of Nebraska and the University of Florida
undertook to profile the characteristics of muscles from beef
and dairy cows. The National Cow and Bull Audit conducted by Colorado State University estimated that 43% of
the market cow carcass is sold into boxed beef form. While
this number is higher than many may have guessed, opportunities still exist to upgrade the value of cow muscles. This
research was conducted to characterize 21 muscles in market cows, to compare dairy and beef cow muscle characteristics, and to explore the effects of carcass weight, maturity,
muscling and fat thickness on these traits.
Over a 5-month period, 75 beef and 74 dairy carcasses
were selected from 4 different plants to fit a grid of carcass
weight (350 to 549 and 550 to 749 lb for beef and 550 to
749 and 750 to 949 lbs for dairy), fat thickness (0.1 inches
of fat or less, or greater than 0.1 inch), muscling (light versus medium/heavy), and C/D or E maturity groups. A portion of the carcasses went to the University of Florida for
shear force determination and taste panel evaluation and a
portion went to the University of Nebraska for analysis of
composition, color, heme iron, collagen content, pH, and
water holding capacity. During fabrication, measures of
muscle dimension and yield were also obtained.
One difference between this study and the A-maturity
muscle profiling project is the muscles that were studied.
Earlier, we focused on muscles of the chuck and round. In

this study, we examined muscles from all of the major primals, using size and weight as the primary selection criterion. We examined the following muscles: adductor, biceps
femoris, complexus, deep pectoral, gluteus medius, infraspinatus, latissimus dorsi, longissimus dorsi, multifidus/spinalis dorsi, psoas major, rectus femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, serratus ventralis, supraspinatus,
tensor facia latae, teres major, triceps brachii, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis, and vastus medialis.
As expected, there was a fair amount of variation among
the muscles for most of the traits considered. There were
few significant effects of carcass weight, maturity, muscling
and fat thickness on the muscle characteristics on a withinbreed type basis. Generally, there were few differences in
muscle traits between the beef and dairy cow populations.
When comparisons were made, we compared only those
carcasses that were similar in weight (i.e., the heavy weight
beef cow carcasses were in the same weight range as the
light weight dairy cow carcasses). Dairy cows tended to be
a bit more consistent in most traits.
This database will provide the foundation for product enhancement and value-added initiatives for cow muscle. It
will be included in a revised version of the bovine myology
CD-ROM.

C. R. Calkins
Professor of Animal Sciences
University of Nebraska - Lincoln
A213 Animal Science
38th and Fair Street, Box 830908
Lincoln, NE 68583-0908
ccalkins1@unl.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (p. 53)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

53

54

American Meat Science Association

RECIPROCATION SESSION

Beef Muscle Profiling Research


D.D. Johnson*, K.H. Johnson*, C.R. Calkins, B.L. Gwartney
Situation
When beef demand declined by more than 20 percent
from 1980 to 1998, a research initiative was sparked to
produce leaner and more convenient beef products. As
marketing experts evaluated the decline in greater detail, it
was noted that the decline in demand for beef was not
equally distributed across all portions of the carcass. When
consumer demand (adjusted for inflation) was evaluated by
wholesale cut, it was found that the rib and loin, also called
the middle meats, were up in value by 3-4 percent from
1993 to 1998. In contrast, the chuck, round and thin cuts,
which make up 73 percent of the beef carcass weight, had
declined by more than 20- 25 percent in value during this
same time period. Therefore, the Cattlemens Beef Board
realized that a more concentrated effort was needed to
study the cause for the decreased demand in these products. Moreover, they aimed at finding out what could be
done to reverse the trend and increase the demand for the
chuck and round cuts.
To address this issue, hurdles were identified as a means
to gain ground on demand and value of the chuck and
round. The chuck and round are the locomotive portions of
the animal; these areas are less tender than the muscles of
support from the rib and loin. Also, they are more variable
in tenderness. There are exceptions to this situation because
some muscles in these carcass areas are very tender, which
has been known for many years. Another identified hurdle
is the internal and external connective tissues present within
the muscles of locomotion. In these areas, intermuscular or
seam fat can be present, which is very objectionable to the
consumer. As a result of the above-listed hurdles (i.e. less
tender muscles and greater amounts of connective tissue),
consumers have always had to use a long-time, lowtemperature cooking method, which was not convenient for
todays consumer. Using this method to cook meat would
take several hours rather than 30 minutes or less as most
D.D. Johnson
PO Box 110910
Department of Animal Sciences
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL 32611-0910
johnson@animal.ufl.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 55-56)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

people desire. As a means to attack the demand slide, especially in the chuck and round portion of the carcass, the
National Cattlemens Beef Association under direction from
the Beef Board, called for research to address these hurdles
in 1998.

Rationale
The research requested by the National Cattlemens Beef
Association was to fill the gap in knowledge about the
lesser known individual muscles in the chuck and round.
This request included profiling each muscle for palatability
characteristics, composition analysis, yields, physical characterizations, and included how the muscle traits were affected by factors such as USDA Quality, Yield Grade and
hot carcass weight. It became readily apparent that this was
a massive request that would require cooperative work to
accomplish in a timely manner. The research work was
conducted by the Department of Animal Sciences at the
University of Florida (UF) and the Animal Science Department at the University of Nebraska. The study was called
Muscle Profiling. The UF Department of Animal Sciences
contributed to the study by measuring objective tenderness
and by conducting sensory panel evaluations for each of the
muscles. In addition, UF characterized the yields and
physical characteristics of each muscle. The University of
Nebraska contributed to the study by performing color
analysis, muscle fiber typing, composition (moisture, fat,
ash), connective tissue concentration, pH, heme iron, expressible moisture and emulsion capacity. Together, the
universities evaluated more than 5,600 muscles during a
two-year period. The culmination of that work was the production of a monograph by NCBA entitled Muscle Profiling. The production of the 100-page document serves as
an encyclopedia of information for meat packers, processors and purveyors. The monograph has been translated
into five different languages and has been utilized to develop new and more convenient, leaner, yet more palatable
products for consumer marketing. Also, the information
gleaned from the Muscle Profiling work was combined with
other data, and a Web site was created. The Web site, Bovine Myology, is currently maintained by the University of
Nebraska Meat Science section within their animal science
department. Bovine Myology can be found on the Internet
at http://deal.unl.edu/bovine. This Web site serves as a tool
for the industry and as an educational medium for various
audiences including university meat science and muscle
biology groups. The Web site is constantly updated with
55

new data, additional research as it is reported, and innovative methods of data delivery.
The Muscle Profiling work revealed gaps in knowledge
that have been filled by other institutions and the Meat Science group at the University of Florida. In the University of
Florida study, muscles of marginal palatability were identified and subsequently enhanced by post-harvest marination
technology to determine what improvements could be produced. It was noted in that study that all muscles do not
respond to post-harvest enhancement to the same degree.
However, four out of eight muscles did show improvement
in tenderness of more than 15 percent. Another study conducted by the Meat Science group at the University of Florida evaluated the postmortem effects of aging on the tenderness development in muscles of the chuck and round.
Work has been reported on the beneficial effects of postmortem aging on meat tenderness, but these studies have
primarily concentrated on the wholesale rib and loin. The
University of Florida study found that the chuck and round
muscles responded in a similar way to postmortem aging
effects, and it was determined that there was an effect of the
intramuscular fat on tenderness development in these muscles as well. The muscles with higher intramuscular fat
would need fewer days of postmortem aging than would
muscles of lower intramuscular fat. Other studies have been
conducted as an offshoot of the Muscle Profiling work and
are being reported at this meeting as well at other research
and industry meetings.

Impact
Numerous groups have used the Muscle Profiling research to find new ways to fabricate, process and prepare
meat from the chuck and round. One of the most significant

56

efforts has been from the R & D Ranch group of the National Cattlemens Beef Association. This group is the product development arm of the National Cattlemens Beef Association, and it is responsible for promoting new product
development within the beef industry. Instead of merchandising the chuck and round as less convenient multi-muscle
cuts, the R & D Ranch group used the Muscle Profiling data
(which suggested new cuts and merchandising methods) to
market cuts in a singular fashion. The new cuts decreased
the length in cooking time and appealed to consumers. The
R & D Ranch group coined the term Beef Value Cuts, and
they have produced cutting brochures, manuals and instructional videos on removal and merchandising. A Web site
offering technical support is also available at
www.rdranch.com. The R & D Ranch group has followed
up with regional training seminars for processors, distributions, food service groups and retailers. In addition, they
match these efforts with a publicity campaign in conjunction with food-service-trade advertising. Many other groups
within the beef retail business have incorporated these ideas
into marketing new items from the chuck and round which
have not been previously available to the consuming public. Other segments of the beef industry have developed
new products based on findings from the Muscle Profiling
work, and they are currently featuring these new products
on the market. Moreover, the U.S. Meat Export Federation
has identified several applications from the Muscle Profiling
work that are being incorporated into their efforts to export
more high-quality beef to markets outside the United States.
Recent data from Cattle Fax, a firm that monitors market
trends, indicates an increase of 10 percent in total beef demand from 1998 to the last quarter in 2002. This increase is
indeed encouraging and suggests a reversal in the slide for
beef demand in these lower value portions of the carcass.

American Meat Science Association

RECIPROCATION SESSION

Soy Protein Ingredient Technology


Larry W. Hand
Soy proteins have come a long way from the early products
of the 60s and 70s, or even the 90s. The changes made in
flavor and functional technology have been revolutionary.
These changes provide soy protein products that are valuable
tools in the toolbox of the product developer, when they are
faced with developing new innovative items or redesigning
those items they already manufacture. In order to be successful, a product developer must be aware of the consumer response to soy proteins, as well as, the forms and functional
properties of the different soy protein products.
Although meat industry traditionalists have long been negative in regards to inclusion of soy protein as an ingredient, consumers have a much different outlook in regards to the foods
that they purchase. In a consumer attitude study (Prima Marketing Group, 1996), it was found 82.5% of consumers have no
issue with a food manufacturer using soy protein in their food
and meat products. In the same study 56% of consumers expected no taste difference and 27% expected better taste in
products containing isolated soy protein. Since the FDA approved a health claim for foods containing at least 6.25 g soy
protein per serving (Federal Register 1999), the interest in soy
protein as an ingredient in meat products has increased. With
this interest in soy protein, the meat product developer needs
to be aware of the functional properties of soy protein that can
impact their products.
With the myriad of soy protein products available and their
different functional attributes, the selection of the appropriate
soy protein is critical to product success. Soy protein comes in
three basic categories, soy flours (50% protein), soy concentrates (70% protein) and soy isolates (90% protein). These all
can come in different forms such as powdered, textured, and
colored. The functional properties of soy proteins impact their
performance in a meat system. Some of the properties of concern are water and fat stabilization, solubility, viscosity, gelation, emulsification, flavor and texture. Because of their functional properties, we can achieve economic benefits, product
L.W. Hand
The Solae Company
P.O. Box 88940
St. Louis, MO 63188
lhand@solae.com
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (p. 57)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

improvement or product differentiation through their use.


Soy proteins have unique attributes that allow them to complement meat proteins in meat products. Soy proteins are more
hydrophobic than meat, have thermoreversible gels, retain
water when heated, and when denatured can be highly soluble
and functional. In comparison to meat trimmings, soy proteins
are much less variable as they are manufactured to specific
tolerances. Soy protein inclusion can improve eating qualities
by making the meat products juicier, firmer, and more tender.
The moisture retention properties of soy proteins allow better
performance upon reheating, especially upon microwave reheating. Cost reduction through soy protein inclusion occurs by
replacement of lean meats, the utilization of lower value cuts
or trimmings and the reduction of certain processing steps.
These functional properties can impact finished product performance - through increased cook yields, better slicing yields
and reduced package purge. The use of soy proteins can also
have dramatic effects on texture. Soy protein can be developed
to have almost any texture that you desire. Therefore, one can
manipulate the texture of a meat product in a myriad of ways
from making something loose and crumbly to very tightly
bound.
Understanding the characteristics of the soy protein of
choice is important, but the selection is predicated on good
project definition. An understanding of the business objectives
and strategies of the company is important to position the new
or improved product. Before a project begins, the technical
objectives need to be defined, with constraints identified. As
there is no magic ingredient that solves all issues and constraints, the knowledge of the benefits and liabilities of all ingredients available is critical to developing a solution to the
project objectives. Only after these are well understood can the
product developer develop the appropriate solution and select
the correct soy protein or proteins for the project at hand. This
way the project will successfully meet the identified product
and project specifications.

References
Federal Register, 1999. Food Labeling: Health Claims; Soy Protein and
Coronary Heart Disease, Code of Federal Regulations 21, Part 101,
Food and Drug Administration, Washington, D.C., vol 64, nr 206,
57699-733.
Prima Marketing Group, Inc. 1996. Food Ingredient Survey. Elk Grove
Village, IL.

57

58

American Meat Science Association

RECIPROCATION SESSION

Computer Assisted Meat Science Education


Steven J. Jones, Vishal Singh, and Brad Franklin
Introduction
As instructors, we are always trying to find new ways to
present information in a clear and concise manner that students will be able to grasp and retain. There have been
many changes since the time that instructors used the
chalkboard and lecture format. Today with the use of computers it is possible to bring into the classroom multimedia
presentations to liven up instruction and improve student
learning. The computer has also redefined the classroom,
allowing instruction to be shared in different locations via
the internet. Today, most of the classrooms have equipment, which makes it possible to use a computer in classroom. Most households have a computer that is generally
connected to the internet. Todays students are very computer literate and have used computers for instruction since
they began their formal education.
As instructors in Meat Science, we can utilize this tool to
improve our instruction and expand our influence to more
students. Before one can fully utilize computers in Meat
Science instruction the why, what, how, and who questions
must be answered. Hopefully, this presentation will answer
some of these questions and stimulate some interest in incorporating the computer in Meat Science education.
There are generally four areas to be considered to successfully use computers in instruction. They are:
1. Who is the audience the instructional material is intended for?
2. What is the content you would like to share with the
student?
3. What medium will be used to present the material?
4. How will the information be organized for use by the
student?

S. J. Jones
Professor
University of Nebraska - Lincoln
A213 Animal Science Complex
Lincoln, NE 68583-0908
sjones1@unl.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 59-62)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

Audience
When examining the audience there are several details
that must be considered to determine what multimedia tool
can be used. The computer resources the student has available must be taken into consideration. Computer speed,
type of network connection, graphics and audio capability
will determine what you can provide to the student. If the
information is going to be used for resident instruction, most
students will have access to a high-speed connection. This
will make it possible to share video and other media, which
requires a large bandwidth. If students are using a modem
connection and there is video information you would like to
share, it can be copied to a CD and distributed. The best
way to present the information is in a web format because
most computers will have a web browser that can be used.
This will make it possible to share information over the
web, but it can also be read from a CD with the purchase of
propriety read software. Also, be aware not all web browsers are created equal. An application that works on Microsoft Internet Explorer may not function properly on Netscape Navigator, this may also be true with the version of
the browser that is in use. If the information is going to be
shared on a CD, be sure it has been tested on many operating systems and computer platforms to assure proper operation.
Content
This presentation will not deal much with the actual content. Every instructor knows what he or she would like to
have the students in their course learn. Other factors you
must consider are your teaching philosophy, your expectation for the students, your teaching models, and tools and
resources at your disposal. These factors will all affect your
use of the computer in the classroom.
To be successful in creating computer teaching aids it is
necessary to divide information into concepts or principles.
For example, to demonstrate thaw rigor, one may want to
take time lapse pictures of a muscle frozen pre-rigor then
thawed. Another example may be use of animation to describe the process of contraction. The more the concept is
defined the easier it will be to develop a computerized
presentation. It will also help to identify the medium that
can be used to demonstrate the concept. Remember, developing computerized instruction material is an evolutionary
process. Begin with specific concepts you want to show in
your class then slowly add other computer-assisted presen-

59

tations. Keep in mind what your learning objectives are and


the direction you are going to take the course.
Presentation Medium
As one goes through the process of selection of which
medium will be used to demonstrate a concept or principle,
a key point to remember is to use the medium most suited
to demonstrate the concept without going overboard. If we
were to examine the resources, both time and computer
resources, necessary to develop computer aided instruction
concept, they could be listed from greatest to least as follows: video, animation, audio, pictures, and finally, text.
For example, if a single picture will show the point that
needs to be made, do not go through the effort of developing an animation or video. Not only is this time consuming
in development, it will also require more bandwidth to
transmit to the users.
The question is, what resources are required for each of
the various types of medium. This presentation will focus on
what is needed.
Text
Providing text information is probably the easiest method
of putting information on a web site or in a computerized
presentation. With the addition of HTML coding, text
documents can be placed on the Internet. Most of the word
processing programs have a save feature which will insert
HTML coding. If one wants to be more sophisticated, there
is software that will prepare documents for web publication
quickly. The following is a list of popular web editing programs:
Dreamweaver (www.macromedia.com)
Front Page (www.microsoft.com)
Go Live (www.adobe.com)
Pagespinner (www.optima-systems.com)
A second method of sharing text information is through a
dynamic web site. With this method of presentation, information can be entered into a database separate from the
actual website. The web page would then be programmed
to access information from the database. An example of this
is in the bovine myology and muscle profiling web site. The
user is able to click on a muscle and fetch the relevant
data in a format that is easy to read and interpret. As a desktop or web-based application, this process can be accomplished by constructing dynamic presentations that are constructed on-the-fly. In this manner the content is separated
from the design and a single routine or program can generate an infinite number of different web pages (or screens)
using content from a database. Dynamic sites are common,
with news organizations providing some of the best examples. Unfortunately, dynamic sites are driven by the webserver not the web browser. Such an application is possible
to host on a web server, but not possible to run from a CDROM, unless the computer can run both a web server and
database server.

60

If the information is going to be used in a classroom


presentation, a Microsoft Power Point presentation may be
the easiest method available. This has been used in many
instances and in most situations, has replaced transparencies on the overhead projector. Power Point presentations
can also be incorporated into a web page. Courseware programs such as, Blackboard or Web CT will allow access of
the presentations to the students. The student will need to
have Power Point on their computers or a Power Point
player. Since Power Point is a Microsoft product, it works
best using Internet Explorer.
Another method of using a Power Point presentation is to
save it as an HTML document. This will allow Power Point
to be viewed through the browser. The disadvantage of this
is it will be too large to be viewed adequately if the student
is on a modem connection. One way to get around this is to
save it as a flash animation, which will make it easier to
access and reduces the file size.
Photo Images
A picture is worth a thousand words and can really help
the student to understand a key concept. If there are plans
to use photos in presentations and on a web site, then purchase of a digital camera is important. One can spend thousands of dollars on a camera, but in most cases it is not
necessary. The high end mega-pixel camera is important if
the pictures are intended for print copy, but in most cases
the pictures taken with these cameras must be resized to
effectively run in a web-based environment. Features that
are useful are: high quality optics, ability for time lapse photography, macro capabilities, use of outside lighting, large
image storage capacity and camera recovery time. There
are many other features that digital cameras have, which
will assist in obtaining quality pictures.
Once the images have been obtained, they can be modified using one of the many image software programs. These
programs can perform functions from cropping to color adjustment. Labels and other graphics can be added to the
images to assist in describing the picture. Some of the programs that are available are:
Photoshop; Abode Inc (www.adobe.com)
Photoshop Elements; a smaller version of Photoshop
with most of the features
Fireworks; Macromedia (www.macromedia.com)
Paintshop Pro; Jasc Software (www.jasc.com)
Corel Draw; Corel (www.corel.com)
The size of the picture you plan to use on the web is also
important. If they are too large they will upload very slowly
frustrating those using a modem connection. The general
rule of thumb is that web-page size should be 50 -80 Kb per
page, so if you plan to put two pictures on the page their
file size should be around 30 KB each.

American Meat Science Association

Audio files
Sometimes you would like sound included in a presentation. There are several ways you can do this. Most windows
programs have the capability of recording sounds and utilizing them in presentations. Also, Power Point has the ability
to provide narration to a slide show. A point to remember is
to not embed the sound file into the presentation itself because it will make the presentation too large and you will
not have the ability to edit the file. Another possible method
of collecting sound is through a digital video recorder.
Once this has been done the video can be discarded and
only the audio portion used. Transferring a recording from
an analog source can be done by using a male-to-male
connection from the earphone jack to the microphone jack.
Generally, most narration will need some editing to remove
any pauses or mispronounced words. There are several
software programs available that can accomplish this. It is
possible to open the sound file and remove and replace
words or sentences and to combine files. Some of the audio
editing programs are rather sophisticated and are expensive.
However, there several programs available with options to
do most of the audio editing needed for web presentations.
These programs are:
Cool Edit 2000 (www.syntrillium.com)
Sound Forge, Sonic Factory (www.sonicfactory.com)
Illustrations
There are many illustration programs on the market. The
programs mentioned in the Photo Images section can be
used for illustrations as well. However, most of those software programs will only make bitmap graphics. For small
file sizes, it is good to use vector based illustration software.
Vector based graphics can then be integrated with Flash,
which will be mentioned later. Vector illustration software
that is available is:
Freehand, Macromedia (www.macromedia.com)
Illustrator, Adobe (www.adobe.com)
Corel Draw, Corel (www.corel.com)
Vector Animation
Vector graphics based animation programs with fullscreen navigation interfaces, graphic illustrations, and simple interactivity are in an antialiased, resizable file format
small enough to stream across a normal modem connection. Animation software of this type is widely used on the
Web, both because of its speed (vector-based animations,
which can adapt to different display sizes and resolutions,
play as they download) and for the smooth way it renders
graphics.
These types of animation software allow the user to use
any artwork, using whatever bitmap or illustration tool they
prefer, to create animation and special effects, and add
sound and interactivity. The content is then saved as a file
with a .SWF file name extension. Vector based animation is
also ideal for CD-ROM and use in video. Vector animation
software available is:
56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

Flash, Macromedia (www.macromedia.com)


Live Motion, Adobe (www.adobe.com)
3D Modeling and Animation
Everyday we interact with a three dimensional (3D)
world. Therefore, seeing things this way is intuitive to us. It
only makes sense that the ideal way to interact with graphical computer data should also be in three dimensions. Instead of seeing flat pictures, things can be moved, rotated,
and examined closely just as in real life. In order to do this
within the computing environment, objects must be modeled within the computer itself or scanned into the computer.
Modeling 3D objects is one major function 3D software
serves. Modeling objects most commonly consists of points
and polygons. Points are just that, a single point in 3D
space. A polygon is at least 2 points connected to make a
line or 3 points or more to make a plane. Many polygons
combined can construct the likeness of an object within the
computer. These objects can then be textured to resemble
real life objects more closely and be animated. These animations can be rendered, at the users desired resolution, as
movie files of various formats. 3D software is also used to
make still images. The advantage to this is once you have a
3D object created, it can be lit in any way and rendered out
to any resolution desired.
The Bovine Myology project relies on CT scanned data,
which is then converted to 3D data using a high-end medical imaging software package. We are in the process of
constructing an interactive beef carcass that can be rotated
and zoomed in on, in different viewing modes. This allows
a student to interact with a completely 3D model. One can
move and rotate the carcass or skeleton to any angle they
wish and overlay muscles in order to learn the animals
anatomy. Producing interactive 3D requires additional
software, this works with the files output from 3D modeling
and animation software.
Three dimensional graphics and animation generally require powerful hardware. It should be noted, although the
use of 3D over the web has grown immensely, it is still very
bandwidth intensive. 3D graphics can also be used on CDROM and video. Three-dimensional modeling and animation applications available are:
Lightwave 3D, Newtek (www.lightwave3d.com)
Maya, Alias | Wavefront (www.aliaswavefront.com)
3DS Max, Discreet (www.discreet.com)
Softimage, Avid (www.softimage.com)
Animation Master, Hash (www.hash.com)
TrueSpace, Caligari (www.caligari.com)
FormZ, Auto des sys (www.formz.com)
Blender, Blender Foundation (www.blender.org)

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Some of the interactive 3D applications available:


Director, Macromedia (www.macromedia.com)
Axel 3D, Mind Avenue (www.mindavenue.com)
Blender, Blender Foundation (www.blender.org)
Digital Video Production
There are times when video is useful in getting a point
across. The easiest and most popular way is to work with
digital video. This requires a digital video camera, and
software to edit and compress the video for final delivery.
There are many choices available for digital video cameras,
keep in mind that the higher priced models will buy you
better lens optics and bigger, better, and more Charge Coupling Device chips (CCD). The CCD chip(s) in a camera
converts the image to digital format and has a direct effect
on color reproduction, noise filtering, and resolution. Other
features that are important are a high quality microphone
and image stabilization. Features that are useless in most
situations, but often hyped by companies, are things such as
digital effects filters and digital zoom, so it is wise not to
base your purchase on these features. There are a wide variety of high quality cameras available from major manufacturers such as Canon, Sony, JVC, etc.

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Once video is taken with a digital video camera, the next


step is to capture the footage on a computer for editing.
Most digital video cameras transfer video to the computer
through a firewire cable so it is a requirement to have a
firewire port on your computer. Also, all digital video editing software have a capture function built in, which requires a lot of hard drive space since digital video generally
produces large files. Once the video is captured on the hard
drive of the computer, you can begin the editing process.
You can add fades, transitions, and titles to the video. Once
the editing process is complete, you are ready to export a
movie file for your medium of choice. You can export the
finished movie out to tape or you can export a compressed
version for the web or CD-ROM. Some of the digital video
editing software available is:
Premiere, Adobe (www.adobe.com)
Final Cut Express, Apple
(www.apple.com/finalcutexpress/)
Pinnacle Edition 5, Pinnacle Systems
(www.pinnaclesys.com)

American Meat Science Association

RECIPROCATION SESSION

More Than Words


Tips on Professional Speaking
J. Brad Morgan
Introduction
Every time General Colin Powell steps up to a microphone, he earns more than $50,000. The authors of the
book entitled, A Passion for Excellence: The Leadership
Difference, Nancy Austin and Tom Peters have turned their
passionate skills into a million dollar industry catering to
fast-thinking, forward looking executives. What do these
people know about presenting that you dont? Not much,
yet each has developed a personal cache of secret strategies
and techniques that have helped them become successful
presenters they are today. What do these people know
about professional speaking that you dont? Certainly, I
dont consider myself in the same league as these speakers;
however, I can give you a few brief secrets that will hopefully improve your speaking arsenal.

Channel Your Nervousness


A great deal of work must be done prior to stepping behind the microphone and in front of a captive audience. It is
my personal opinion it is a must that one gets in the right
frame of mind prior to speaking one word. I refer to this as
Getting yourself into the spirit of greatness. In order to
overcome and maintain any nervousness, I try to get in the
right frame of mind by practicing a talk out loud, not in
your mind, and do a rehearsal out loud with an audience of
people. These people could include your colleagues,
friends, spouse and kids, any interested party. While practicing out loud, I think you should practice using the technology that will be used during the presentation. As the
technology gets more and more sophisticated, you need to
practice using it. What does that technology include? You
will probably have a LCD projector and a computer. If you
are using animation, you will want to make sure your lapJ. Brad Morgan
Oklahoma State University
Department of Animal Science
Room 104
Stillwater, OK, USA 74078
bmorgan@okstate.edu
th

Proceedings of the 56 American Meat Science Association


Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 63-64)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

top is fast enough that the animations work well. You can
get nervous if you have to wait a while for your screens to
change.

Finding The Mix Of Hard Data and Stories


I do not consider myself a master storyteller. However,
good storytelling requires more than just having an ear for
the dramatic or a compelling delivery. Some audiences require a bigger dose of hard facts, data or statistics fairly
early in the presentation so that you can establish a foundation of creditability before you can use stories. Interjecting
pertinent stories into your presentation allows the speaker to
shed the perception that the O Great One has entered the
room to enlighten the little people. The late Malcolm
Knowles (known as the father of adult learning) stated,
That the most important trait of a presenter is that sense of
humility that says, I am here as a fellow traveler and we are
going to learn together. We have to remember that good,
effective presentations are a partnership and not a monologue.

Take Advantage Of Early Arrivals


Chatting with early arrivals before a presentation has
many advantages. For example, it helps me connect with
some of the attendees and learn a few names, but it also
allows me to do quick needs assessment to uncover some of
their expectations for the session. Personally, I am not a fan
of presenters who lurk in the shadows until they are formally introduced. I find it a bit unusual if you act as though
you are invisible before the presentation, even though everyone knows who you are. Then, the moment you start presenting, you flip a switch and become welcoming and
friendly.

Create And Use Visuals


I am a fan of visuals as long as they are effective, concise
and easy to interpret. Take this checklist and make sure
your visuals meet these suggested guidelines.
Use readable, consistent typeface. Use sans serif fonts
(Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica) for the text on your slide.
These font styles are much cleaner and clearer than
fonts such as Times New Roman.

63

Limit the text to a few phrases on a screen. A good


rule of thumb is six lines down and six words across. If
your slides contain more information, try to highlight
or animate the most important information.
Write phrases, not sentences. If you put sentences on
your screen, you have nothing to add. Use the phrases
as cues to remind you about the additional comments
you will add. If you just read the words on the slides
and dont add anything, you wont come across as an
effective presenter.
Vary the look of the slides: Mix up data slides with
charts, pictures, graphs, and bulleted phrases. Incorporation of photographs into your presentation is very effective and establishes creditability for the presenter.
Lay out a hard copy of your slides and make sure there
is a variety of looks throughout he presentation.
Use color with care. Choose colors for your screen
that convey the appropriate message. Using shades of
red used for text is not effective and cannot be seen on
your slides.

Conclude With Conviction


What would you say about a concert if the last note was
off key? Unfortunately, many presenters end their presentations with the unspoken message that they are glad they are
done and now they just want to get out of there. Even if you
feel like this, never show your audience. You want to conclude with style and confidence giving the impression that
you could stand up there another hour and be perfectly
content. Your conclusion is more important than your opening. Your conclusion leads your audience to think about
you and your topic after your talk or to forget the entire experience. You must save enough energy to be lively and
energetic as you summarize. Here are some ways to conclude with style:
Tell a Just Imagine scenario. End your presentation
with a story about what will happen after your next
steps are implemented. Give your audience a clear
visual picture about all of the benefits that will occur
when they implement your idea, buy your product or
engage your services.
Summarize your major points. You will have your
presentation organized around a theme and in that
theme you will have two or three points. Under these
points you will have presented facts, statistics, pictures, etc. to back up those points. When you conclude remind your audience of your key points.
Manage Questions
The vote is split. Some presenters love to be asked questions as they enjoy the exchanges with the audience. Some
presenters want to get up, give their presentation, and not
have to answer any questions. Unfortunately, the decision

about whether the audience should be able to ask questions


is not usually left up to the speaker. For most presentations,
you are expected to answer the questions with charm, grace
and a smile on your face. Here are some tips for being an
effective question answerer.
Anticipate potential questions. Prior to your presentation, prepare answers to some questions you think
may get asked. Just like the presentation, you should
practice saying the answers out loud. One critical
note, dont be nervous before a presentation about being asked the dreaded question. Consequently, you
will spend the whole talk waiting for the dreaded
question.
Keep energized. Save enough energy so you feel like
answering the questions. Pace yourself so you are able
to answer questions with energy and excitement.
Be brief. Answer the question as briefly as possible. In
a nutshell, dont keep talking until the persons eyes
glaze over.
Be gracious, no matter what. Be respectful to questioners even if their intent is to embarrass you. Your
audience will respect you if you answer every question as a legitimate one.

Take The Leap


What separates the really good speaker from the Just
OK speaker. How can you move to the next level of presenting? Look over this list and start incorporating some of
these ideas in your next presentation.
Personalize the presentation to the group. Use examples,
stories, visuals, people names, and their products. Talk
about their industry. Make your points relevant to their specific interests.
Tell stories. Audiences love to hear about how someone else solved a problem, dealt with a crisis, or used
a product that gave them great results. Look through
your presentation and find two or three places where
you can tell a story. Dont settle for giving your audience just the facts/findings.
Use emotion when you talk. You probably arent being hired to be a motivational speaker, but you are expected to keep your audience awake and alive as you
talk. Emphasize words. Share your excitement. Dare to
go beyond your usual way of talking. Your audience
will love the energy you have.
Find a coach. A presentation coach can help you get
better. As you look for one, you want someone who
will nurture your personality. You dont want to be
trained by someone youre not. If you use visuals, you
want the coach to be able to give you ideas on how
your visuals can enhance your presentation style.

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American Meat Science Association

RECIPROCATION SESSION

So You Want to Go to Graduate School:


What to Consider
Steven M. Lonergan*, Jennifer Leheska & Dave McKenna
In this session we will focus on considerations in the decision to pursue a graduate degree, preparation for the next
degree while you are an undergraduate, and what to expect
out of a graduate education. The decision to go to graduate
school has a big impact on your professional career as well
as your life. You should ask yourself the following questions
before you commit time, effort and money to pursue a
graduate degree:

Should I go to graduate school?


When should I go to graduate school?
Where should I go to graduate school?
How do I prepare for graduate school?
What degree should I pursue?
What is expected of me in graduate school?

Should I Go to Graduate School?


The assigned title for this session begs the question of
why you want to go to graduate school. There are many
good reasons to pursue a graduate degree in meat science,
but there are some poor reasons as well. Most good reasons
are centered on the idea that you want to improve your
understanding of the application of science and technology
in our industry. Your personal career goals also influence
this decision. Where do you want to be in 10 years? 20
years? You ultimately have to be the judge of your own answer to this question.

When Should I Go to Graduate School?


This is a question that many undergraduate students do
not consider. The most common approach is to matriculate
directly after completion of the previous degree. This approach is convenient because students are in the student
mode and usually do not have significant financial obligations. Another approach that works for some is to choose to
take an entry-level position in the industry for several years
Steven M. Lonergan
Iowa State University
2372 Kildee Hall
Ames, IA 50011
E-mail Address: slonerga@iastate.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 65-66)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

before pursuing a graduate degree. Students that take this


approach have the significant advantage of industry experience and an understanding of the issues that impact success
in the meat industry. This perspective allows you to generate your own ideas about what research questions need to
be addressed and helps you develop your own program of
study in your graduate program. If a student chooses this
plan, they need to realize that it will take a lot of discipline
to give up a salary to return to school.

Where Should I Go to Graduate School?


The answer to this question often has to include personal
and family considerations. The key to making the best decision is to separate the personal and family solicitudes from
educational and professional objectives. Ultimately, all factors will have to be considered. The answer to our first
question should help you start. Where are the great programs in the disciplines that excite you and fit your professional goals? Talk to your current professors, talk to AMSA
professional members and other students. Always consider
several programs. Once you have identified several programs, contact faculty at those institutions and plan a campus visit. Sometimes schools will help you with travel expenses, but you need to view this as an investment in your
future. Once you finish your visit, you should have answers
to the following questions.
Many of the questions you may ask during visits will
need to cater to your individual goals and expectations.
General questions regarding financial issues are appropriate
to ask; hopefully, they are not exclusively used to make a
decision; but they undoubtedly will play an important role
in whatever decision you make.
Are assistantships available and what do they pay?
Is healthcare insurance provided, including vision and
dental coverage?
What are typical tuition fees for each semester, and is
there departmental assistance with tuition?
Differences in cost of living (especially if you are moving from one region of the country to another).
You may generate many specific questions regarding
programs at each school you visit.
Inquiries into current and future areas of research.

65

Opportunities to work with extension programs and


build industry relationships.
Opportunities to teach classes or laboratory sections.
Meat science curriculum and other course requirements for each program.
Additionally, discussions with current and former graduate students at each program may provide valuable information in the decision making process.

How Do I Prepare for Graduate School?


You should have a list of required courses for the programs you are considering. The first thing you need to do is
make sure you have completed the prerequisite coursework
for those core classes defined in the graduate program. This
is just a start. Internships, work experience in chemistry,
microbiology and meat laboratories, and undergraduate
research projects all are valuable components to your
preparation for graduate school. Although not specifically
required, these experiences make your application for admission in the graduate school more competitive.

What Degree Should I Pursue?


The answer to this question is in your career goals. If you
want to be a faculty member at a University or a Director of
R&D in an industry lab, you will need a Ph.D. degree. If
you want your graduate experience to make you more marketable, improve your earning potential, or increase your

66

technical skills in a new area, a Master of Science degree


may be your choice. Although having an M.S. degree is not
a requirement to pursue a Ph.D., most would agree that the
M.S. experience is a valuable preparation for a Ph.D. degree.

What is Expected of Me in Graduate School?


Expectations from different programs vary. One thing that
you can count on is that graduate school is a significant step
up in rigor and work from your undergraduate studies.
Many students expect to be responsible for their course
work and research project. However, contributions to the
efforts of the department and meat science program are also
expected through extension, teaching and other research
projects. Beyond generating new technical information
through your own research, the development of teamwork
and leadership skills are valuable outcomes of any graduate
program.

Conclusion
The motivation to go to graduate school has its foundation in our intellectual curiosity and drive to excel. A
graduate degree is a means to reach our professional goals.
It is a personal and a very serious decision. No person or
discussion session can make the decision for you. Our goal
in this session is to stimulate you to think critically about
your professional career.

American Meat Science Association

RECIPROCATION SESSION

The Facts About Beef Cattle Growth


Enhancement Technology
James W. Lauderdale
Introduction
Research, published in peer reviewed scientific journals
and reviewed by regulatory agencies during the past more
than 40 years, demonstrated that beef cattle growth enhancement products, when used consistent with their label,
are safe for the animal, safe for the beef consumer, safe for
the environment and deliver significant economic benefits
to the beef producer and to the consumer. The USA has the
Food and Drug Administration Center for Veterinary Medicine (FDA/CVM) product approval process in place that
assures such products are safe for the animal, consumer
(human food safety) and environment when used consistent
with the label. In the USA the label use of growth enhancement products is encouraged and the illegal use is
minimized/prevented through fine/imprisonment for misuse,
inspection, no economic incentive to use illegally, and user
education programs. If the beef cattle growth enhancement
products are safe and effective, why is there a need to address this topic?
The European Union (EU) banned, in 1989, import of
hormone treated beef from the USA. In retaliation, the
USA imposed, in 1989, ad valorem trade sanctions on import of EU goods into the USA, the value of the ad valorem
being comparable to the lost trade in beef exports to the EU.
This issue was brought to the World Trade Organization for
resolution in 1995, however, both the EU ban on import of
USA beef and the USA ad valorem trade sanctions remain
in place. Presentations, such as, How safe is that burger
(Consumer Reports, November 2002, p.29-35), Hormones:
Heres the beef (Science News, Volume 161, January 5,
2002, p.10-12), Beef-back to the future (University of
California Berkeley Wellness Letter, February 2003), and the
CBS evening news report (May 20, 2003) on a possible
connection between zeranol (Ralgro) as a beef cattle growth
James W. Lauderdale
Lauderdale Enterprises, Inc.
16700 East B Avenue
Augusta, MI 49012
james.w.lauderdale@pharmacia.com
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 67-69)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

enhancing product and potential human health risk have


elicited questions and concerns from a variety of people in
the USA. In an attempt to address valid concerns as well as
allegations and half-truths that raise questions in the publics mind about growth enhancing technologies used in
beef production in the USA, a focus group was convened to
identify issues of concern to the public and to the beef producing industry.
The focus group identified six key issues of concern to
the public. Individuals (20) representing beef production,
beef product sales, beef industry communications, and
growth enhancement product manufacturers discussed how
best to address these six key issues. Agreement was reached
to address the six key issues identified by the focus group
with single page responses for each issue. The six issues
are addressed in this presentation.

The Six Issues


Issue 1. Does the use of growth promotants make our beef
less safe or less healthy?
The use of growth promotants does not have a negative
impact on the safety, nutritional value or healthfulness of
the beef we produce. The safety of the use of growth promotants is assured by the product approval procedures required by the FDA/CVM as well as by the on-going testing
policies and procedures administered by the Food Safety
Inspection Service (FSIS), a division of the USDA. The FSIS
regularly tests for residues in meat that would indicate misuse. Violative residues have not been found.
1. All growth-promoting products must be approved by
the FDA/CVM under the New Animal Drug Application (NADA) procedure. Approval is granted only after rigorous and extensive scientific tests, similar to
the tests the FDA/CVM requires for human drug approval.
2. Each NADA is evaluated for safety of use in the target
animal, safety to the environment and effectiveness of
the product in the target animal. Unlike human drug
applications, the NADA is also evaluated for human
food safety. All meat products must be safe for human
consumption.

67

3. Growth promoting products have been on the market


for more than 40 years and there has never been any
negative impact on human health.
4. Hormones, like those in growth promoting products,
are naturally occurring and are found in all plants and
animals, including humans. For example a serving of
milk contains 9x the level of hormones as a serving of
beef from an implanted steera serving of cabbage
710x and soybean oil 7466x. The average man or
woman produces 35,000x the hormones every day!
5. Hormones are essential to the proper functioning of
many bodily functions including, reproduction,
growth, immune system response, as well as the functioning of the nervous and digestive systems.
6. Some growth promotants act as a partitioning agent
and actually increase the amount of lean red meat
and decrease the amount of fat in the beef we consume.
Issue 2. Does the manufacture and use of growth promotants have a negative impact on the environment?
The production and use of growth promotants does not
have a negative impact on the environment, in fact, growth
promotants are environmentally friendly.
Impact on Land Use: Because the use of growth promotants
improves the efficiency of beef production, there is less
stress placed on the environment. The increased efficiency
results in more beef produced per cow unit and more efficient use of both grasslands and grain-farm acres. As a result, more land is made available for other uses and fewer
acres need to be treated with agricultural chemicals.
Example: Performance studies document that, overall,
growth promotants increase feed efficiency by 10 percent
and rate of growth by about 15 percent. These performance
improvements equate to a 21-bushel reduction in the
amount corn required to grow a steer or heifer to market
weight. The net result of growth promotant efficiencies is
that each year, 3 million fewer acres of corn are required to
produce the United States beef supply.
1. The worlds land mass is constant, yet a growing
population increases the need for more spared land as
well as for greater food production.
2. Growth promotants increase production efficiency,
which equates to fewer acres diverted from natural
habitat to production agriculture.
3. Growth promotants decrease the amount of Nitrogen,
Phosphorus, Potassium and other minerals introduced
into the environment; this reduction is achieved both
through reduced acreage of grains required for beef
production and decreased quantity of feces and urine
as a result of the increased feed efficiency.
Environmental Impact Studies. Production of growth
promoting products is subject to rigorous scientific examination prior to FDA/CVM approval. The manufacturer must
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clearly demonstrate that the manufacturing process does not


introduce harmful substances into the air, water or land. In
addition, the manufacturer must measure and prove that the
product and its metabolized by-products do not harm the
environment in any way.
4. Excretion of both product and metabolites are measured and documented.
5. Physical and chemical properties and partitioning into
water and soil as well as degradation in water and
soil are documented.
6. Degradation of the product and its metabolites by microbes is also measured and documented.
7. Effects on both aquatic and terrestrial species are
documented.
8. Predicted concentrations of the product and its metabolites in water and soil are computed.
9. No growth promotant products are licensed until the
risk assessment is completed satisfactorily.
Issue 3. Do growth promotants have a negative impact on
an animals health or well-being?
The use of growth promotants does not have a negative
effect on an animals well-being or on an animals welfare.
10. Beef producers continue to adopt scientifically
based production practices including the most elaborate and humane handling equipment.
11. Beef producers follow science-based animal husbandry practices.
12. Beef producers feed their animals science-based,
healthy and well-balanced rations. As a result cattle
remain healthy and efficient in their use of feedstuffs.
13. Beef producers and their veterinarians monitor the
health of individual animals on a daily basis.
14. Beef producers ensure that the five freedoms are
provided for every animal in their care including the
ability to turn around, groom themselves, lie down,
get up and stretch their limbs without difficulty.
15. Growth promotants increase the animals appetite
ensuring that the animal remains healthy and well
fed.
16. It is in the producers best interest to provide an
ideal environment for the health and safety of their
animals.
Issue 4. Has the use of growth promotants contributed to
the reduction in the number of smaller farms? The use of
growth promotants does not provide an economic advantage to large, corporate farms nor do they put smaller farmers at a disadvantage.
Growth promoting products, including implants, can easily be utilized by all cattle producers, whether they have a
few head of cattle or several thousand. The per head, eco-

American Meat Science Association

nomic advantages that growth promotants provide are the


same, regardless of the size of the operation. There is no
additional economic advantage or benefit for large producers and there is no cause and effect between growth promotants and the trend to consolidation in the industry.
17. Growth promoting products can be effectively utilized and are economically rewarding in any size
operation.
18. Utilizing science and technology in beef production results in lower beef prices and a continuous
supply of top quality beef for consumers.
19. There is a trend to fewer, larger feeding operations;
however, cattle feeding operations of all sizes continue to utilize growth promotants as they successfully
produce beef for the market.
20. No cause and effect has been identified between
growth promotant products and the trend to consolidation in the beef industry.
Issue 5. Do growth promotants really benefit the beef industry? Improved production efficiency benefits the entire beef
industry as well as consumers.
The use of growth promoting products improves both
growth and feed efficiency, which is of benefit to both beef
producers and consumers. For example, proper use of implants improves both average daily gain and feed efficiency,
which results in an economic benefit of approximately $40
per beef animal. This lower cost of production results in
lower beef prices to the consumer, and keeps beef more
price competitive compared to other protein sources.
21. Research by Gill and Trapp (1997) indicated that
without the efficiencies that implants provide, beefs
share of the protein market would decrease from 31.9
percent to 29.8 percent. The decrease in market share
would decrease beef retail sales by $1.4 billion,
eliminating the need for 1.2 million cows (the number
of cows in the entire state of Oklahoma).
22. The use of growth promotants help produce a more
consistent, better managed beef product, without
sacrificing taste or quality.
23. Growth promotants give consumers the healthy,
flavorful, nutrient dense beef they demand at a price
they can afford.
24. Eliminating the use of growth promoting implants
in the United States would not increase beef exports
to Europe. The European ban on implanted beef is
based on politics and agricultural protectionist programs and would not be lifted if the United States
beef producers quit using hormones. The EU is cur-

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

rently importing beef from South America where there


is widespread hormone use.
Issue 6. If there are any questions at all about growth promotants, why take a chance?
The European Precautionary Principle (action should
be taken to correct a problem if there is any evidence that
harm may occurthe foresight to protect against any possible harm) does not recognize scientifically based risk assessment and analysis as being adequate and, therefore, is
very limiting for the adoption of any new technology, not
just animal health products and technology. The precautionary principle that guides our FDA/CVM is based on extensive, thorough, conservative scientifically based research.
25. The USA FDA/CVM approval process is very conservative in their approval of growth promotant products.
26. Growth promotant products are approved only after a thorough review of validated, well-supervised,
rigorous scientific studies.
27. This thorough, cautionary product approval process assures that the products that are approved for
sale will not have any adverse effects on human
health, animal health or environmental safety.
28. Beef from cattle implanted with growth promotants
is now being eaten by a third generation of consumers without any negative impact on their health.
29. We inspect what we expectA thorough, on
going inspection process ensures that there are no
product misuses or violations and that all products are
used according to their labeled and intended use.
30. The scientific principles that govern our approval
process make new technologies and new procedures
possible.

Conclusions
Beef cattle growth promotion products, when used consistent with their label, are safe for the animal, safe for the
beef consumer, safe for the environment and deliver significant economic benefits to the beef producer and to the consumer. In the USA, use of growth promotion products
should be based on sound business decisions and should
not be influenced by political and social pressures. Antianimal production groups will use numerous bases to disrupt beef consumption and beef production in the USA,
including the selling of fear related to endocrine disruption, carcinogenicity, adverse effects in humans, environmental contamination, and misuse/abusive use of the products.

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70

American Meat Science Association

RECIPROCATION SESSION

The National Pork Quality Benchmarking Study


David J. Meisinger
Abstract
The 2002-03 Benchmarking Value in the Pork Supply
Chain Project was conducted to evaluate the status and the
progress of the pork industry since the first National Pork
Quality Audit conducted in 1993-94. The project was a
cooperative effort between the National Pork Board and
several industry partners and was conducted by the American Meat Science Association in cooperation with Colorado
State University, the University of Illinois and Texas A & M
University. The project was done in four phases: an industry
survey, processing component, a retail segment, and an
industry strategy workshop.
In Phase I, pork processing companies were surveyed to
identify, quantify and rank factors influencing pork quality.
Surveys were designed to determine the quality of pork currently at the slaughter and fabrication segments of the pork
chain. Meat processors provided slaughter information
based on 64% of the 98 million barrows and gilts slaughtered in federally inspected plants in 2002. All major hogproducing areas of the U.S. were represented. Based on a
dollar value, results of the survey indicated that the primary
concerns about pork quality at the packing level were; (1)
inconsistent weights; (2) thin bellies; (3) pale, soft and exudative (PSE); (4) too fat carcasses; and (5) abscesses/injection sites. Survey results were used to determine costs associated with quality deficiencies. It was estimated that $8.08 or approximately 8% of the live-animal
value is lost per slaughter barrow/gilt due to quality variability.
In Phase II, the objective was to evaluate the effects of
PSE pork on the production of boneless and bone-in hams
and to investigate the effect of belly thickness on processing
and slicing yields as well as consumer satisfaction. The ham
primals were selected and shipped through normal channels to a ham processing facility. The hams were categorized into low PSE, medium PSE, and high PSE groups. The
David J. Meisinger
National Pork Board
P.O. Box 9114
Des Moines, IA 50306
david.meisinger@porkboard.org
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 71-72)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
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56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

results showed that color and water holding capacity generally followed normal patterns with the high pH product
generally having lower L* values and lower drip loss. The
values calculated for pack-off yield (after slicing and packaging) and final yield were clearly in favor of the high pH
(low PSE) hams. Clearly, the low PSE group outperformed
the rest of the treatment groups in that it had the lowest minor and major defects and the highest percentage of no defects. The sensory panelists demonstrated through purchase
intent that they preferred the low PSE product two to three
times that of any other treatment. The belly data showed
that the thinner bellies had higher percentage cook shrinks
and lower overall final yield percentages than the thick bellies. However, the results of this study showed that consumers prefer leaner bacon when evaluating or purchasing
it visually and experience very minimal differences in acceptability and purchase intent based upon palatability.
In Phase III, the objective was to characterize retail products from the loin (enhanced and non-enhanced), ham
(boneless), and belly (not-fully-cooked bacon), assessing the
implications of quality on prices charged by retailers and to
determine the opportunities lost with pork quality defects.
Retail packages of boneless loin chops, bacon, and ham
were purchased at retail markets in eight major U.S. cities
which were chosen to provide broad geographical representation across the United States. Twenty-five retail stores
in each city (n=200) were visited. Across all retail stores
visited, average retail case displays consisted of 64.3%
processed meats, 8.0% fresh poultry, 7.9% bacon, 6.8%
fresh beef, 3.5% fresh pork, 2.6% heat and serve products,
2.4% ham products, and 2.4% frozen poultry products.
Approximately 13% of the boneless pork chops found in the
retail display were characterized as being of poor quality.
Overall, boneless loin chops had a mean NPPC color rating
of 3.52 and were characterized as having a reddish-pink
colored lean. Across all loin chops collected, the mean
peak WBS force was 2.96 kg. Trained sensory panel mean
overall tenderness ratings were 5.95, ranging from 4.25 to
7.75 on an 8-point scale for all chops evaluated in the
study. The study also found that enhanced product offers
organoleptic benefits in juiciness and tenderness, but is
more frequently associated with off-flavors than nonenhanced product. Off-flavors most encountered by the
panelists included salty, metallic, sour, and rancid/oxidative
flavors.

71

For the ham data, mean panelist ratings for juiciness,


tenderness, texture, and ham flavor intensity were all between 5.36 and 5.83. The most frequently detectable flavor
was salt, with an average rating of 1.20. Mean price for
each type of ham differed (P < 0.05) from each other, indicating mean retail prices ($/kg) for ham with natural juices,
ham with water added, and ham and water product were
$2.10, $1.92, and $1.60, respectively. Trained panel ratings
for juiciness and tenderness were highest (P < 0.05) for ham
and water product, followed by ham water-added and,
lastly, ham with natural juices. Texture scores favored ham
products in exactly the reverse order. Flavor intensity and
smoke flavor ratings for ham with natural juices was higher
(P < 0.05) than both ham with water added and ham and
water product.
From the bacon data, it was determined that, contrary to
previous hypotheses by the authors, no significant differences between lipid content, lipid quality, or palatability
characteristics were found to occur among price categories.
However, it is suggested that the highest priced national
brand bacon was a more consistent product, as indicated by
the least variation in percent lipid (DM), panel crispiness,
chewiness, and smoke flavor intensity ratings.
Phase IV represented the strategic analysis of the data.
Using results of the SWOT analysis, these are strategies that
could be implemented by the U.S. pork industry to improve
the quality of its products:
1. Continue industry progress in attending to, and improving upon, pork quality shortfalls previously identified in the National Pork Chain Quality Audit1992

72

and presently elucidated in the National Pork Chain


Quality Audit2002, especially focusing upon improving the consistency of weight, composition and
quality of U.S. pork.
2. Improve the amount and quality of communication
among those in different sectors of the pork production chain to assure availability of sufficient information to allow for corrective actions to improve further
the acceptability of U.S. pork.
3. Great progress has been made in improving lean meat
yields, but further reductions in backfat thickness may
be counterproductive because too many hogs are
now too lean (generating problems with performance,
productivity and reproduction) and too many carcasses have unacceptable quality (bellies that are too
thin and cuts with too little marbling).
4. Industry must develop clear economic signals for easily and objectively measuring quality, along the
production chain, to facilitate coordinated focus on
generating pork to meet domestic and global, seasonal and geographical, consumer demands for fresh,
enhanced, processed, consumer-friendly, valueadded and ready-to-eat products.
5. Industry must assure that appropriate attention is paid
to animal welfare, food safety, introduction of Foreign
Animal Diseases, environmental issues, competing
animal-protein sources, non-meat protein sources,
U.S./world economies and potential opportunities for
international cooperation in global marketing of
North American pork.

American Meat Science Association

RECIPROCATION SESSION

Enhancing Meat Color Stability


Donald H. Kropf
Meat color stability is affected by numerous decisions
and circumstances that begin with live animal selection and
breeding, and include nutrition, environment, handling,
holding conditions before slaughter, stun/bleed variables,
chilling protocol, aging, holding time and conditions (especially temperature), fabrication conditions, time from fabrication to packaging, successful packaging, type of packaging; storage, distribution and handling of product, display
conditions and handling by customers. The above apply to
fresh, chilled, frozen and to cured products. Enhancements
to chilled non-cured meat can markedly influence color
stability. Cured meat is additionally affected by added ingredients, physical manipulation conditions, time and temperature protocols for smoking and heat processing and
post-cook chilling and packaging. Those who troubleshoot
color stability problems tend to concentrate on the most
recent events but color could be affected in many places in
the livestock to product to consumer chain.
Deoxymyoglobin
Deoxymyoglobin
++
Fe
Fe++

Low O2

-O2

-eMetmyoglobin
Metmyoglobin
+++
Fe
Fe+++

+e-

-e-

+O2

ATM O2

+O2

-O2

Oxymyoglobin
Oxymyoglobin

+e+O2

++
Fe
Fe++

100
Oxidized Fe
Undesirable

Reduced Fe Desirable

Hunt 1993

Figure 1. Fresh meat color triangle.

Meat color basics will be reviewed. First, understanding


the meat color triangle is very important. Muscle tissue appearance is determined by the chemical state of muscle
pigments (Figure 1). In the absence of oxygen, pigment is in
the deoxymyoglobin state, which has a dark, purplish-red
color (Kropf, 2000). On exposure to air, the pigment is rapidly oxygenated to form oxymyoglobin, the bright red that
consumers have been taught to expect and find attractive.
Deoxymyoglobin and oxymyoglobin, which are both in the
D. H. Kropf
247 Weber Hall
Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas 66506-0201
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 73-75)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

Partial oxygen pressure (PO2) plays an important role in


determining which chemical state of heme pigments, primarily myoglobin, is favored at any muscle location (Figure
2). Formation of undesirable brown met forms of heme
pigments occurs most rapidly at intermediate PO2 with peak
activity at 4 mm but ranging from 1.4 to about 25 mm PO2.
Thus, partially oxygenated heme pigments discolor faster
than completely deoxygenated or with a higher level of
oxygenation.

Deoxymyoglobin
Oxymyoglobin

% Mb Form

No O2

reduced state, can oxidize to metmyoglobin, which has a


dull brown color associated with deterioration of quality.
Metmyoglobin is more stable and is slowly converted to
deoxymyoglobin by enzyme-mediated reactions termed
metmyoglobin-reducing activity. Muscle tissue that is deficient in the enzymes that mediate metmyoglobin reduction
or in reduced cofactors necessary for reduction is unable to
reconvert metmyoglobin, which then persists. Muscles vary
widely in metmyoglobin-reduction activity, and it dissipates
during storage of muscle. Those that tend to have a high
activity, such as the longissimus dorsi, are more color-stable
in air, their red color persisting for 3 or 4 times as long as
unstable muscles of low metmyoglobin-reduction activity.

Metmyoglobin

10

Oxygen, %

15

20

Figure 2. Partial oxygen pressure and myoglobin form.

Color stability is more achievable if myoglobin remains


as deoxymyoglobin until bright red or bright pink is required to satisfy meat purchasers. Unnecessary and uncontrolled pigment changes are costly in terms of losing ability
to return to deoxymyoglobin and shorten color life. Using
fresh rather than tired raw material to produce a cured
product also contributes to improved meat color stability.
When the new cut surface is formed, oxymyoglobin
quickly forms at the surface and gradually penetrates more
deeply as oxygen diffuses into the muscle, resulting in the
gradual blooming. The depth of oxygen penetration into
73

muscle is dependent on oxygen diffusion, which is influenced by temperature as well as pH. Although oxygen diffusion is more rapid at a higher temperature, net oxygen
penetration is greater at temperatures close to 0C, where
activity of enzymes that use oxygen is minimal. At higher
temperatures, respiratory enzymes use more oxygen and
limit its penetration into muscle. Respiratory enzyme activity is favored by higher pH, consequently high-pH muscle
utilizes more oxygen, and so less oxygen diffuses into muscle. The result is a darker colored muscle, which has only a
very thin layer of oxymyoglobin on the surface; consequently the color is primarily that of the subsurface deoxymyoglobin. High partial oxygen pressure in the gaseous
environment surrounding the muscle will cause the oxymyoglobin layer to move into the muscle more rapidly and
more deeply. Relatively fresh muscle with a good supply of
reducing capability will have two pigment layers, oxymyoglobin on the surface and deoxymyoglobin at deeper locations. For intact muscles, oxygen diffuses more deeply with
increasing time after initial exposure to air for several days,
depending on the mini-environment surrounding the muscle and the supply of reducing capability of the muscle.
When reducing mechanisms of muscle approach depletion,
a third layer of pigment, brown metmyoglobin, forms between the oxymyoglobin and deoxymyoglobin layers. The
brown area has the intermediate PO2, which favored its
formation. The oxymyoglobin layer becomes thinner and
the metmyglobin layer becomes thicker and moves closer to
the surface. Ultimately both visual observers and reflectance instruments begin to see the brown discoloration.
Color stability can be influenced by:
Live Animal Selection - Stress resistant may favor slower
pH decline, less oxidative meat.
Nutrition - Vitamin E (tocopherol) feeding creates more
color stability, even for higher unsaturated fat diets, and
longer aging, and influences pork and turkey in a similar
direction (Liu and others, 1995; Buckley and others, 1995).
Environment - Severe conditions may cause dark cutters.
A sudden temperature rise during cool spring days can affect pigs and turkeys and cause more oxidative, discoloration-prone muscle.
Handling - Cattle and pigs are vulnerable to hot temperature and to mixing of animal groups. Hauling at night advocated, also keeping animal groups intact. Conditions that
distract/startle animals can cause stress (Faustman and Cassens, 1990).
Holding Conditions - Pigs should be rested before slaughter, allowed to cool, have access to water for 3 to 4 hours
after unloading. Too short or no holding encourages PSE
and too long (over 6 hours) may increase DFD.
Stun/bleed Variables - Effective stunning including proper
placement, appropriate current for electrical and stun application time influence quality. Bleeding quickly after stunning is also essential. Carbon dioxide may be good system.

74

Dressing/chilling - More rapid chill translates to color


stability as low temperature slows pH decline, pigment oxidation and facilitates a deeper oxymyoglobin front.
Aging - While longer aging (14 to 28 days) encourages
faster discoloration, a ripening time of five to seven days
facilitates blooming and lengthens display life.
Fabrication/Enhancement/Packaging - Minimize light exposure and time from fab to packaging.
Added Ingredients - Those that may improve color stability (Miller, 1998) include sodium, potassium or calcium
lactate; ascorbic acid or sodium isoascorbate, carnosine,
anserine, phenolic antioxidants, rosemary and its extractives, and other plant source materials. Those that may diminish color stability are alkaline phosphates, salt, water
contaminants, ascorbic acid or sodium isoascorbate, organic acids, and heavy metals.
Packaging (Kropf, 2000) - High-oxygen MAP systems often have atmospheres of 20% carbon dioxide and up to
80% oxygen, produce and maintain a desirable red color in
beef for up to 9 days and depress metmyoglobin formation
by driving oxygen deep under the surface of meat. Ground
beef in a similar treatment was stable for 6 days. Pork loin
chops in high oxygen had acceptable saturation indices and
display color for 8 to 12 days. Odor, not color may limit
this system. Carbon monoxide has been used in beef MAP
systems to maintain a bright cherry-red color (Sorheim and
others, 2001). Carbon monoxide binds strongly to myoglobin and hemoglobin, forming stable bright-red compounds.
Beef loin eye steaks at 4C in a 0.4% carbon monoxide,
60% carbon dioxide, and 40% nitrogen system, compared
with a high-oxygen (80%) system or vacuum packaging,
were brighter red and had better display color stability. This
does not mask microbial deterioration and is approved as a
master pack system in the U.S.A.
In ultra-low oxygen MAP, a slight amount of residual
oxygen frequently occurs due to small pockets of air not
removed initially by evacuation or flushing. These frequently cause major discoloration, reduced color stability,
or blooming ability problems. Initial oxygen concentrations
>0.15% (1,500 ppm) seriously compromised color stability
of beef and lamb. Pork was affected by residual oxygen
concentrations >1.0%. Oxygen scavengers are needed to
get residual oxygen low enough and fast enough as muscle
scavenging of oxygen is inadequate and slow. For cured
product, nitrogen gas is used with a goal of diluting residual
oxygen to 0.5% or less.
Lighting (Faustman and Cassens, 1990; Kropf, 1998) Time and intensity of meat product exposure to light during
processing, storage and distribution should be minimized.
Display lighting is essential for marketing but its effect on
discoloration by temperature elevation, photochemical oxidation and sub-optimal color rendition can be minimized
by selecting fluorescent lamps of 2900 to 3750 Kelvin and
using least intensity which is compatible with effective display. Color display at 32F is effective in enhancing display
American Meat Science Association

life. Ultra-violet is detrimental to meat color, especially


shorter wavelengths (Bertelsen and Skibsted, 1987) but
packaging can block this effect.
Temperature - Cold at proper times is absolutely essential
to minimizing product value loss. A comprehensive ground
beef study (Mancini, 2001) gives display life as influenced
by storage time and by temperature of storage and display.
Coarse ground beef in chubs stored and displayed at 32F
benefits dramatically and is cost effective. The least product
price discounting or loss saved $283 per week for a store
selling 2000 lbs. ground beef per week. This information
led to the 32 Makes a Difference program by a major
packer. In a companion study, half of meat display temperatures were at 39F or warmer. Audits International (1999)
surveyed actual retail temperatures for refrigerated foods
including fresh meat, prepackaged lunchmeat and deli
counter meat. Data from primary shoppers of over 1000
households geographically dispersed across the country
showed one in two refrigerated product temperatures were
over 41F, one in four were over 45F, and 1 in 17 were
over 50F. All types of cases had product above 41F with
frequency of this occurrence ranging from 27% for fresh
meat to 71% for the deli counter. Mean and maximum
temperatures reported were 43.6 and 66F for prepackaged
lunch meat, 44.8 and 64F for deli counter meat and 39.2
and 58F for fresh meat, with the worst 10% above 50F for
prepackaged lunch meat and deli counter meat.
Product temperatures rise about 8 to 10F during a typical summer shopping excursion. The worst 5% of shopping
conditions showed product temperatures increased 15 to
20F on the way home from shopping. This data is very
alarming and indicates that the entire meat product marketing chain needs to minimize problem temperatures. Shopper education should emphasize proper handling of meat
and other perishables.
Consumers judge acceptability of meat largely on appearance, mostly color, of exposed muscle. Dull and/or
discolored fat, purge or bone cut surfaces detract from meat
cut appearance but their good appearance cannot compensate for discolored muscle. Longer storage (Warren and oth-

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

ers, 1992) can result in greenish pork fat. Feeding cattle


diets high in some unsaturated fat can result in dirty looking discolored spots, possibly more pronounced with high
oxygen.
Black vertebra have been caused by ultra-chill in pork.
Freezing poultry may cause black bones. Bones on beef
cuts are more black in high oxygen packages but also noted
in polyvinylchloride film packages, always in the bone marrow or porous bone structure. Antioxidant or vitamin C
treatment may diminish this problem.

References
Audits International (1999) U.S. Cold Temperature Evaluation. Available at:
http://www.am.f.org/CompletedProjects.htm.
Bertelsen, G.; Skibsted, L. H. (1987) Photooxidation of Oxymyoglobin.
Wavelength Dependence of Quantum Yields in Relation to Light Discoloration of Meat. Meat Sci. 19:243-251.
Buckley, D. J.; Morrissey, P. A.; Gray, J. I. (1995) Influence of Dietary Vitamin E on the Oxidative Stability and Quality of Pig Meat. J. Anim. Sci.
73:3122-3130.
Faustman, C.; Cassens, R. G. (1990) The Biochemical Basis for Discoloration in Fresh Meat: A Review. J. Muscle Foods 1:217-243.
Kropf, D. H. (1998) Meat Case Lighting Facts. National Pork Board, Des
Moines, IA.
Kropf, D. H. (2000) Meat, Modified Atmosphere Packaging. Encyclopedia
Food Sci. & Technol., John Wiley publ., New York.
Liu, Q.; Lanari, M. C.; Schaefer, D. M. (1995) A Review of Dietary Vitamin
E Supplementation for Improvement of Beef Quality. J. Anim. Sci.
73:3131-3140.
Mancini, R. A. (2001) Effects of Lean Level and Storage and Display Conditions on Ground Beef Color and Microbiology. M.S. Thesis. Kansas
State University, Manhattan.
Miller, R. (1998) Functionality of Non-Meat Ingredients used in Enhanced
Pork. Facts, National Pork Board, Des Moines, IA.
Srheim, O.; Nissen, H.; Aune, T.; Nesbakken, T. (2001) Use of Carbon
Monoxide in Retail Meat Packaging. Proc. Recip. Meat Conf., Am.
Meat Sci. Assn, Savoy, IL. 54:47-51.
Warren, K. E.; Hunt, M. C.; Marsksberry, C. L.; Srheim, O.; Kropf, D. H.;
Johnson, D. E.; Windisch, M. J. (1992) Modified-Atmosphere Packaging
of Bone-In Pork Loins. J. Muscle Foods 3:283-300.

75

76

American Meat Science Association

RECIPROCATION SESSION

Carcinogens Formed When Meat is Cooked


James S. Felton*, Cynthia P. Salmon, Mark G. Knize
Introduction
Diet has been associated with varying cancer rates in
human populations for many years, yet the causes of the
observed variation in cancer patterns have not been adequately explained (Wynder et al., 1977). Along with the
effect of diet on human cancer incidence is the strong evidence that mutations are the initiating events in the cancer
process (Vogelstein et al., 1992). Foods, when heated, are a
good source of genotoxic carcinogens that very likely are a
cause for some of these events (Doll et al., 1981). These
carcinogens fall into two chemical classes: heterocyclic
aromatic amines (HAA) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). There is ample evidence that many of these
compounds are complete carcinogens in rodents (ElBayoumy et al., 1995; Ohgaki et al., 1991).
Heterocyclic aromatic amines are among the most potent
mutagenic substances ever tested in the Ames/Salmonella
mutagenicity test (Wakabayashi et al., 1992). Both classes of
carcinogen cause tumors in rodents at multiple sites, (ElBayoumy et al., 1995; Ohgaki et al., 1991) many of which
are common tumor sites in people on a Western diet. An
HAA,
PhIP
(2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5b]pyridine), and a PAH, B[a]P (benzo[a]pyrene), of comparable carcinogenic potency caused mammary gland tumors
in a feeding study in female rats (El-Bayoumy et al., 1995).
In addition, PhIP has recently been shown to cause carcinomas in the prostate of the male rat (Shirai et al., 1997).
Complementing the rodent cancer studies are numerous
human case-control and prospective studies suggesting a
relationship between overheated beef, chicken, and lamb,
and cancer of the colon, breast, prostate, and stomach
(Sinha et al., 1999; Ward et al., 1997; Zheng et al., 1998).
Thus, it is important to estimate human exposure to the
HAA and PAH food carcinogens by accurate dietary intake
James S. Felton
Biology and Biotechnology Research Program
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
University of California
P. O. Box 808
Livermore, CA 94551-9900
Felton1@llnl.gov

data to determine the amounts and types of carcinogens to


which humans are exposed.

Formation
The cooking process is responsible for the formation of
HAA and PAH from natural constituents in foods, with
cooking time and temperature being important determinants
in both the qualitative and the quantitative formation of
these compounds (Knize et al., 1985; Skog et al., 1995).
Higher temperatures and longer cooking times favor the
formation of HAA. A number of studies have shown the
precursors for the formation of the HAA to be amino acids,
such as phenylalanine, threonine, and alanine; creatine or
creatinine; and sugars (Skog et al., 1993). HAA are frequently formed in muscle meats during frying, broiling, and
grilling. But methods using lower temperatures such as
stewing, boiling, and baking usually do not form HAA.
PAH are products of combustion and pyrolysis of protein,
carbohydrate or lipids by condensation of smaller units at
high temperatures to form stable polynuclear aromatic compounds (Lijinsky, 1991). PAH levels in foods are strongly
dependent on the method of cooking, including the
distance of food from the heat source, design of cooking
device and fat content of the foodstuff (Lijinsky, 1991).
Smoke deposited on the surface of charcoal-grilled meats
appears to be the major source of PAH carcinogens in food.
The HAA and PAH carcinogens formed during cooking
have stable multi-ring aromatic structures. The heterocyclic
amines have an exocyclic amino group and several nitrogen
heteroatoms. Structures of those compounds commonly
detected in foods are shown in Figure 1. Additional heterocyclic aromatic amines have been found in foods and the
whole set of HAA compounds has been reviewed (Robbana-Baranat et al., 1996). Over 25 PAH have been identified in curing smoke and approximately 40 others have
been identified but not characterized in this type of smoke.
An extensive database of PAH in foods was recently published (Kazerouni et al., 2001). The variables influencing the
formation of PAH and HAA create a wide range of concentrations in food, requiring the analysis of a large number of
food samples cooked under various conditions to determine
the sources and amounts of carcinogens in the human diet.

Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association


Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 77-81)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

77

so the number of compounds to be quantified requires that


the extraction, chromatographic separation, and detection
be general enough to detect several of the carcinogens in
each separation. A single solid-phase extraction scheme
was used to isolate the PAH and HAA classes of genotoxic
compounds from charcoal-grilled meat (Rivera et al., 1996),
and was developed from an innovative solid-phase extraction method for HAA (Gross et al., 1992).

B[a]P

B[a]A

Results

B[k]F

B[b]F

N
H 3C

NH2

N CH
3

CH 3

DiMeIQx

DBA

N
H3C

NH2
N CH
3

Comparison of the formation of PAH and HAA shows


that open flames are required to make PAH, but high temperature by a variety of heat sources can form HAA (Table
1). The mass amounts of PAH and HAA are within the same
order of magnitude for high temperature propane-grilling of
ground beef with 30% fat by weight. Further work is needed
to analyze other food types for both classes of carcinogen.
Table 1. Carcinogenic HAA and PAH in hamburgers, ng/g
Propane grilled
MeIQx
2.2
PhIP
15
6.2
B[a]P
18
B[b]F
2.0
B[k]F
5.2
B[a]A
DBA
0.5
Indenopyrene 5.1
*nd=Not detected.

Charcoal grilled
nd*
nd
0.6
4.1
nd
3.1
nd
nd

Pan fried
3.8
16
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd

Indenopyrene

MeIQx

N
N

CH3
NH2

PhIP
Figure 1. Chemical structures and abbreviated names of HAA and
PAH carcinogens.
B[a]A= benzo[a]anthracene
B[a]P=benzo[a]pyrene
B[b]F=benzo[b]fluoranthene
B[k]F=benzo[k]fluoranthene
DBA=dibenzo[a,h]anthracene
DiMeIQx=2-amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline
Indenopyrene= indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene
MeIQx=2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline
PhIP=2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine

Analysis
There are several factors that make the analysis of carcinogens from foods a difficult problem. PAH and HAA are
present in foods at low nanogram per gram levels. The low
levels require that chromatographic efficiency and detector
sensitivity be optimized, and these are typically analyzed by
gas or liquid chromatography with detection by light absorbance, fluorescence or mass spectrometry. Several of the
compounds are formed under the same reaction conditions,

78

Reducing the formation of food carcinogens


Many studies have shown the effect of cooking time and
temperature on the formation of mutagenic activity (Commoner et al., 1978; Sugimura et al., 1977) and specific HAA
in various meats (Gross et al., 1992; Knize et al., 1985; Skog
et al,. 1995). Food doneness is difficult to quantify. In our
experience, measuring temperatures with thermocouples is
too dependent on probe placement. Surface appearance,
too, is not a good doneness indicator because color can be
affected by other variables such as pH differences in meat.
Reducing the cooking temperature seems to be the most
practical way to reduce HAA content, but avoiding the
conditions where the temperatures are below those needed
to kill harmful bacteria is also important. The formation of
PAH can be reduced by not exposing the food directly to
the heat source and resulting smoke when grilling foods
(Larsson et al., 1983).
Figure 2 shows two methods that reduce the formation of
HAA during cooking of beef patties to an internal temperature of 70C. The pan temperature was varied and the sum
of the detectable HAA measured. When meat patties were
turned over just once at 5 min (open bars), and cooked until
the internal temperature of 70C was reached, there was a
great effect of pan temperature on the formation of the
HAA. If the meat patties were turned every minute during
cooking, much less of the HAA was detected. So cooking at
a lower surface temperature (160-180C) and turning the
meat over every minute greatly reduces the formation of
American Meat Science Association

Heterocyclic amines, ng/g

HAA when frying ground beef.(Salmon et al., 2000). In the


same study it was shown that the time needed to produce a
beef hamburger that is safely heated to 70C is only slightly
decreased by increasing the pan temperature from 160 to
250C (Figure 3). Figure 3 also shows that if meat is turned
over every minute, cooking times are slightly reduced compared to flipping the meat over just once during the entire
cooking time. Thus, a high pan-temperature accelerates the
cooking process only a little, but turning every minute both
accelerates the cooking and reduces the HAA formation.
20
15

Turned over once


Turned every minute

10
5
0
160

180

200

250

Pan Temperature, C

Figure 2. Sum of HAA formed in beef patties fried to an internal temperature of 70C, either turned over once at 5 min (open bars) or
turned over every minute (filled bars) until done. Four different pan
temperatures were used. Error bars are the standard deviation of five
replicate samples.

14

Cooking time, minutes

Risk assessment of meat carcinogens


The analysis of foods for HAA and PAH is important because there is widespread human exposure to these compounds, there is suggestive epidemiology for cause and effect, and these chemicals are potent mutagens and animal
carcinogens as stated in the introduction. Exposures differ
among individuals, since dietary preferences and methods
of food preparation can vary greatly. This area of research
provides a unique opportunity in cancer etiology, the
chance to evaluate carcinogens in human populations. The
variability in the formation of these compounds also provides the opportunity for intervention, to reduce exposure if
it is warranted from risk evaluation of humans and rodents
exposed to these compounds in their diet.
Which class of carcinogenic compounds and which specific compounds within each class are the most important
in human health are difficult questions to answer at this
time. All of the HAA and PAH tested are rodent carcinogens, so it could be argued that the total mass of carcinogen
is the most important risk factor.
The compounds do differ in tumor-site specificity in rats,
with most HAA causing tumors at sites commonly seen for
humans. The metabolism of each class of chemical and the
enzymes involved in their metabolism are known to be polymorphic, suggesting a distribution in risk across the population, varying from individual to individual.
For PAH carcinogens, occupational studies have been
used to establish risk of human exposure, with only suggestions of excessive risk at some sites (Nadon et al., 1995).
The health risk to the human population consuming HAA
has been recently discussed (Layton et al., 1995; Zimmerli
et al., 2001), and supports the linkage between HAA consumption and higher cancer risk.

Turned over once

12

cursors, which can be discarded as meat drippings, so meat


then cooked at high temperatures results in lower HAA exposure to the consumer.

Turned every minute

10
8
6

Acknowledgments

4
2
0
1 160C
2

4180C5

7200C
8

250C11
10

Pan temperature

This work was performed under the auspices of the U.S.


Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory under contract no. W-7405-Eng-48, and supported by the NCI grant CA55861 and DOD Prostate Cancer Research Program grant DAMD 17-00-1-0011.

Figure 3. Cooking time to reach an internal temperature of 70C for


beef patties fried at a pan temperature of 160, 180, 200 or 250C, and
either turned over once during frying (open bars) or turned over every
minute (filled bars). Frying time varied little despite the greatly different pan temperature. Turning every minute decreased the cooking
time needed.

Another means of decreasing HAA formation is to remove the precursors from the meat before cooking (Felton
et al., 1994). Figure 4, upper, illustrates that ground beef
patties contain small molecule precursors of HAA: amino
acids, sugars, and creatinine. When fried at high temperatures, these precursors form the HAA. Alternatively, a microwave oven pretreatment of 1.5 to 2 min reduces the pre56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

79

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American Meat Science Association

Figure 4. Schematic depiction of formation of HAA carcinogens after frying (right side) or reduction of HAA carcinogens after microwave pretreatment of ground
beef patty before frying (left side). Microwave pretreatment reduces precursors resulting in lower exposure to consumers.

References
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Reddy, B.; Hecht, S.S. (1995). Comparative tumorigenicity of
benzo[a]pyrene,
1-nitropyrene,
and
2-amino-1-methyl-6phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine administered by gavage to female CD
rats. Carcinogenesis 16: 431-434.
Felton, J.S.; Fultz, E.; Dolbeare, F.A.; Knize, M.G. (1994). Reduction of
heterocyclic amine mutagens/carcinogens in fried beef patties by microwave pretreatment. Food and Chemical Toxicology 32: 897-903.
Gross, G.A.; Grter, A. (1992). Quantitation of mutagenic/carcinogenic
heterocyclic aromatic amines in food products. Journal of Chromatography 592: 271-278.

Salmon, C.S.; Knize, M.G.; Panteleakos, F.N.; Wu, R.; Nelson, D.O.; Felton, J.S. (2000). Minimization of heterocyclic amines and thermal inactivation of Escherichia coli in fried ground beef. Journal of the National
Cancer Institute 92: 1773-1778.
Shirai, T.; Sano, M.; Tamano, S.; Takahashi, S.; Hirose, T.; Futakuchi, M.;
Hasegawa, R.; Imaida, K.; Matsumoto, K.-I.; Wakabayashi, K.; Sugimura, T.; Ito, N. (1997). The prostate: A target for carcinogenicity of 2amino-1-methyl-6-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine. Cancer Research 57: 195198.
Sinha, R.; Chow, W.H.; Kulldorff, M.; Denobile, J.; Butler, J.; GarciaClosas, M.; Weil, R.; Hoover, R.N.; Rothman, N. (1999). Well-done,
grilled red meat increases the risk of colorectal adenomas. Cancer Research 59(17): 4320-4.
Skog, K.; Jgerstad, M. (1993). Incorporation of carbon atoms from glucose
into the food mutagens MeIQx and 4,8-DiMeIQx using 14C-labelled
glucose in a model system. Carcinogenesis 14: 2027-2031.
Skog, K.; Steineck, G.; Augustsson, K.; Jgerstad, M. (1995). Effect of cooking temperature on the formation of heterocyclic amines in fried meat
products and pan residues. Carcinogenesis 16: 861-867.

Kazerouni, N.; Sinha, R.; Hsu, C.H.; Greenberg, A.; Rothman, N. (2001).
Analysis of 200 food items for benzo[a]pyrene and estimation of its intake in an epidemiologic study. Food and Chemical Toxicology 39(5):
423-436.

Sugimura, T.; Nagao, M.;Kawachi, T.; Honda, M.; Yahagi, T.; Seino, Y.;
Sato, S.; Matsukura, N.; Matsushima, T.; Shirai, A.; Sawamura, M.; Matsumoto, H. (1977). Mutagen-carcinogens in foods with special reference to highly mutagenic pyrolytic products in broiled foods. Origins of
Human Cancer. H. H. Hiatt, J. D. Watson and J. A. Winsten. New York,
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Knize, M.G.; Andresen, B.D.; Healy, S.K.; Shen, N.H.; Lewis, P.R.;
Bjeldanes, L.F.; Hatch, F.T.; Felton, J.S. (1985). Effect of temperature,
patty thickness and fat content on the production of mutagens in fried
ground beef. Food and Chemical Toxicology 23: 1035-1040.

Vogelstein, B.; Kinzler, W.W. (1992). Carcinogens leave fingerprints. Nature 355: 209-210.

Larsson, B.K.; Sahlberg, G.P.; Eriksson, A.T.; Busk, L.A. (1983). Polycyclic
Aromatic-Hydrocarbons in Grilled Food. Journal of Agricultural and
Food Chemistry 31(4): 867-873.
Layton, D.W.; Bogen, K.T.; Knize, M.G.; Hatch, F.T.; Johnson, V.M.; Felton, J.S. (1995). Cancer risk of heterocyclic amines in cooked foods: An
analysis and implications for research. Carcinogenesis 16: 39-52.
Lijinsky, W. (1991). The formation and occurrence of polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons associated with food. Mutat. Res. 259: 251-261.
Nadon, L.; Siemiatycki, J.; Dewar, R.; Krewski, D.; Gerin, M. (1995). Cancer Risk Due to Occupational Exposure to Polycyclic AromaticHydrocarbons. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 28(3): 303-324.
Ohgaki, H.; Takayama, S.; Sugumura, T. (1991). Carcinogenicities of heterocyclic amines in cooked food. Mutation Research 259: 399-410.
Rivera, L.; Curto, M.J.C.; Pais, P.; Galceran, M.T.; Puignou, L. (1996).
Solid-phase extraction for the selective isolation of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, azaarenes and heterocyclic aromatic amines in charcoal-grilled meat. Journal of Chromatography A 731: 85-94.

Wakabayashi, K.; Nagao, M.; Esumi, H.; Sugimura, T. (1992). Food-derived


mutagens and carcinogens. Cancer Research (suppl.) 52: 2092s-2098s.
Ward, M.H.; Sonha, R.; Heineman, E.F.; Rothman, N.; Markin, R.;
Weisenburger, D.D.; Correa, P.; Hoar Zahn, S. (1997). Risk of adenocarcinoma of the stomach and esophagus with meat cooking method
and doneness preference. International Journal of Cancer 71: 14-19.
Wynder, E.L.; Gori, G.B. (1977). Contribution of the environment to cancer
incidence: an epidemiologic exercise. Journal of the National Cancer
Institute 58: 825-832.
Zheng, W.; Gustafson, D.R.; Sinha, R.; Cerhan, J.R.; Moore, D.; Hong, C.P.; Anderson, K.E.; Kushi, L.H.; Sellers, T.A.; Folsom, A.R. (1998). Welldone meat intake and the risk of breast cancer. Journal of the National
Cancer Institute 90: 1724-1729.
Zimmerli, B.; Rhyn, P.; Zoller, O.; Schlatter, J. (2001). Occurrence of heterocycic aromatic amines in the Swiss diet: analytical method, exposure estimation and risk assessment. Food Additives and Contaminants
18: 533-551.

Robbana-Baranat, S.; Rabache, M.; Rialland, E.; Fradlin, J. (1996). Heterocyclic amines: Occurrence and Prevention in Cooked Food. Environmental Health Perspectives 104: 280-288.

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MUSCLE BIOLOGY

Use of Cloning and Transgenesis in Pigs


Randall S. Prather* & David E. Gerrard
Introduction
A brochure from the breeding company contains a countless number of animals from which to select breeding stock.
A caption below one of the genetic prototypes reads just
feed Tender-Gro 30 days prior to slaughter and we guarantee that animals fed this product will produce the most
tender meat possible for your local packer, money back
guarantee. Another caption reads, feed Gro-Fast to those
animals (males or females) destined for meat production
and we guarantee faster weight gains and maximal returns
when animals are sold on a grade and yield program. Yet,
another reads, this animal has been the top carcass animal
on the rail for the last three years. Although the aforementioned seem somewhat futuristic in principle, or perhaps
impossible in the case of the latter, recent developments in
biotechnology and genetic engineering make all scenarios
possible in the near term.
The exact mechanisms controlling calpain activity in
postmortem muscle are far from being well-established,
yet many would argue that control of these proteases alone
are key to making meat more tender in the future for consumers (Goll et al., 1998). Many have shown that during
postmortem ageing, calpains attack and degrade proteins
that are important for maintaining the organization and
structure of muscle proteins (Koohmaraie et al., 2002).
Once disrupted, muscle (meat) becomes more tender because less force is required during the mastication process.
What would it be worth to the meat industry for such a crucial protein to be present, and active, in higher than normal
concentrations in the muscle of cattle at the time of slaughR.S. Prather
E125D ASRC, 920 East Campus Drive
Department of Animal Sciences
University of Missouri-Columbia
Columbia, MO 65211-5300
PratherR@Missouri.Edu
David Gerrard
202A Smith Hall
Purdue University
West Lafayette, IN 47907
dgerrard@purdue.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 83-87)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

ter? Is it even possible to deliver such proteases to the muscle? If so, the goal of providing consumers with consistently
palatable meat is within grasp.
Regulation of growth, especially lean growth, is a complex mechanism that is likely controlled by a myriad of
physiological parameters. One such physiological parameter that augments whole body growth is circulating levels of
growth hormone (GH). When exogenous growth hormone
is administered to lactating cows, milk production is greatly
enhanced. Of course, this whole process has been exploited
by agriculture and has been successfully commercialized
for improving dairy herd production (Bauman et al., 1999).
In other species, for example in pigs, the response is somewhat different. In particular, daily administration of growth
hormone not only improves growth rate but also acts as a
repartitioning agent whereby nutrients are directed away
from adipose tissue deposition and toward lean body mass
growth (Thiel et al., 1993). As a result, altering circulating
growth hormone levels is a very attractive means of improving growth performance and productivity as well as lean
composition. Unfortunately, the requirement for daily administration of GH is not, however, feasible nor is it practical to many in the meat animal industries. Furthermore,
there is substantial public resistance to using injected hormones as a means for improving animal productivity. Even
though animal scientists must remain cognizant of public
concerns, it is the obligation of those charged with improving the efficiency of growing animals to remain vigilant and
receptive to opportunities that may augment growth in a
consumer friendly manner. This is clearly the benefit of
using transgenesis and cloning. One such strategy currently
being investigated rigorously to circumvent repetitive and
constant delivery of growth hormone is to target upstream regulators of growth hormone secretion somatotrophs from the anterior pituitary gland. In particular, scientists at Baylor have successfully expressed enough growth
hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) in pig skeletal muscle
to increase circulating insulin-like growth factor I concentrations, which are down-stream of circulating growth
hormone and elucidate peripheral tissue responses in the
body (Draghia-Akli et al., 2002). Furthermore, these pigs
grew at a faster rate than controls. Although this study was
conducted using electroporation of DNA in skeletal muscle,
these data show that the strategy of targeting growth hormone releasing hormone as a means to improve growth
performance via the GH axis is possible and suggest that

83

this gene may be easy exploited using transgenic animal


technologies.

Transgenic Animal Production


A cursory perusal of the biomedical literature will quickly
reveal that transgenic animals, most notably transgenic
mice, have contributed greatly to our understanding of how
cells and organisms function. Both simple gene addition as
well as gene removal has facilitated this addition to our
knowledge base. The addition of genes permits questions to
be answered about both gain of function and more recently
reduction of function by knockdown experiments that use
RNAi strategies (Tabara et al., 1998). One of the most important additions to the biologists arsenal has been the ability to knockout a gene (Smithies et al., 1985). In one embodiment, by using this strategy a stop codon is inserted
into the coding region of a gene. When the ribosome translates the resulting mRNA, the polypeptide is terminated and
a shortened version of the protein is produced. If, for example, the production of the protein is terminated prior to the
catalytic region of the mature polypeptide, then the function
of that enzyme is knocked out. Alternatively, the gene can
be altered to produce a modified protein, thus modifying
function.
The actual knockout of a gene requires a technique entitled homologous recombination, and in mice, generally
embryonic stem cells. A large number of embryonic stem
(ES) cells can be used with either a conventional knockout
strategy (both positive and negative selection) or by using a
gene trap strategy. The specific recombination events are
relatively rare (1 in every 1,000,000). The inefficiency of
these techniques is not a problem because a large number
of ES cells can be gathered to begin the project, and the ES
cells can be maintained for a long period of time in vitro
without undergoing differentiation or senescence. These
two properties permit selection procedures that result in the
survival of only those cells that have undergone the sitespecific homologous recombination. These surviving cells
can then be tested, and if appropriately modified, injected
into the cavity of a mouse blastocyst. Inside the blastocyst,
they form a chimera with the host inner cell mass cells of
the blastocyst and result in a chimeric offspring. If some of
these ES cells contribute to cells that form sperm or eggs,
the genetic modification introduced by homologous recombination can be passed on to offspring, establishing that
genetic modification in the mouse. To date, the establishment of functional embryonic stem cells that can form chimeras and contribute to the germ line has only been shown
in the mouse despite numerous attempts in other species
(swine, ovine, bovine ) (Piedrahita, 2000, Wheeler, 2001).
Prior to December 2001, there were only a few methods
described to make swine transgenic (Prather et al., 2003).
These included injection of DNA directly into the pronucleus of a 1-cell stage embryo (Hammer et al., 1985), and
sperm-mediated transfection via fertilization (Gandolfi et al.,
1989, Sperandio et al., 1996). In December 2001, two addi-

84

tional methods were described, oocyte transduction (Cabot


et al., 2001) and transduction of fetal-derived cells followed
by cloning via nuclear transfer (Park et al., 2001). The major
limitation of all these approaches for pigs is the lack of control over how many copies of the gene integrate into the
genome, as well as where those copies enter the genome.
Thus investigators were limited to the addition of genes, and
it was not possible to remove gene function.
Simple gene addition has been very useful in swine for
both production agriculture and medical research. This
topic was reviewed in 2000 at this meeting (Wells, 2000).
Data was presented that show that pigs that incorporated a
variety of transgenes (IGF-I, growth hormone) had in some
cases increased growth rates and increases in lean muscle
mass. In addition to altering meat quality and efficiency of
production, the addition of genes has been very useful for
things like the study of eye diseases. One group at North
Carolina State University has created swine with mutated
forms of rhodopsin (Blackmon et al., 2000; Petters et al.,
1997). These animals manifest disease similar to human
retinitis pigmentosa. Testing treatments in pigs has saved
human patients from potentially harmful clinical trials. Also
the possibility of xenotransplantation of swine organs into
humans has been pursued by a variety of investigators who
have added genes to modify complement hMCP (Diamond
et al., 2001), hDAF (Cozzi et al., 1997), H2-DAF/beta actinCD59 (Byrne et al., 1997, Levy et al., 2000)), and carbohydrates by competitive inhibition (Costa et al., 1999) and
blocking of Gal epitopes (Miyagawa et al., 2001).
Thus while the addition of genes has proved very useful,
the technique has limitations. In some cases removal of a
gene is necessary. For example, if one wanted to determine
if myostatin knockout in swine would result in an increase
in lean muscle mass it couldnt be done by the random addition of a gene. A technique to modify the coding sequence of this gene such that a functional protein is not
produced is necessary. In the example of xenotransplantation, gene addition has resulted in prolonging the life of pig
organ in nonhuman primates, but removal of a specific
molecule on the cell surface is still required. In order to
remove gene function in pigs, since there are no ES cells as
in mice, it is necessary to perform homologous recombination on the donor cells and then use those donor cells for
nuclear transfer and cloning to create the animal (see below).

Knockout Swine
In January 2002, we published a technique that resulted
in the removal of gene function (Lai et al., 2002). This technique used a gene trap strategy on fetal-derived fibroblasts
followed by cloning via nuclear transfer. The gene whose
function was removed was alpha (1, 3) galactosyltransferase
(GATT1). The galactose 1, 3 galactose sugar linkage produced by this enzyme is thought to be responsible for hyperacute rejection when pig organs are transferred into primates (Auchincloss and Sachs, 1998, Cooper et al., 2002).

American Meat Science Association

The only way to completely remove the function of this


gene is to disrupt the coding region such that a functional
enzyme cannot be produced. Two technologies came together to enable the production of these knockout pigs: 1) a
quick method of making the genetic modification, and 2)
the ability to clone those genetically modified cells by transfer of the nuclei to enucleated oocytes. The gene trap strategy followed by quick selection was necessary because a
stable cell line such as an ES cell line in pigs is not available, and the fetal derived fibroblast cells senesce after
about 30 population doublings. Thus isolation, homologous
recombination (gene trap), selection, and expansion of
those survivors had to occur rather quickly. If not performed
quickly, the cells would senesce prior to use in the nuclear
transfer procedures (Lai et al., 2002). The second technology that came of age is the same technology that produced
Dolly the cloned sheep (Wilmut et al., 1997): cloning by
nuclear transfer.

treatment strategies. Finally, retina transplants have been


conducted in rats (Klassen et al., 2001), but even rat eyes
are much smaller than human eyes and present challenges
for developing treatment strategies.

More recently, a second round of selection was performed on cells that had one copy of the GATT1 gene already removed (Phelps et al., 2003). They discovered a single random point mutation that occurred in the reading
frame of the other copy of the gene. These cells were expanded and used for nuclear transfer. Their domestic pigs
now have both copies of the gene rendered non-functional.
Similarly, we used our first GATT1 knockout gilt (NIH
miniature pig) to derive fetal fibroblasts after nuclear transfer. We then added antibodies that recognize the galactose
1,3 galactose sugar linkage and compliment. Thirty-two
clones were identified (~10-4) and one of these clones, after
nuclear transfer and embryo transfer, resulted in a normal
offspring (named Goldie) that did not have a functional
copy of the GATT1. Neither human serum, baboon serum,
nor IB4 lectin binds to the cells isolated from Goldie (Lai et
al, in preparation). Thus she is an excellent candidate for
the production of organs that might be transferred into humans.

A discussion of animals derived by nuclear transfer requires a few words about abnormal phenotypes in offspring
derived by this technology. Generally, these aberrant phenotypes are referred to as Large Offspring Syndrome (LOS).
LOS was first described in cattle that were derived from in
vitro oocyte maturation, in vitro fertilization and culture
prior to embryo transfer. The most prevalent phenotype is
that of a skewed distribution of birth weights, with some of
the offspring over twice the normal size (Walker et al.,
1996, Wilson et al., 1995). The aberrant phenotypes are
species specific: cattle show large birth weights and/or contracted tendons; mice show large placenta and/or obesity in
old age; pigs show contracted tendons and/or respiratory
problems. Fortunately, these phenotypes are not transmitted
to the next generation (Tamashiro et al., 2002, Conway,
1996, Carter et al., 2002), as they appear to be a result of
aberrant DNA methylation in the donor cell line or during
early embryogenesis, and the DNA methylation pattern is
erased and reestablished during gametogenesis (Humpherys
et al., 2001, Rideout et al., 2001). Thus LOS is a management concern only in the first generation, as the aberrant
phenotypes are apparently not passed on to the offspring.

Swine as Models for Basic Research, Medicine and


Agriculture
Genetically modified swine will have uses in both basic
research as well as in production agriculture. In many cases
the genetically modified mouse is not suitable for the studies at hand. In discussions with researchers who work on
mice with specific genetic modifications, the issue of size
repeatedly arises. Mice, in many cases, are simply too small
to take measurements (e.g. coronary artery blood flow for
cardiovascular studies) or to practice treatments (bone
splinting for osteogenesis imperfecta). Children born with
osteogenesis imperfecta have weak bones and the treatment
of choice is splinting to repair the broken bones. The mouse
model exhibits the correct phenotype, but is simply too
small to practice the splinting technique (Forlino and
Marini, 2000). Similarly, a mutation in Fibrillin 1 results in
humans that are subject to aneurisms and has resulted in
the deaths of athletes (Kielty et al., 2002). Again, the knockout mice exhibit the phenotype, but are too small to test
56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

In other instances, mice do not exhibit the expected phenotype. In the case of cystic fibrosis the CFTR is mutated
and results in the lack of chloride ion movement across the
membrane. This gene has been mutated in mice, but there
is no airway disease phenotype (Grubb and Gabriel, 1997),
i.e. mice have a compensatory mechanism. Thus, even
though the mouse is too small to test many of the mechanical treatments that are used for humans that have cystic
fibrosis, it also has no symptoms of the disease. Thus a
knockout of CFTR in another species such as the pig is warranted.

Large Offspring Syndrome

Conclusion
While we now have the technology in-hand to add genes
as well as remove genes, the procedures are not efficient.
Technology that may be used in the near future to create
pigs with specific genetic modifications is that of manipulation of the male germ cell prior to introduction into an animal that has had its germ cells depleted (Brinster, 2002). It
may be possible to perform homologous recombination on
the germ cells prior to formation of the sperm. Transplantation of these cells into a host may permit the production of
genetically modified sperm cells. Then a male carrying
these cells could be used to breed a large number of females and the resulting offspring would carry the genetic
modification.
As previously stated in the introduction, the potential application of genetic modification to meat science is enor85

mous. The ability to make livestock grow faster and produce more meat that is more palatable is exciting and could
revolutionize the animal industry. However, one of the
greatest limitations to the development and propagation of
transgenics, other than the low percentage of viable offspring, is the limited availability of known genes that are
economically important. Moreover, tissue-specific promoters, or those DNA elements responsible for controlling expression of genes, are rather scarce and need further development. Currently, genes like the aforementioned and myostatin, which is responsible for the double muscled syndrome in cattle (McPherron and Lee, 1997), are the only
genes that have been studied sufficiently to merit such an
aggressive means of exploitation in the area of meat production. Of equal importance, however, is the fact that
many of these candidate genes need to be expressed in a
time and tissue-dependent manner. For example, myostatin
is a negative regulator of muscle development (Lee and
McPherron, 2001). In a mutated form, this gene product is
incapable of controlling muscle development properly and
thus yields a double muscled phenotype in cattle. Because
the myostatin may modulate other physiological phenomena in other tissues, transgene expression needs to be directed or restricted to developing skeletal muscle. Furthermore, development of muscle fibers occurs over fairly narrow window of prenatal development. Therefore, the utility
of using myostatin or a mutated form of this gene in transgenics would be greatly enhanced if transgenes were controllable. At present, there are a limited number of promoters available for expressing transgenes in a tissue-specific
manner. The most often used promoter is the muscle
creatine kinase (MCK) promoter (Jaynes et al., 1988). Because MCK is expressed solely in muscle cells, this promoter is ideal for restricting transgene expression to muscle
cells. This promoter has been used successfully to develop a
number of transgenic mouse lines.
Controllable promoters, on the other hand, or those promoters that respond positively or negatively to various
compounds, either fed or injected, have had limited success
outside the cell culture environment. However, continued
development of such reagents must occur if maximal
benefits are going to be realized by transgenic approaches.
As a discipline, it is imperative that we continue to research and study, in detail, those biochemical and molecular processes that drive meat production. As a result of these
efforts, we will continue to discover genes that may some
day be used to generate transgenic animals for commercial
meat production. Since the technology is now available to
make most any genetic modification we are now limited
only by our imagination and baseline data needed to justify
the efforts.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge support from the
NIH (RR13438) and Food for the 21st Century to RSP.

86

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American Meat Science Association

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56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

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88

American Meat Science Association

INGREDIENT TECHNOLOGY

Microbial Problems, Causes, and Solutions in


Meat and Poultry Processing Operations
Helen G. Brown
I will organize this paper around Poultry Raw, Beef Raw,
and Fully Cooked Meat Products and for each will attempt
to cover the Problems, Causes and Solutions.

Poultry Industry
Problems
Salmonella is the primary microbial challenge for poultry.
In 1997, USDA 9 CFR 381.94 established Pathogen Reduction Performance Standards for Salmonella and E. coli.
According to the standard, raw poultry product may not test
positive at a rate exceeding the values of the CFR (1998); for
broilers the standard is 20%. Salmonella is reported as incidence (% positive). Salmonella sampling is done by selecting one WOG (without giblets, i.e. an eviscerated bird) and
performing a WBCR (whole bird carcass rinse) with 400 ml
of sterile solution.
Out of a 51 sample window, the maximum number of
positives is 12. If a plant exceeds 12 positives of 52, the
government writes an NR (noncompliance record) The NR
states that the
establishment shall take immediate action to
meet the standard; when the establishment fails
the (2nd) next FSIS 51 sample, reassessment of the
HACCP plan occurs; and failure of the third consecutive series of FSIS tests constitutes failure to
maintain sanitary conditions and adequate
HACCP planwill cause FSIS to suspend inspection services.. Until the establishment submits to
FSIS written assurances detailing corrective action
and measures to reduce the prevalence of pathoHelen G. Brown, Ph.D.
Tyson Foods, Inc.
Food Safety and Research Laboratory
3609 Johnson Road
Springdale, AR 72762
helen.brown@tyson.com
Contents of this article Copyright 2003 by Tyson Foods, Inc., USA. All
rights reserved.
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 89-93)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

gens. [Ref. 9 CFR 381.94(b)(3)(I)]


Usually FSIS gives a plant the time to change their process
before initiating a 2nd window (and luckily the Salmonella
season can change during this time).
Although a plant gets a heads up call from USDA
warning that they have 8 + during the sampling period, the
NR is not issued until sampling is completed. In general, the
FSIS will sample a plant for Salmonella once per year. A
sample, one bird per shift/day, is pulled at a plant for 52
consecutive days. USDA Salmonella data is based solely on
samples that the inspectors pull and send to their laboratories. I should also add that plants can and do split the
USDA samples; hence, a call from USDA is not usually a
surprise. Because of sampling problems, weekends, holidays, temperature abuse during shipping, it is not uncommon for 70 or 80 samples to actually be pulled. Our company has several years of historical data before and since
the Salmonella standard went into effect. I would estimate
that less than 10% of our 45 slaughter plants have ever
failed one 52 day government sampling and none have
failed the second window. Why dont we fail 2 in a row?
Because plants are very proactive in taking care of issues
that cause NRs.
The presence of Salmonella and generic E. coli are not related. When I talk about E. coli and poultry I am talking
about generic E. coli. It should be stressed that there has
never been E. Coli O157 identified with poultry! Although
there are relationships between fecal material and the level
of E. coli (i.e. log values), the causes of high E. coli are basically (UN-)sanitary equipment, (lack of) control of the evisceration process, (poor) control of fecal material and (inadequate) levels of water and chlorine used to remove contamination. And, although there are two different governmental micro standards, it is rare that a plant has issues with
E. coli because plants have developed strategies to control
Salmonella and coincidentally improve their washing and
chlorination processes!
In 1998, FSIS put forth a Zero Tolerance for fecal material. The Zero Tolerance is non negotiable and also part of
HACCP plans. Water with and without chlorine is the Solution to poor E. coli performance. Control of feed and
water in the live birds is very important in controlling fecal
contamination. The industry has learned a lot of manage89

ment tricks over the past five years while trying to conquer
this problem. There are windows of opportunity for time off
feed which impact consistency of fecal material and gut
strength. Plants have gone to extremes of installing new
evisceration equipment, changing and adding more bird
wash cabinets, and in the process increasing number of
gallons of water per bird. Plants prior to institution of zero
fecal tolerance and the E. coli performance standard had
water volume less than 5 gallons per bird. Some plants today use as much as 10 gallons per bird. (For calculation
purposes, this is about 10 million gallons of water per week
for an average poultry slaughter plant!)
Causes
Chickens eat, sit, and walk where they poop. Fecal material etc comes into processing plant in feather follicles. The
scalding process, which is necessary to loosen feathers, can
dissolve protective cuticle, enabling attachment of Salmonella. Bacteria are present on live birds; they go through hot
(scalding) water to soften feathers to enable removing feathers. Scalder water is a common water bath and as such
contains all the debris from the poultry house. After the
birds are picked these, wet birds, have bacteria. During
evisceration, birds drop onto common surfaces prior to being re-hung for the evisceration process. In the mechanical
evisceration process for poultry, the birds touch each
other; they are warm (96+F) (doubling of bacteria occurs
very quickly at this temperatures.) Additionally, crosscontamination or contamination by viscera can occur. Contamination can be bird to bird, or bird to equipment to bird.
(One process that has been studied was to superglue the
guts so they did not leak!)

USDA, ARS researchers at Texas A&M have looked at putting chemicals in the waterers to accomplish the same. Researchers at University of Georgia are using electrolyzed
water and electrostatic spray of chemicals to improve/impact bacteria in the hatching process. One solution is application of competitive microorganisms in live
production. Companies, like Milk Specialties, Inc. (Preempt) and Calsporin, market Competitive Exclusion (CE)
products that exclude the attachment of bacteria in the digestive tract. These are considered drugs by FDA. Most of
these products are used in Japan and in some of the U.S.
primary breeding operations. They consist of lactic acid
bacteria that are applied by spraying the bacteria on eggs in
the hatching cabinets. When the chicks hatch, they preen
and consume the bacteria in the process. This sets up a digestive tract where Salmonella can not attach. Unfortunately, these products are expensive, two cents per chick;
but the bacteria can cause maturation of the gut that justifies this high cost. (Faster maturation of the gut can result in
improved animal performance and bird health.)
In the processing plant, Chlorine (sodium/calcium hypochlorite and gas) was historically the antimicrobial. With
a Zero Fecal (tolerance) in place and USDA approval for
OLR, several solutions have been added to the antimicrobial arsenal. Below is a list of several solutions that are
approved for OLR.
1.

Rhodia-Avgard, TSP (Trisodium Phosphate) was the first


approved solution for OLR TSP (and other OLR) solutions are applied by cabinet prior to water chilling the
birds. TSP is used at 8-10% level, has 11-12 pH, and is
very viscous. It acts in a detergent manner. This phosphate-based chemical kills gram negative organisms.
Some research has been suggested that Listeria tends to
thrive because competing organisms have been destroyed. Over the years, there has been some debate as
to a Lazarus effect of the TSP. Immediately after
treatment (before the chiller) there are no Salmonella,
yet after 1 hour in a cold water bath there may be 20%
incidence Salmonella. So, obviously questions arise as
to where the Salmonella comes from hence the raising from the dead theory! Poultry processors have experienced some problems when using TSP: corrosivity,
wear on metals etc, slick surfaces, plastics, rubber, and
human skin pitting. Because of altering the disinfection
properties of chlorine in the water (pH) in chillers and
resulting environmental phosphate discharge issues,
Rhodia is in process of developing AvGardXP SMS (Sodium Meta-silicate). Industry had expected approval by
last fall (2002), but only a few poultry plants have
switched to SMS Previously this compound has been
used as a scalder additive in swine slaughter.

2.

Alcides-Sanova (Acidified Sodium Chlorite), was the


second solution approved for OLR. A 3 to 9 oz mist of
up to 1200 ppm this chemical-citric acid and sodium
chlorite originally was applied pre-chill in a vented
cabinet. FDA amended food additive regulation to provide for the safe use of acidified sodium chlorite solu-

When poultry has visible contamination (specifically fecal, feed materials) birds must be reprocessed. This originally involved removal from the line and trim, trim, trim!).
For several years now On Line Reprocessing (OLR) has
been allowed by USDA. This process has three major parts:
Wash to remove fecal,
Treat with antimicrobial,
Trim while on line.
Solutions
Poultry is vertically integrated, where companies control
chicks, feed, management practices, yet most houses are
actually owned by individual growers. There are one to ten
houses per individual grower and the water comes from
wells on the farm and the quality of water varies from
grower to grower. In an attempt to control the amount of
moisture that birds walk etc on, birds drink from nipple
drinkers. Wet litter causes increased levels of fecal material
in feather follicles and also changes the bacterial population
on the birds. Litter beetles are a vector of Salmonella in
chickens. Farmers in warm regions tend to have high levels
of beetles and it is not surprising that farms with a high beetle population have bird health and feed conversion problems.
Acetic acid, i.e. vinegar, and chlorine (household bleach)
are frequently used in the drinking water to control bacteria.
90

American Meat Science Association

tions as a component of a post-chill carcass spray or


dip when applied to poultry meat, organs, or related
parts or trim. Acidified sodium chlorite can now be applied as a pre chill spray, a post chill spray or both and
most recently as a pre chill dip.
3.

4.

Ecolab Inc. Inspexx is one of several products based on


Peroxyacetic Acid chemistry that can be applied to hot
or cold meat and poultry carcasses in spray cabinets
and in chillers via spray chill systems (meat) or to parts,
trim and organs. Another form, Vortexx, is approved for
food contact surfaces and conveyor belts. Tsunami, a
third form, is also used on vegetables. Peroxyacids are
antimicrobial compounds for use on meat, poultry and
food contact surfaces. They are mixed peroxyacids,
i.e. containing more than one peroxyacid. Peroxyacetic
acid is formed from the reaction of hydrogen peroxide
with acetic acid. R = CH3 or a methyl group. This reaction is reversible. The secondary peroxyacid is octanoic
acid, a saturated C-8 fatty acid, R=C7H15. With a
mixed peroxyacid system, a much broader antibacterial
spectrum is realized. Also, fatty acids will help wet out
fatty surfaces such as meat and poultry surfaces.
Zep has introduced the ZAPs process for OLR which
uses chlorine dioxide in a vented cabinet. Chlorine dioxide received approval several years ago for use in
poultry chill waters, but gained more use on the turkey
segment of the business than in chicken because of exposure time, concentrations, and off gassing of delivery
systems. With this potent oxidizer (as with other chemicals) there is potential for the blood, visible through the
skin in wing tips and blood vessels, becoming oxidized
and browning. The Zep OLR process, which has pilot
installations in 3 plants, because of the USDA
validation requirements, has been very successful in reducing bacteria on poultry coming out of the water
chillers

There are other chemicals seeking approval for use in


OLR. Concerns about residual activity, leading to concern
about toxicity and carcinogenicity of the product, must be
satisfied prior to approval being granted for their use. Additionally, systems must be designed, chemical concentrations validated and environmental concerns satisfied. SafeFoods Inc. is pursuing approval for Cecure, CPC (cetyl
pyridium chloride) for use in OLR .Zentox is looking at
monochloramine disinfection. Chlorine chemical companies are also looking for applications for their chemicals.

Beef
Problems
The primary microbial problem to the beef industry is E.
coli O157 H7. There are two types of interventions on beef:
whole carcass interventions and ingredients used to reduce microorganisms on beef trimmings and ground beef.
There is no intervention that is a silver bullet; multiple hurdles are put in place to reduce microbial loads and then
products have to be cooked above a temperature that in56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

sures bacterial kill. FSIS has determined that raw ground


beef and other non-intact raw beef products are considered
adulterated if found to contain E. coli O157:H7. The reasoning was that raw ground products present significant public
health risk because they are consumed after cooking that
may not destroy E. coli O157:H7 organisms that can be
introduced internally by chopping or grinding. Based on
available data, FSIS believes that E. coli O157:H7 may be a
food safety hazard reasonably likely to occur in beef production. Internal beef must be heated above 155 to destroy
pathogens. . Although beef has been eaten raw and all the
way to charred, poultry has never been eaten raw or even
medium, rare. It is now illegal in most states to serve beef
rare, especially ground or marinated products.
Causes
Research has shown that bacterial attachment occurs the
first minute of bacterial contact with tissue surfaces. Thus it
has not been difficult to draw a connection between fecal
contamination from hides and viscera and E. coli O157:H7.
As is poultry production, there is a large concentration of
animals in a feed lot, they are at the mercy of weather and
they eat where they poop also. Hence, physical removal of
contamination is the primary means for controlling microbial E. coli O157:H7. Physical methods include trimming,
and washing both of areas and whole carcasses. Large feed
lots and slaughter operation are washing live animals to
remove contamination from the hides prior to them actually
going into the slaughter plant.
Solutions
I want to start by covering some of the hurdles put in
place in the slaughter plant and of unfolding interest on the
trim. IBP Fresh Meats committed over $100 million to improved food safety and quality. This included development
and implementation of food safety process that is trademarked as Triple Clean. This is actually a series of processes that are strategically applied to every carcass. The
processes include use of steam vacuums, carcass wash and
organic rinse systems and steam pasteurization with a final
organic acid rinse. This is very much a multiple hurdle solution.
In Step I of Triple Cleanknife trimming and hand held
steam vacuums are used in the slaughter process to remove/prevent contamination of the carcass by hide or internal organs. Steam vacuums like spot carpet cleaners are
used wherever contamination is found, immediately. Because beef slaughter is not as automated and high speed, as
poultry slaughter, the labor force is constantly cleaning up
after every cut, etc. In Triple Clean Step II, after the hide
is removed the carcass is completely washed followed by
application of one of the USDA approved solutions (lactic
or acetic acid). Because the wash is done so quickly after
hide removal, bacteria have less time to attach and the antimicrobial solution give an even greater kill for any bacteria left on the carcass surface. Step III Triple Clean, after
final USDA inspection the carcass goes through a high volume low pressure cabinet to remove bone dust, blood
etc. A 1-2 punch of steam pasteurization cabinet (where it is
91

blanketed with pressurized steam and a cold water rinse to


cool this surface back down).
There are actually 5-6 ingredients considered safe and
suitable along with radiation which are approved for application to beef carcass, parts, and trim. These are presented
in the table below The Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
and FSIS are working together on requests for approvals of
ingredients and sources of radiation in a streamlined approval process with simultaneous review of requests and
petitions by FDA and FSIS. The attached table can be accessed through the FSIS Labeling and Additives Policy website: www.fsis.usda.gov/oppde/larc
Table 1. Ingredients considered safe and suitable for beef carcass,
parts and trim.
Ingredient

Product

Application

Beef carcasses and


parts

Direct food additive

21 CFR
173.370

Beef carcasses

Secondary direct
food additive/Processing
Aid

Acidified
sodium
chlorite

21 CFR
173.325

Carcasses, parts, and


trimmings, as well as
all processed, comminuted or formed
meat food products.

Secondary direct
food additive/Processing
Aid

Ozone

21 CFR
173.368

All meat and poultry


products

Secondary direct
food additive/Processing
Aid

Sources of
ionizing
radiation

21 CFR
179.26

Pork, poultry, and


beef products as
listed.

Food additive

Lactoferrin

Peroxyacids

Reference
GRAS
Notice
(FDA
Website)

Secondary direct food additives are defined as processing aids by FDA definitions (not USDA) and the effects are
momentary, with no residual effects. Hence the ingredient
does not impact the label or standard of identity. Acids are
good examples of processing aids; their functions are approved (as acidulants, nutrients, antioxidants, etc). For use
as an antimicrobial, the chemical companies have to submit
data showing processing aid use and no residual impact on
sensory characteristics (color or odor), or shelf life, or leave
a detectable residual. If there is use according to labeling
definition, the solutions actually become ingredients
and hence need to be on the label. Although there have
been other chemicals that are seeking approval, some
products are not focusing on trim applications because of
impact of acid on organoleptics: i.e. pigment! Mionix Calcium Acid Sulfate and Sterifx are probably in this category.
Lactoferrin is one of the new generations of solutions
for fighting bacteria. It provides protection against most major pathogens (E. coli, Listeria, Campylobacter, Salmonella,
and Staph). Activated Lactoferrin (aLF) was granted GRAS
status by FDA in October, 2001, and approval by USDA for
use on beef in December, 2001. The use requires labeling
contains Lactoferrin, a naturally occurring dairy ingredient. There are two different applications a spray followed
by rinse whereby bacteria are detached and spray on
92

and leave on for a residual effect This keeps down bacterial growth perhaps similar to CE. Terminus Lab Inc. (who
had partnered with Farmland National Beef in the first use
of this solution) is making application as a processing aid
status for the detachment intervention. Information from
Terminus Lab indicates that Lactoferrin protects up to 45
days when left on the beef, hence there is an extension of
shelf life. One function of Lactoferrin is to absorb free iron
that pathogens use and whether one in the same, it neutralizes pathogens by eliminating attachment structures.
Peroxyacetic acid, the same product that is being used in
OLR for Poultry, is approved for use as a red meat antimicrobial. This is in the same family as the Inspexx used for
on line reprocessing in poultry. In November, 2000, Inspexx 200 was approved by FDA (FR Vol. 65, No. 228,
70660-1). In February, 2001, commercial processing plant
initiated Inspexx 200 as a pre-steam antimicrobial. Then,
April 24, 2001 Excel established exclusive application. The
peroxy acid has a double whammy antimicrobially speaking; it oxidizes and then has a lower the pH. It has been
applied at a number of intervention points; before the evisceration cabinet, both pre and post pasteurization, after the
hot water pasteurization, and in hot box applications. It has
also been used on pork carcasses after the final wash, in hot
box spray chilling and pre fabrication. Ecolab data has presented data showing comparable cost to organic acids, and
greater efficacy in reducing contamination. Currently, FDA
approval is being sought for application to offal (head,
tongue, etc.) and Meat Trimmings for Ground Beef.
Acidified sodium chlorite, (ASC) has been used both pre
and post chill on beef carcasses. ASC has been used at
1000 ppm in a post skinning spray with significant reductions for APC: 2.4 log reduction in APC VS .25 log reduction with 2% Lactic acid. This reduction was attributed to
the short attachment time in carcasses treated right after
skinning. A 2-log reduction in APC was achieved when ASC
was applied post chill: 4.4 log vs. 2.4 log (APC cfu/cm2
Data from Sanova 2003).
Ozone and Radiation are both approved as antimicrobials on beef. Ozone, which is a gas, can be solubilized in
water for a millisecond and has been used in poultry chill
waters. There are difficulties because of the short stability of
the compound and because although a powerful oxidant, it
oxidizes all organic matter including the fat, lean of the
carcass, and shackles plus everything in the processing
plant. Radiation of the whole carcass is very difficult to accomplish, but frozen ground beef patties are currently being
treated with low doses of radiation to kill bacteria. Although
radiation must be labeled as an additive, the problems of
public perception and cost have obviously been overcome
for ground beef patties.

Fully Cooked Products


Problems
I would be remiss if I did not cover microbial contamination on fully cooked products and what can and is being
American Meat Science Association

done to solve the problem of Listeria. Recalls are a producer/processors worst nightmare. When publicity surrounds one particular company and product (e.g. Minnesota
firm recalls ground beef products for possible E. coli
O157:h7 August 22, 2002), all the industry suffers. Stock
prices can drop 10-20% reacting to huge recalls. And there
have been companies who have ended up becoming part of
larger companies because of (e.g. a 24 million pound)
ground beef recall. The USDA FSIS has a web site where
recall information is constantly updated. I went through the
list of recalls for 2002 and through May 2003. In 2003
USDA recalls were split about evenly between Listeria and
E. coli O157, and there were a couple of recalls for Salmonella on pork or beef (probably raw). In 2003, there were no
recalls for micro on raw poultry. There have been 25 recalls
of poultry and meat products this year: two for ground
beef/beef trim for E. coli O157 and seven for Listeria potentially on fully cooked products. (One was chicken salad, 2
were pork products, and others were frankfurters, bologna,
sausage.)
Class I: A health hazard situation where there is a reasonable probability that the use of the product will
cause serious, adverse health consequences or death.
Class II: A health hazard situation where there is a remote probability of adverse health consequences from
the use of the product.
Class III: A situation where the use of the product will
not cause adverse health consequences.
Listeria Recalls are Class I or II. In 2002 a USDA FSIS
Positive Product Listeria Sample at Wampler Foods triggered
the largest recall ever (27.4 million pounds of fresh and
frozen ready-to-eat turkey and chicken products.) This led
to increased Listeria testing at fully cooked processing plants
as new regulations were promulgated. Purac has introduced
PURASAL Lactic acid products that can be added to vacuum packaged, uncured and cured meat products as a
natural antimicrobial
Causes
Listeria is an adulterant with zero tolerance. The problem
is very apparent the solutions are not quite so. Fully cooked
product is sterile, but because Listeria grows in a damp environment, sets up in niches, and forms biofilm that can not
be removed during cleaning and sanitation, the environment presents many opportunities for microbial contamination during slicing, packaging, handling etc.
Solutions
This spring USDA-FSIS proposed regulations that require
processing plants to have Listeria control programs in place.
There are 3 methods a plant can use based on risk. What
subsequently happens is that plants have to apply solutions to their problem or face extreme sampling, holding,
and destruction, risk the NRs and in general have potential
of a lot of bad PR.
The risk assignment from lowest to highest are:

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

1.

Apply post lethality treatment and antimicrobial or


process to control LM.

2.

Apply post lethality treatment or antimicrobial


agent or process.

3.

Does not apply post lethality treatment or agent or


process so it has to have sanitation program, test
food contact surface and hold when test is positive.

Listeria is heat and salt tolerant, and grows at cold temperature. Solutions for most micro are heat and sanitation.
Unfortunately, this problem is not quite as simply fixed as it
appears. Tyson Foods, Inc. has led the industry with a
Trademarked Listeria Sentinel Site monitoring program.
Contact and non contact surfaces are monitored daily for
Listeria. Products are retained until results are negative and
positive contact surfaces result in a swat team approach to
finding exactly what causes the positive (e.g. maintenance
personnel moving from raw to fully cooked areas, laying
contaminated tools on a food contact belt etc.) The latest
regulation defines the solutions based on risk. There have
been a number of technologies introduced to prevent and
control these problems. Post lethality treatments include
radiant,(infra red), UV, heating, hot water, steam pasteurization, high pressure. Antimicrobial agents may be added to
the product formulation, to the finished product or package.
Antimicrobial processes include freezing, addition of lactates, acetates, diacetates, salt, nitrites, acid, or other additives to drop the water activity.
Below is a table of Solutions for Fully Cooked Meat
Products- specifically lactates and diacetates. Because of
the above regulation much of the industry has undertaken
to add lactates, acetates and diacetates to their fully cooked
products. This reduces the risk level and sampling and provides a comfort zone (because when Listeria is present during refrigerated shelf life there is no growth.) Purac has
developed a tool to calculate levels of their/these products
that will retard growth of LM in cured products that USDA
actually cites: the Opti.Form Listeria Control Model. The
effect of these antimicrobials is self evident (Source Bedie et
al., 2001). No pathogen growth @ 70 days with 3% sodium
acetate; 120 days @ 6%. 120 days no growth with .5P%
sodium diacetate vs 50 days @.25P%. Sodium acetate is
less effective but still inhibits Listeria growth as opposed to
product with no Purasal.
Table 2. Solutions for fully cooked meat products.
Antimicrobial
Sodium lactate
Sodium diacetate
Sodium acetate
Sodium lactate
Sodium diacetate
Control

Level
(%)
3
0.25
0.25,
0.5
6
.5
0

L. Monocytogenes Growth Inhibition


70 days no pathogen growth
50 days no pathogen growth
20 days no pathogen growth
120 days no growth and reduced pathogen
growth
120 days no growth and reduced pathogen
growth
Increased to 6 logs in 20 days

93

94

American Meat Science Association

INGREDIENT TECHNOLOGY

Natural Antioxidants Review


James E. Haworth
Introduction
Antioxidants are substances that delay or inhibit the oxidation of foods, and are therefore of great interest to food
scientists. Antioxidants are naturally present in foods, but at
very low levels. Therefore, additional quantities are added
to control oxidation, increase shelf life, and improve overall
quality. The mechanism by which this occurs is termed free
radical termination, and is accomplished through the donation of an electron or hydrogen atom. Antioxidants can also
protect food by the deactivation of metal ions and singlet
oxygen.
The most extensively used synthetic antioxidants in foods
are butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), Propyl Gallate (PG), and tert-butylhydroquinone
(TBHQ). Due to the prooxidant effects of transition metal
ions like magnesium, iron and copper, chelators are also
used extensively in the food industry. Chelators such as
citric acid (natural), ethylenediamintetraacetic acid (EDTA)
and polyphosphates or their derivatives, are used to chelate
metal ions. For many years there has been strong debate
and concern regarding the safety of certain synthetic antioxidants as potential carcinogens. BHA, BHT, PG and
TBHQ still remain on the GRAS (Generally Recognized As
Safe) list, although limitations to their use have been implemented in the U.S., while BHT, PG and TBHQ still lack
approval in many countries. Therefore, there is growing
interest by consumers and the food industry in replacing
currently used synthetic compounds with natural alternatives that are perceived to be safer and have wider consumer acceptance.
There are two main categories of antioxidants: primary
and secondary. Primary antioxidants interrupt the freeradical chain of oxidative reactions by contributing hydrogen from the phenolic hydroxyl groups, these forming stable
free radicals that do not initiate or propagate further oxidaJ. E. Haworth, M.Sc.
Senior Professional
Cargill Health & Food Technologies
2500 Shadywood Road
Excelsior, MN 55331
james_haworth@cargill.com
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 95-98)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

tion of lipids. Secondary antioxidants trap radicals, chelate


metals, regenerate primary antioxidants, or act as emulsifying agents. Synergism among different primary antioxidants,
and between primary and secondary antioxidants is often
taken advantage of in food products and should be considered for all applications.

Market
Since the 1980s, consumer interest in and demand for,
natural and organic products has increased, both in the U.S.
and Europe. As a result, use of synthetic additives has declined while additives considered to be natural have grown,
largely because the latter are perceived as safer. The natural
trend, coupled with the growing market for premium food
products, has driven the use of natural antioxidants like
tocopherols (vitamin E), natural herbal flavorings, and
ascorbic acid (vitamin C).
Many herbal extracts have antioxidant properties, and are
therefore used as food antioxidants. The antioxidant function can generally be linked to the presence of phenolic
compounds such as rosmanol, carnosic acid, carnosol, and
rosmarinic acid. The herbal extract most commonly used as
a food antioxidant is rosemary (rosmarinus officinalis),
which is native to most Mediterranean countries, and is
now readily available throughout Europe (Frost and Sullivan
et al., 2002). Although U.S. corporations lag behind the
production capabilities of firms in the EU, some U.S. companies are growing rosemary in the southern states and increasing production capabilities.

Natural Antioxidants
Natural antioxidants are commonly derived from plant
sources, and the efficacy is determined by plant species,
variety, extraction and/or processing methods, and the
growing environment. The mode of action for these substances will vary depending upon the source material, the
presence of synergists and antagonists, and of course the
food matrix applied to.
In order to use any antioxidant preparation in food, it
must be safe; easy to incorporate; effective at low concentrations; possess no undesirable odor, flavor or color; be
heat stable and have economic benefit. The possible effects
of antagonists must be carefully considered since an antioxidant may become a prooxidant in the presence of certain other molecules or at high concentrations. For exam95

Carnosic acid level (mg/g)


Temperature (C)
Sunshine (Hours)

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1

10

11

12

It is generally recognized that carnosic acid has the highest antioxidant potency of all the compounds found in
rosemary extracts. As carnosic acid oxidizes, it cascades
from one antioxidant to another, acting as a primary antioxidant throughout this cascade, and protecting the food
system (RFI et al.). The phenomenon has been termed, the
Carnosic Acid Cascade. When carnosic acid donates a hydrogen to quench a free radical, it forms the antioxidant
carnosol, which in turn forms another, rosmanol and so on.
Carnosic acid thus has secondary and tertiary antioxidant
formation mechanisms, although carnosol and rosmanol
have only ~45% the potency of carnosic acid (RFI et al.).
Many herbal extracts obtained from rosemary, sage, and
oregano also contain hydrophilic antioxidants including
compounds like rosmarinic acid that can act synergistically
with the more lipophilic antioxidants. The blend of compounds is very important as it ensures a multi-phase food
system will be broadly protected. Conversely, more lipophilic antioxidants like tocopherols may be blended with
natural emulsifiers like lecithin, which increases dispersability within a multi-phase system, and increase the effectiveness of the formulations. As seen in Figure 2, herbal products can also take advantage of this emulsification effect
(Haworth et al.)
30
25
20
15
10
5

Commercial
Rosemary
prod./Lecithin (1000
PPM/5000 PPM)

Commercial
Rosemary prod.
(1000 PPM)

0
Mixed
Tocopherols/Lecithin
(300 PPM/5000 PPM)

Rosemary has been used for centuries in foods for flavor


and protection from rancidity. Rosemary, and other herbal
products, have been accepted in the food industry because
of their clean labeling, a direct reaction to the publics
demand for all-natural foods. These products have traditionally had limitations, including standardization of their
antioxidant potency. Many factors, including climate, time
of harvest, extraction process, and handling can affect the
potency of herbal extracts. For example, a recent study examined the relationship between carnosic acid levels in
rosemary and its growing conditions. The growing conditions were, average hours of sunshine and average daily
temperature per month. As seen in Figure 1, a direct relationship was noted between the production of carnosic acid
and the selected environmental conditions (Hildago et al.,
1998). Many producers are now certifying their products on
an activity basis vs. certifying specific levels of active
chemicals.

Figure 1. Relationship between carnosic acid level and rosemary


growing environment.

Control

Herbal extracts and flavorings in commercial production


include rosemary, sage, and oregano, and are widely used
in meat products. These substances contain varied but related antioxidative compounds, including carnosol, carnosic acid, rosmaridiphenol, rosmarinic acid, rosmanol and
rosmariquinol. Extracts of rosemary, sage and oregano that
have been deodorized and decolorized are now commercially available and their use in a variety of lipid-containing
foods is increasing. Formulated herbal products are usually
in liquid form, and are commonly added to meat products
in the range of 500-5000 PPM (on a fat basis). The oleoresins, which have GRAS status, have been used in various
products such as potato chips, sauces, dressings, processed
meat/poultry, and seafood as well as cakes and crackers.
The antioxidant activities of such extracts/oleoresins maybe
comparable to, or exceed, those of BHA and BHT, and are
comparable to the efficacy of tocopherols depending on the
quality of the extract. These herbal products have also
found value by making the ingredient label more nature
friendly.

Month

OSI Shelf Life (Hours)

Herbals

Mixed Tocopherols
(300 PPM)

Increased consumer demand for foodstuffs free from additives has lead to a growing interest in products that are
perceived as natural. Herbal and tocopherol/vitamin Ebased products, in particular, are recognized by consumers
as being natural. Furthermore, regulations permit the labeling of herbal extracts and/or tocopherols as natural, which
is an appealing option to most food producers.

50

Lecithin (5000 PPM)

ple, chlorophylls may overwhelm the antioxidant effect of


phenolics due to photosensitized oxidation and the presence of transition metal ions. Metal ions, such as magnesium, iron and copper, may render conditions favorable to
oxidation.

Antioxidant Treatment

Figure 2. Emulsification effects on mixed tocopherols and a commercially available rosemary product.

96

American Meat Science Association

Tocopherols and Tocotrienols


Natural antioxidants may also be obtained from crude,
unrefined vegetable oils, including tocopherols and tocotrienols. These substances are present as constituents of
unsaponifiable matter, and may occur together with phospholipids, carotenoids, chlorophylls and triterpenyl alcohols. Deodorization of these oils via molecular distillation
yields a significant amount of purified tocopherols and tocotrienols. Most of the global supply of tocopherols originates from soybean oil processing, while tocotrienols are
obtained from palm and rice bran oils.
Tocopherols and tocotrienols are monophenolic and
lipophilic compounds. Tocopherols are the most widely
used of these two compounds, and occur in four main
forms termed alpha-, beta-, gamma-, and delta-tocopherol
depending on the number and position of the methyl
groups. In terms of vitamin E activity, d-alpha-tocopherol is
the reference compound with the highest biological potency; however, in food systems, the order of activity is
delta>gammabeta>>alpha. Tocopherols may be formulated as a 100% oil dispersible product, in dry form, or can
be suspended/emulsified in water or brine solutions before
inclusion into foods. Synergism between tocopherols and
ascorbic acid or its derivatives has been well documented.
Ternary mixtures of tocopherols, herbal extracts, lecithin or
other phospholipids, chelators, and/or ascorbic acid or its
derivatives exhibit excellent synergistic antioxidant activity
in bulk oils, meat systems, and emulsified foods.
Antioxidant efficacy is determined by the suitability of
antioxidants in each food system. In general, more hydrophilic antioxidants are better at stabilizing bulk oil than oilin-water emulsions. The activity of lipophilic antioxidants
follows the opposite trend (Frankel et al., 1998). There are
many other parameters that must be taken into account
when selecting antioxidants for food applications. Specific
attention should be paid to the photosensitizing effect of
chlorophylls in natural antioxidant products. In addition,
the level of incorporation of antioxidants in foods should be
optimized so that the antioxidant does not become a
prooxidant at high levels. The use of chelating and emulsifying agents should also be considered.

Meats
The most important reference to the consumer when
making a meat purchase decision is color. Consumers notice differences in color among meat products, and make
purchase decisions based upon those differences. It has
been estimated that up to 20% of all products are price reduced, discarded, or reprocessed due to discoloration and
consumer perceptions of the product being rancid (Sherbeck et al., 1995). Many retailers increase the overall price
of all meat products to compensate for lost margin associated with these problems.
Research has shown that natural antioxidants can improve the shelf life of meat products by delaying the onset

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

of oxidation. Several studies have revealed that high dietary


levels of vitamin E can improve the shelf life of the meat
products (Stubbs et al. 2002). Work has also been done
showing direct addition of primary and secondary natural
antioxidants to meat products can prolong shelf life and
help preserve the color associated with fresh product. Furthermore, many studies have shown that best results may be
obtained if a combination of these tactics is employed.
In beef, the red color associated with a fresh cut is
caused when the meat surface becomes oxygenated. This is
caused by the myoglobin undergoing a process called
blooming in which the meat becomes fully oxygenated to
the oxymyoglobin state. Oxymyoglobin continues to react
with oxygen, or be broken down by photo oxidation, and
further oxidizes to the metmyoglobin state. Once ~70% of
the myoglobin becomes oxidized and forms metmyoglobin,
the meat surface becomes discolored or brown as seen in
Figure 3 (Boles et al.). Meat blooms after it is exposed to
oxygen for 20-30 minutes, and will maintain this color for
about 2-3 days when displayed in a retail environment.
Using antioxidants may extend the oxymyoglobin state for
an additional 1-2 days in a retail environment.

Figure 3. Interconversion of meat pigments.

Another important aspect of antioxidants is their role in


the feeding regime of feed animals. Many studies have
shown the effectiveness by feeding animals vitamin E in
commercial feedlot settings. The effect of this administration
of vitamin E has been enhanced flavor, color, and shelf life
of the resulting meat products. Generally, synthetic vitamin
E has been used to supplement feed animals on a commercial basis. Dr. Andreas Papas has shown that the natural dalpha form is much more bioavailable in animals than the
synthetic dl-alpha form. For example, it has been demonstrated that cattle absorb over 2.5 times more d-alpha than
dl-alpha (Papas et al., 1991). Feedlots could realize the larger benefits of increased bioavailability of the natural form,
while only paying a slight premium for the product. At the
same time, while many feedlots have been known to use
vitamin E supplementation to increase product quality, new
research has shown that herbal extracts could provide simi97

lar benefits. In a recent study published by the British Poultry Science Journal, poultry diets were supplemented with
either vitamin E, rosemary extract, or sage extract. Results
with all three treatments showed a marked improvement in
the shelf life of the uncooked refrigerated white meat sections (Lopez-Bote et al., 1998).

Summary
In conclusion, the main goal of incorporating natural antioxidants into foods, specifically meats, is to increase product quality and overall appeal to consumers. Increasing the
shelf life of meat products by incorporating natural antioxidants can be done in many ways including direct addition
of primary and/or secondary antioxidants, bioavailability
into the muscle via dietary administration, or combinations
of the aforementioned. There is a growing consumer trend
to seek natural ingredients, which bodes well for the use of
natural antioxidants in foods for the years to come.

References
Frankel, F. N. 1998. Lipid Oxidation Scotland: The Oily Press LTD.
Frost and Sullivan. 2002. European and United States Food Antioxidants
Markets, Document #3952-88. Available for purchase from:
http://www.frost.com.

98

Haworth, J.. 2003. Cargill, Inc. Internal data.


Hildago, P.J.; Ubera, J.L.; Tena, M.T.; Valcarcel, M. 1998. Determination
of the Carnosic Acid Content in Wild and Cultivated Rosmarinus officinalis. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 46, p2624-2627
Boles, J. A.; Pegg, R.; Meat Color [Online]. Montana State University and
Saskatchewan Food Product Innovation Program University of Saskatchewan. Available from:
http://animalrange.montana.edu/Docs/meat_color.htm. [Accessed 21
April 2003]
Lopez-Bote, C. J.; Gray, J. I.; Gomaa, E. A.; Flegal, C. J. 1998. Effect of
dietary administration of oil extracts from rosemary and sage on lipid
oxidation in broiler meat. British Poultry Science 39: 235240
Papas, A. M., 1991. Vitamin E: Natural and Synthetic Forms are not Identical. May/June
RFI Ingredients Inc.,. Functional Antioxidants/Antimicrobials/Natural Preservatives [Online]. Available at:
http://www.rfiingredients.com/antioxidants.htm [Accessed 21 April
2003]
Sherbeck, J. A.; Wulf, D. M.; Morgan, J. B.; Tatum, J. D.; Smith, G. C.;
Williams, S. N. 1995. Dietary supplementation of vitamin E to feedlot
cattle affects beef retail display properties. Journal of Food Science
60(2), 250-2.
Stubbs, R. L.; Morgan, J. B.; Ray, F. K.; Dolezal, H. G. Effect of Supplemental Vitamin E on the Color and Case-Life of Top Loin and Ground
Chuck Patties in Modified Atmosphere Case-Ready Retail Packaging
Systems. Meat Science (2002), 61, p1-5.

American Meat Science Association

TEACHING

Teaching Strategies for Preparing Students


for the Meat Industry
Markus F. Miller
Introduction
I believe we must ask ourselves what our students and
their employers are wanting when we determine teaching
strategies for preparing students for the meat industry. Why
do people attend a university? I would suppose there are
many reasons one could derive that would explain why
most students pay in excess of $150,000 to obtain a college
degree. I would also pose the question, why do companies
pursue and hire students with degrees from universities instead of hiring persons with other types of training? I believe
that most people attend universities to obtain a degree in
some field of study so that they will have the following basic skills that were outlined by Dr. Gary Smith in his presentation Preparing Undergraduate and Graduate Students To
Meet Meat Industry Career Challenges: (a) to think critically, (b) to communicate effectively, (c) to lead decisively,
(d) to decide independently, and (e) to compare logically
and solve problems rationally. I believe in addition to these
very important skills that we could add the following characteristics: (1) being self confident, (2) having the ability to
work well as a team player, (3) performing well under pressure, (4) having a positive can do attitude, (5) having a
high moral character and impeccable integrity, and (6)
learning to pursue excellence.
I believe the ability of the instructors and students to develop and refine these characteristics prior to graduation
will greatly impact their success after graduation. I will attempt to expand discussion on these characteristics and
give possible strategies that may be used by instructors to
prepare students to be successful after graduation.
(1) Being Self-Confident
A recent survey of highly successful American women by
Focus on the Family indicated that more than 50% of them
Markus F. Miller
Department of Animal and Food Sciences
Texas Tech University
Box 42162
Lubbock, TX 79409-2162
mfmrraider@aol.com
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 99-101)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

listed lack of self-confidence and low self -esteem as the


skills they lacked most. Employers want employees who are
positive and believe in themselves. Students should always
strive to maintain positive self-esteem. The important thing
to understand is that self-confidence and high self-esteem
must be earned. Students must deserve, and earn confidence through hard work; one cannot obtain it through artificial success. Instructors must challenge students to push
for excellence. Success will result in higher self-confidence
levels. Success can be measured differently for each student
based on his or her talent level, not by comparing against
another persons success or a numerical grade. Students
must understand they do not have control over all circumstances in their lives. However, students make the choice to
succeed or fail. Instructors should strive to motivate students
by giving challenging exams that require them to solve
problems and learn through experience. A good work ethic
leads to improved self-confidence. The satisfaction from
hard work that results in success will always lead to higher
self-confidence. The instructor should allow the student to
succeed through hard work. Setting goals and achieving
them leads to increased self-confidence. Goals are the individual steps we must take in pursuit of our dreams. Students
should have big dreams. Students must understand that
long-term success is a direct result of what they achieve
everyday regardless of how small the improvement. Teaching strategies that allow for daily and weekly success will
increase a students confidence and desire to perform well.
Self-confidence is improved by the focus on specific goals
and the achievement of those goals. Instructors should work
with students to set goals and help them with the achievement of their goals, which will lead to improved selfconfidence. A big component of a successful attitude and
improved self-confidence is to recognize weaknesses and
confront them. Students should not set unrealistic goals. If
their goals are too difficult, they will become counterproductive. We are not always going to attain all of our goals,
but the pursuit of them is a step in the right direction and
will lead to improved self-confidence. The key is for instructors to encourage students to fight through the tough times
and self-doubt by reminding students that if we stay true to
the course there will be a big payoff at the end. Instructors
should always encourage students to remember to keep
their vision of a better future. Attaining our goals will
change our behavior. The change in our behavior, resulting
99

from attaining our goals, will gradually lead to improved


self-confidence.
(2) Be A Team Player
Good communication skills are essential, and they start
with listening. Being a team player is a choice that can be
made each day and it starts with respecting the other members of the team. While working in the industry, I noticed
that employers never asked perspective employees if they
could work well with people who were already on staff. I
also noticed that rarely did perspective employees meet
their future team members. Thus, it is imperative that students learn to work well with people who are very different
from them. We must train our students to look for the good
traits of others and not focus only on their obvious shortcomings. The ability to interact with people on a daily basis
is essential to long-term relationships and success. Students
should avoid having to be right all the time. Students often
make this mistake and in their desire to always be right,
they inhibit constructive communication and prevent productive relationships from developing. Our goal is to communicate better, not try to win every discussion or treat
every conversation as if it is a contest with a winner and a
loser. We must communicate both our needs and goals to
other people so that everyone can benefit from our being a
part of the team. People want to feel they are part of the
process. We must train students to confront problems immediately, because if problems are not attended to and
dealt with, they invariably get worse. Students usually avoid
all conflict. They must learn to face conflict and communicate with the people they have problems with on various
issues. Gossiping with others about problems instead of
resolving the conflict face to face is a real problem. Students
need to practice solving problems face to face with other
team members while they are in college. In order to be a
good team player, students must be trained to be humble,
think of others needs first, treat others the way they want to
be treated and be trustworthy. Students must be trained to
listen to everyone regardless of their position or skill level.
Respecting all members of the team is a choice that must be
integrated into students prior to graduation.
(3) Work Well Under Pressure
The ability to develop good habits, based on proper
techniques and mastered through the art of repetition so
that they become second nature, will allow students to
work well under pressure. The only way students can systematically acquire good habits is by being organized. Being organized will begin to put discipline into students
lives. We must push students not to put things off. We must
train students that it is impossible to be over prepared, especially in todays highly competitive marketplace. If students are committed to a career in the meat industry, then
they must know everything they can possibly know about
the meat industry. We must always operate on the axiom
that knowledge is power. The more knowledge students
have about the meat industry, the better students will perform under pressure. Those who have been trained under
adverse conditions will have the ability to perform well un100

der pressure. Students who struggle with their goals must


differentiate between stress and pressure. Stress is the enemy and robs us of our focus and inhibits our performance.
Pressure is only negative if students allow it to affect their
performance. Pressure did not affect us when we were children; we never thought about the things we werent going
to be able to do. Students must recapture the mental state
they had before the fear of failure lowered their confidence.
All students have pressure points in their lives, so we must
help them identify what they are and begin developing
strategies to control them. Identifying what is causing the
pressure is the first step, because if we dont deal with the
source, it will turn into stress and affect our performance.
Pressure also can bring out extraordinary accomplishments.
It pushes us harder. Apply the pressure, and your students
can achieve anything. Students who are challenged mentally, organized, and well-prepared will be able to handle
the pressures they will face during their careers.
(4) Positive Can Do Attitude
The reality is that we cannot control everything, but we
can control our attitude. We have the power to choose to
be positive or negative. Unlike so many other things in life
that we cant change, we can control our behavior. Attitudes can be reversed. We can teach students to focus on
the opportunities in solving problems. Looking at a situation
positively enhances our quality of life and the lives of those
around us. Positive, self-motivated people look at each day
and each problem as a new opportunity. We can teach students to do this by conditioning them to look at things more
positively, whether its unexpected change or the minor
setbacks we all face in life. The key is to stay positive in
tough times. The rule is simple: The more trying the times,
the more positively we must reinforce our students. This is
especially true in the workplace where industries and companies are going through challenges all the time. We must
train students to look at change as a chance to be more
successful. We must learn to maximize and focus on the
good things and not allow students to focus on failures. Students need to be trained to view failure as an opportunity to
learn how to be more successful. Some students are tough
enough to power through lifes challenges with a seemingly
unstoppable attitude; however, at one time or another we
encounter an adversity that threatens our will to go on. The
first type of adversity occurs when students experience a
major failure that can leave them doubting themselves. We
have to train students to step back and evaluate their role in
the process. Why did the failure occur? Were their goals
wrong, or was it their approach? Students have to examine
their role in the failure and accept their share of the blame.
Students must be trained to accept responsibility for their
actions and to keep a positive attitude; it is a choice that
leads to success. Students who can find solutions to the
most difficult problems while keeping a positive attitude
will be the most successful.
(5) Have High Integrity
A high degree of honesty and morality is needed in todays employees. On the road to success, students are not
American Meat Science Association

just learning from their experiences. People all around us


can teach us many lessons if we would listen. The people
we know and work with must be used as resources. The
important thing is to select the right role models. Students
should not look for people who make them feel good or
friends who are always singing their praises. Students must
learn from their mistakes and the mistakes of others. Sometimes learning what not to do is more important than learning what to do. We must teach our students to take advantage of the lessons learned by people who have made the
journey before. The recent examples of the lack of corporate integrity must be reinforced through our teaching of
students. Students must be held to high standards and expected to be honest. The response we instill in students
when mistakes are made and failures occur will lead to
higher levels of integrity. I believe students must be trained
to make decisions based on what is the right decision. Students should not base their decisions on what they feel they
can get away with because no one will find out. Honesty on
exams, homework, and written assignments must be encouraged and reinforced. True integrity is making the correct decision when no one is watching. Students must make
decisions they will be proud of in the present and future so
that they can lead their peers by example through their actions.
(6) Pursue Excellence
The constant pursuit of excellence keeps students working at their full potential. Anyone can be great for a day, a
week, and a month. The people who ultimately will be successful are the ones who understand that success is a longterm commitment, a marathon instead of a sprint. We must
develop a PHD (Poor, hungry, and driven) attitude in our

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

students. An attitude of continuous improvement starts with


the premise that we can always improve and become better. We must strive to help students understand that we are
always going to face difficult times that challenge us. The
key is to keep working, because the harder we work, the
greater the result. We must train students to never quit and
to never end the pursuit of their dreams. Students must develop an unstoppable attitude. Students must be challenged
to find solutions to problems even when the solution is not
easy to find. Abraham Lincoln failed at every level on his
pursuit of the presidency of the United States. He never
quit, never gave up, and kept pursuing his goals. During the
most trying times he kept his focus. We must train students
to keep clinging to their vision. We must train students to
focus on their successes no matter how small and build on
them. Students must always strive to be better today than
yesterday and focus on being better tomorrow than today. A
focus on getting the job done right the first, time no matter
how difficult the task, will help students be the most successful.
We must train students to recognize that becoming successful is a process that never ends. The methods we use to
become successful must always be a part of our life. Success comes with no guarantees: Todays success is often
tomorrows failure. A failure to teach students to maintain
discipline and pursue excellence causes success to evaporate immediately. Teaching students only memorized material without a devotion to excellence will leave them unprepared to face the challenges that face them after graduation. Pursuit of Excellence is dedication to do a job that is
hard to do, to go the extra mile when the easy way out is
readily at hand.

101

102

American Meat Science Association

TEACHING

Teaching Strategies for Preparing Students for


the Meat Industry
Tom R. Carr
Introduction

ANSCI 209

Meat Animal and Carcass Evaluation

The first ideal employee quality that Mark Franzreb identified in his presentation was science is a given. I am interpreting Marks quotation to mean that a Cryovac employee must possess some fundamental/technical knowledge and skills related to meat science and food packaging.
I think most of us here today would agree that the imparting
of such knowledge and expertise is one of our major responsibilities as institutions of higher learning. Meat science
instruction has been around a long time, with many land
grant institutions implementing introductory courses in the
early 1900s. Such Meat Science pioneers as Bull, Loeffel,
Mackintosh, Kunkle, Ziegler, Francioni, and Bray initiated
the instructional process.

ANSCI 210

Meat Selection and Classification

ANSCI 309

Meat Science

ANSCI 409

Muscle Biology

At the University of Illinois, the original meat science facility, including office and processing areas, was located in
Davenport Hall and dedicated in 1901; the first meats
course was taught in 1902. Much has changed since 1901
including facilities, students, instructors, and subject matter.

Typical/Traditional Courses
I am going to take the liberty of characterizing the University of Illinois Meat Science/Muscle Biology academic
program as somewhat traditional and therefore similar to
many universities and colleges represented here this afternoon. I have listed those Meat Science/Muscle Biology
courses that we offer at the University of Illinois:
ANSCI 100

Introduction to Animal Sciences

ANSCI 109

Meat Purchasing and Preparation

ANSCI 119

Meat Technology

Tom R. Carr
Professor
University of Illinois
205B Meat Science
1503 South Maryland Drive
Urbana, IL 61801
t-carr1@uiuc.edu
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference (pp. 103-104)
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

Meat science is briefly discussed in our introductory


animal sciences course, which all animal sciences freshmen
are required to take during their first semester. This course
generally involves four hours of lecture and a brief show
and tell. Dr. Floyd McKeith teaches a service course (ANSCI
109) for those majoring in Hotel and Restaurant Management. We have undergraduate courses that address live
evaluation, harvesting, fabrication and further processing of
the three major red meat species. In addition, two graduatelevel courses are offered that cover the fundamental biological principles that influence growth, composition, processing, preservation and meat quality along with the biosynthesis of muscle and connective tissue proteins. I assume
that many of the institutions represented in this room today
offer similar courses to their undergraduate and graduate
students. The majority of our courses have laboratories and
are certainly the most expensive courses taught, which creates a major concern since our department does not have a
teaching budget. Other courses that provide more knowledge and increased expertise are undergraduate research
problems, field trips, and internships.

Student Outcomes
What technical information and skills should our graduates possess? In reading the information that describes the
AMSA Quiz Bowl, I was really intrigued by the list of topics
that may be addressed in that competition. The topics listed
were history of the meat industry, muscle structure and
function, conversion of muscle to meat, food safety and
HACCP, meat microbiology, meat grading, meat processing, meat industry and organizations, sensory evaluation,
meat palatability, meat marketing and pricing, and others. I
am certainly glad that I have matured to the point that I do
not have to participate in such ego deflating activities. Certainly, the University of Illinois would address some of these
topics very effectively, while other areas would be covered
rather superficially. I suspect most institutions would be in
the same boat.

103

In recent years, considerable pedagogical discussion has


centered on such topics as critical thinking, active learning, problem solving, decision-making, study abroad experiences, learning teams, team building, and capstone experiences. In 2001, approximately 20 percent of the College of ACES students at the University of Illinois had been
involved in a study abroad experience, and that percentage
will continue to increase. Many of our students have experienced at least one internship by the time they graduate.
Dr. Gary Smith, in his Monday morning presentation,
identified several ways in which students can develop critical-thinking skills. Carefully designed laboratory exercises
along with courses that emphasize live animal and product
selection and evaluation certainly enhance critical thinking
and decision-making skills. Students are often put into
teams of three or four when harvesting and fabricating meat
animals. These hands on courses assist in creating learning teams as well as enhancing the team-building concept.
An excellent example of a capstone experience is the National Meat Animal Evaluation Contest. The Contest tests
students skills and knowledge in the areas of market animal
evaluation, breeding animal evaluation and carcass evaluation. In addition, students participate in a communications
division and must answer questions on eleven different
classes. It is truly a capstone experience in areas of live
animal and carcass evaluation.

104

Educational Gaps
Where do we fall short in preparing our students for a
dynamic meat industry? According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers, the following personal traits
were identified as critical for a successful industry career:
communication skills, honesty/integrity, teamwork skills,
interpersonal skills, motivation/initiative, strong work ethic,
analytical skills, flexibility/adaptability, computer skills, and
organizational skills. Do we consider how we can improve
a students teamwork, leadership, and communication skills
as we prepare and organize that meat science course we
have taught for ten years? How can we emphasize the
importance of honesty and a strong work ethic in a
traditional course setting: Some meat science graduates will
begin their meat industry careers supervising plant
personnel on a production line. Will they have the
communication and interpersonal skills as well as the selfconfidence to successfully meet their job responsibilities?
How many students have had the opportunity to complete a
labor/industrial relations course? The development of life
skills will continue to challenge meat science/muscle
biology faculty as we prepare students for the meat industry.

References
JobWeb.com-Career development and job search help for college graduates. 2003. National Association of Colleges and Employers, 62 Highland Avenue, Bethlehem, PA 18017-9085.

American Meat Science Association

POSTER SESSION

Muscle & Lipid Biology


1st Place, Ph.D. Division
Graduate Research Poster Competition
sponsored by Sara Lee Foods
FINISHING DIETS WITH ELEVATED LEVELS OF LINOLENIC ACID INCREASE FEED EFFICIENCY AND
ADIPOSE LIPOGENESIS BUT DO NOT ALTER BEEF
CARCASS QUALITY
1
S. L. Archibeque, 1D. K. Lunt, 2R. K. Tume, 1S. B. Smith
e-mail: sbsmith@tamu.edu
1
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 2Food Science
Australia, Tingalpa D. C. Queensland, Australia
Forty-five Angus steers (358 kg BW) were utilized in a completely randomized block design with a 3 x 3 factorial arrangement of treatments to evaluate the hypothesis that differing dietary -linolenic acid (from corn, flaxseed plus
corn, or milo) and whole cottonseed (WCS) inclusion (0, 5,
or 15% DM) would interact to alter fatty acid metabolism
and deposition of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in subcutaneous (s.c.) and interfasicular (i.f.) adipose tissues, and
thereby decrease carcass quality score. During the feeding
period (135 d), steers receiving flaxseed or corn diets had a
greater (P<0.01) gain:feed ratio (0.119 and 0.108, respectively) than steers receiving the milo diet (0.093). Following
transportation to a local abattoir and overnight deprivation
of food, there was less (P<0.01) decrease in weight in steers
fed the flaxseed diet (1.51%) than in steers fed the corn
(2.89%) or milo diets (3.11%). Marbling score was not affected by WCS (P= 0.14), nor was there a grain source
WCS interaction (P= 0.16). There was a grain source WCS
interaction (P<0.02) in that lean maturity decreased with
increasing percentages of WCS for steers fed corn or milo
diets, but was unchanged in steers fed flaxseed. Ribeye area
of steers fed milo was less (P<0.01) than that of steers fed
the corn or flaxseed diets. Lipogenesis from acetate in s.c.
adipose tissue was greater (P<0.01) in steers fed flaxseed
(5.42 nmolh-1105 cells-1) than in the corn (3.10 nmolh1
105 cells-1) or milo (1.92 nmolh-1105 cells-1) groups.
Stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) activity in s.c. adipose tissue
decreased (P<0.04) from 53 nmolmg protein-17 min-1 in
the 0% WCS group to 20 nmolmg protein-17 min-1 in the
15% WCS group. The i.f. saturated fatty acid percentages
increased (P<0.01) with increasing levels of WCS, and there
was a tendency (P<0.09) for a similar effect in s.c. adipose
tissue. The i.f. cis-9, trans-11 CLA percentage increased
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

with increasing WCS in the steers fed the corn diet, whereas
it remained unchanged or even decreased slightly in the
steers fed the flaxseed or milo-based diets (interaction,
P<0.02). Steers fed flaxseed had a greater (P<0.01) s.c. adipose concentration of vaccenic acid (18:1 trans-11) than the
steers fed milo and tended (P<0.07) to have greater amount
of vaccenic acid than steers fed corn alone. Steers fed flaxseed also had greater (P<0.01) s.c. and i.f. percentages of linolenic acid (18:3, n-3) than steers fed either of the other
grain sources. Steers fed flaxseed had the largest mean i.f.
adipocyte volume (P<0.01), and s.c. adipocyte mean volume tended to be larger (P<0.06). The increases in saturated
fatty acids in s.c. adipose tissue appear to have been the
result of the decreased SCD activity in s.c. adipose tissue
with increased inclusion of WCS. Increased dietary linolenic acid from flaxseed may have increased s.c. adipocyte volume by stimulating lipogenesis. These data indicate
that rations formulated to provide increased levels of linolenic acid (i.e., flaxseed) will increase feed efficiency
and lipogenesis from acetate without altering either the
quality or composition of the beef carcasses. Additionally,
the inclusion of WCS in milo diets may cause a decrease in
efficiency, less salable lean, and more saturated fat.
Key Words: Steers, Adipose Metabolism, Linolenic Acid
FATTY ACID PROFILES AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF
LONGISSIMUS DORSI, TRICEPS BRACHIL AND
SEMIMEMBRANOSUS MUSCLES FROM HANWOO AND
ANGUS BEEF
S. H. Cho, J. H. Kim, B. Y. Park, Y. M. Yoo, I. H. Hwang, J.
M. Lee
e-mail: shc0915@rda.go.kr
National Livestock Research Institute
Variation in fatty acid composition has an important effects
on meat quality especially with the subcutaneous and intermuscular (carcass fat) but also the intramuscular (marbling) fat. The aim of this study was to compare the fatty
acid profiles for 3 muscles (Longissimus dorsi, LD, Triceps
brachii, TB and Semimembranosus, SM) obtained from
thirty-eight carcasses (18 steers of Hanwoo, 24 month old,
313-409kg carcass weight and 18 steers of Angus, 24
month, 342-423kg carcass weight) and assess their role in
sensory perception. The following day of slaughter, the carcasses were boned and the LD, SM and TB removed, vacuum packed, and aged at a 1C chiller for 7days to breaking
into blocks for sensory evaluation and objective measurements including fatty acid analysis. The samples of each

105

carcass prepared with the same manner were frozen at -20C


until analysis. The samples were cooked as both traditional
grilled steaks (5 x 25mm) and Korean BBQ style
(75x20x4mm). Sensory evaluation was performed for tenderness, juiciness, flavor and overall liking on from 0 to 100
points continuous scoring line by 720 consumer panels for
both cooking techniques. The consumer panels rated LD
steaks and Korean style barbecue strips significantly more
tender and more flavorsome than those from TB and SM
muscles (p<0.05). Fatty acid profiles indicated some significant differences due to different muscles. Oleic acid (18: 1)
was significantly higher (p<0.05) in TB as compared to LD
and SM. The essential linoleic acid (C18:2) was significantly
higher in TB and SM than LD(p<0.05). Proportions of other
essential fatty acids, linolenic (C18:3) and arachidonic
(C20:4), were not significantly different between TB and
SM, but they were significantly higher than those of
LD(p<0.05). For TB, the proportion of saturated fatty acids
was significantly lower, while the proportion of unsaturated
fatty acids was significantly higher than the other muscles
(p<0.05). TB had a higher proportion of omega-3 and
omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids than LD. For LD muscle, the proportion of saturated fatty acids was significantly
highest, while the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids was
lowest among three muscles (p<0.05). LD muscle had lower
proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids than the other
muscles. From the sensory result of this study, LD muscles
had significantly higher scores in flavor than the other muscles for both cooking methods. Fatty acid composition was
related to eating quality, Beef flavor and overall likeness
were positively correlated with saturated fatty acids, and
negatively with polyunsaturated fatty acids. However, further research is needed to elucidate the relationship between fatty acids profiles and flavor characteristics.
Key Words: fatty acid composition, beef, sensory evaluation
DEVELOPMENT OF A METHOD FOR ADIPOCYTIC
DIFFERENTIATION FROM BOVINE ADIPOSE TISSUE
FIBROBLASTS
1
A. Gonzalez, 2A. Varela, 1A. Shimada, 1O. Mora
e-mail: ggallard@mail.cnb.unam.mx
1
Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitln,Universidad
2
Nacional
Autonoma
de
Mexico,
Instituto
de
Neurobiologia-UNAM
Understanding the molecular mechanisms and environmental cues that drive a somatic stem cell to become a
preadipocyte and then to a mature adipocyte, might enable
us to alter the growth of meat animals on a molecular level,
and therefore to manipulate the ratio of muscle to fat in the
carcass. With the aim of developing a serial subculture of
fibroblasts from bovine adipose tissue and then try to differentiate them to adipocytes, two mediums were compared.
Samples were taken from 3-4 years-old adults and from
fetuses (in the last third of gestation). Animals were killed at
the Quertaro City's municipal abattoir. Immediately after
slaughter, samples of omental and subcutaneous adipose
106

tissue were collected from the adult animals; in the case of


fetuses, samples were obtained from omental or kidney fat.
The activity of Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
(G3PDH) was quantified as indicator cellular differentiation.
In the case of adult cells, the serial subculture was established; however they could not be differentiated. As for the
fetal adipose tissue, the serial subculture was established
and cells from kidney fat were capable of differentiating
when with the proper medium (DMEM/F-12 1:1; 10 g/mL
insulin; 0.25 M dexametasone; 10 g/mL very low density
lipoproteins; 100 g/mL streptomycin; 100 u/mL penicillin)
was used. This was confirmed through the oil red O
method. Based on the results it would appear that we were
able to obtain a model that might be used to study the molecular transcriptional mechanisms of differentiation from
preadipocytes to mature adipocytes in bovine tissue.
Supported by FES-C UNAM, Ctedra 5.12 and Consejo
Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologa, Project J31295-B
Key Words: Bovines, Fibroblasts, Adipocytes
APPLICATION OF ACID SOLUBILIZATION ISOELECTRIC
PRECIPITATION TO PORK PRODUCTS
J.M. James, C.A. Mireles DeWitt
e-mail: jjennie@okstate.edu
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK
An evaluation of an alternative process has been investigated for its potential to improve low-valued red meat
products. The acid solubilization isoelectric precipitation
(SIP) method is used to obtain more functional protein concentrate from low-valued meat products. The process takes
advantage of differences in protein solubility to separate
myofibrillar proteins from collagen, fat, and bone. Our previous research established the applicability of using beef
heart to extract proteins that have acceptable nutritional,
compositional, and binding properties. However, more
work was needed to determine if the process could be used
with red meat from different species and on products that
contained higher levels of fat and bone. The objective was
to determine the composition and characteristics of pork
heart (PH) and pork meat and bone meal (PMB) when utilizing Acid-SIP. To obtain Acid-SIP proteins PH or PMB was
blended 1:9 (w/v) with deionized water. The slurry pH was
lowered to 2.5 to solubilize the myofibrillar proteins and
centrifuged (3300 x g). The supernatants pH was raised to
5.5 to precipitate out the proteins and centrifuged again.
Protein obtained from PH Acid-SIP and PMB Acid-SIP derived from the picnic shoulder were adjusted to 78% moisture and treated with or without 2% NaCl. Proximate analysis, cholesterol (AOAC 1995), and color using a Minolta
CR-300 were evaluated for each raw treatment. The remaining protein from each treatment was stuffed into 21 mm
cellulose casings and cooked in a 90C waterbath for 30
min. Proximate analysis, color, texture (TA-XT2i, Texture
Tecnologies Corp, Scardale, NY) and water holding (WHA)
and cook yield (Daum-Thunberg, Foegeding & Ball, 1992)
were determined for each cooked treatment. The PMB
American Meat Science Association

Acid-SIP extracted proteins had significantly less fat, cholesterol and ash than the original meat and bone meal. For
Acid-SIP proteins from PH and PMB, the WHA (2.230.53
and 2.250.37g water/g protein, respectively) was comparable to comminuted meat batters from turkey (DaumThunberg et al, 1992). Cook yields were above 90% for
both meat types after treatment with Acid-SIP. Texture Profile Analysis of the cooked links further demonstrated the
gelling ability. Except for springiness, textural attributes of
PMB with and without NaCl were not significantly different.
Texture attributes of PH without salt were comparable to
PMB, but PH with NaCl further enhanced the gelling ability.
Based on results, utilizing Acid-SIP on PH and PMB improved nutritional composition and textural properties. Proteins obtained remained functional after extraction process
so further work is needed to see if this method would have
economic value when applied to mechanically separated
meat and other byproducts. AOAC (1995). Official methods
of analysis (15th ed.). Washington DC: Association of Official Analytical Chemistry.Daum-Thunberg, DL, Foegeding,
EA, & Ball, HR. (1992). Rheological and water-holding
properties of comminuted turkey breast and thigh: effects of
pH. Journal Food Science, 57(2), 333-337.
Key Words: Pork, Acid solubilization isoelectric precipitation, Functionality
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN -CALPAIN AUTOLYSIS AND
IMMUNOLOCALIZATION IN PORK MYOFIBRILS
1
Jamie Melody, 2Laura Rowe, 2Ted Huiatt, 2Steven Lonergan, 2Elisabeth Huff-Lonergan
e-mail: elonerga@iastate.edu
1
PIC, USA, 2Iowa State University
Degradation of myofibrillar/cytoskeletal proteins in postmortem muscle plays an important role in the development
of tenderness and water-holding capacity of pork. The calpain system degrades some of these key myofibrillar/cytoskeletal proteins. One of the isoforms of the calpain
enzymes, -calpain, has been implicated most often as the
isoform likely to be responsible for many of the proteolytic
changes observed in meat. Several factors influence calpain
activity including free calcium concentration, inhibitor (calpastatin) activity, and autolysis. In living muscle, -calpain
is considered a soluble, sarcoplasmic protein. In postmortem bovine muscle, immunoblotting has shown that calpain becomes associated with myofibrils. This association increases as postmortem aging time progresses; however, it is not clear whether -calpain precipitates nonspecifically onto the myofibril or if it binds to certain regions of the myofibril. Therefore, the objective of this study
was to examine the relationship between autolysis and localization of -calpain in early postmortem myofibrils.
Halothane negative Duroc pigs (n = 16) were harvested at
the Iowa State University Meat Laboratory. Temperature
and pH measurements of the psoas major muscle were
taken at 0.5, 0.75, 1, 6, 12, and 24 hours postmortem.
Muscle samples were collected from the left side of each
56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

carcass at 0.75, 6, and 24 hours postmortem. Sarcoplasmic


extracts were used for immunoblotting to determine the
state of -calpain in the sarcoplasm at each time point
(0.75, 6, and 24 hours postmortem). Highly purified myofibrils were also obtained from samples at each time point.
Myofibrils were used for immunoblotting to determine
autolysis of myofibril-bound -calpain and for indirect immunofluorescence to determine the localization of myofibril
bound -calpain. In this study, it was noted that approximately 94% of the psoas major samples at 45 minutes
postmortem exhibited autolysis of -calpain in the sarcoplasmic fraction. By 6 hours postmortem, autolysis of calpain had occurred in all samples. Immunoblotting of the
myofibrils showed autolyzed -calpain was detected in purified myofibrils as early as 45 minutes postmortem. In samples with the most rapid pH decline, little -calpain was
detected in the sarcoplasmic fraction at 6 and 24 hours
postmortem. However, much immunoreactivity (as determined by immunoblotting) for -calpain was found in the
myofibril fraction at those same time points; suggesting that
-calpain may have become associated with the myofibrils.
To determine whether -calpain was binding to specific
regions of the myofibril or was precipitating non-specifically
onto the myofibril, indirect immunofluorescence using two
different monoclonal antibodies against -calpain was used.
Each antibody was specific to a different epitope of the 80kDa subunit of -calpain. Both antibodies showed that calpain appeared to bind specifically to the A-band and to
the Z-line. Binding of -calpain to the myofibril was noted
as early as 45 minutes postmortem in all psoas major muscles examined, supporting the results found using immunoblotting. Therefore, this study suggests that -calpain
does associate specifically with certain regions of the myofibril. Future studies are needed to address which proteins
of the myofibril are involved in binding -calpain.
Key Words: calpain, pork, myofibrils
FETAL MUSCLE GROWTH AT DAY 78 AND 135 OF
GESTATIONIN NUTRIENT RESTRICTED EWES
M.M. Schwope, W.J. Means, A.W. Wolf, B.W. Hess, S.P.
Ford
e-mail: means@uwyo.edu
University of Wyoming Laramie, WY USA
Under-nutrition during early gestation can affect muscle
growth in the postnatal lamb. Our purpose was to determine if fetal muscle growth was affected by nutrient restriction of the gestating ewe. Nutrient restricted (NR) ewes were
fed 50% of NRC recommendations during days 28 to 78 of
gestation and 100% of NRC recommendations from 78 to
135 d. Control and NR ewes were euthanized (d 78 or d
135 gestation) prior to removal of gravid uteri. The head
and internal organs were removed after the fetus(s) were
taken from the uterus. Eviscerated ewes (pelt off) and fetuses
were hung by the Achilles tendon for 24 to 34 h at 4C or
15C, respectively. Subsequently, ewe and fetus Longissimus dorsi (Ld) and Semitendinosus (St) were removed.
107

Whole body, eviscerated body, Ld, and St weights were


recorded. Differential fetal muscle growth was observed in
d 78 fetal Ld muscle. Ld weight as percentage of fetal whole
body weight and as percentage of fetal eviscerated body
weight (EvBW) was higher (P= 0.05 and P= 0.05, respectively) in single fetuses from d 78 NR ewes compared to
single fetuses from d 78 C ewes. These values, however,
were similar in multiple fetuses from d 78 NR and C ewes.
Fetal Ld weight, Ld as percentage of fetal whole body, and
Ld as percentage of fetal EvBW did not differ between single
or multiple fetuses from d 135 C and NR ewes. Nutrient
restriction of ewes during 28 to 78 d of gestation caused
differential changes in muscle growth of the fetus, but realimentation mitigated muscle growth differences between
fetuses from NR and C ewes.
Key Words: Fetus, Nutrient Restriction, Muscle Growth
EFFECTS OF IMPLANT STRATEGY ON LIPID DEPOSITION
IN FINISHED BEEF CATTLE
K. R. Smith, S. K. Duckett, T. D. Pringle, M. J. Azain
e-mail: sduckett@arches.uga.edu
University of Georgia
An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of
implant regimen on carcass performance and quality, adipose cell diameter and subcutaneous (SQ) and intramuscular (IM) lipid deposition of feedlot cattle. Ten Angus heifers
(386 kg) sired by high marbling EPD bulls were randomly
allotted to serve as controls (C) or implanted with SynovexPlus (SP) at d 0 and 55. Real-time ultrasound measurements
of ribeye area (UREA), fat thickness (UFT) and intramuscular
lipid (UIMF) percentage were recorded at 28 d intervals
throughout the finishing period. At 108 d, all heifers were
harvested and SQ and IM tissue samples were collected for
cell size and lipid composition determination. Data were
analyzed using the GLM procedure of SAS with treatment,
time and two-way interaction (when appropriate) in the
model. Cellular data were analyzed with treatment, tissue
and the two-way interaction in the model. Average daily
gain was 36% greater (P <0.01) for SP than C. UREA increased (P <0.05) over time for both treatments; however,
SP increased at a faster rate than C (0.31 vs 0.23 cm 2/d).
UFT and UIMF increased (P <0.001) across time-on-feed
but did not differ (P >0.05) between treatments. Implantation altered (P <0.06) the magnitude of change in UIMF
over time during finishing, with 82% of the total UIMF deposited between d 27 to 55 in SP and 48% of the total
UIMF deposited between d 55 to 80 in C. Final live weight
and hot carcass weight were 11% greater (P <0.07) for SP
than C. Ribeye area was larger (P <0.01) by 23% for SP than
C. SP had 10% greater (P <0.05) overall maturity scores
than C. Marbling score and quality grade were similar (P
>0.05) between treatments. Total lipid and percentages of
the major fatty acids in IM did not differ (P >0.05) between
C and SP. Cell diameter distribution of adipocytes from SQ
and IM were unchanged (P >0.05) between treatments;
however, cell diameter differed (P <0.05) by adipose depot.
108

Use of anabolic implants in heifers with genetic potential to


marble did not alter ultimate IM lipid content, size or composition of longissimus; however, pattern of deposition was
altered with implantation.
Key Words: Beef, Implant, Marbling
3rd Place, Ph.D. Division
Graduate Research Poster Competition
sponsored by Sara Lee Foods
ASSESSMENT OF POSTMORTEM POTENTIAL OF
MITOCHONDRIA AND THEIR INTERACTION WITH
MYOGLOBIN
J. Tang, C. Faustman, S. Lee, T. A. Hoagland
e-mail: cfaustma@canr.uconn.edu
University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT USA
Mitochondria (MT) and their respiration have the potential
to decrease oxygen partial pressure and to change the balance between antioxidants and pro-oxidants in postmortem
muscle; these processes could influence the conversion of
oxymyoglobin (OxyMb) to metmyoglobin (MetMb). The
objective of this study was to assess the functional potential
of MT isolated from bovine cardiac muscle and investigate
the outcome of their interaction with myoglobin (Mb).
States III oxygen consumption rates (OCR) and respiration
control rate (RCR) of isolated MT from fresh bovine cardiac
muscle decreased with decreased assay pH (7.2 6.4
5.6), and the effects were significant for state III OCR and
RCR. When MT were isolated from cardiac muscle at 2, 24,
72, and 120 h postmortem, state III and IV OCR decreased
with postmortem time at both pH 7.2 and 5.6; however,
RCR and ADP/O (ratio of ADP to oxygen consumption during phosphorylation) decreased only when measured at pH
7.2 and no time effect was observed at pH 5.6. These results indicate that MT still maintain some functional capacity in postmortem muscle and this is increasingly inhibited
with decreased pH. Incubation of isolated MT with equine
OxyMb and 6 mM succinate at pH 7.2 and 5.6 in a closed
system caused decreased oxygen partial pressure, and deoxymyoglobin (DeoMb) began to form when O2 decreased
to 15% of its original concentration. MT respiration accelerated equine MetMb formation when compared to controls
at pH 5.6 in an open air system, while it increased DeoMb
formation at pH 7.2. One possible explanation for these
results is that MT respiration competes for oxygen, thereby
favoring DeoMb formation; DeoMb oxidizes more readily
at pH 5.6 than pH 7.2, and this could lead to greater
MetMb formation at pH 5.6.
Key Words: Mitochondria, Myoglobin, Oxygen consumption rate

American Meat Science Association

POSTER SESSION

Pre-Harvest Effects on Meat Quality


A COMPARISON OF CARCASS TRAITS AND
PALATABILITY ATTRIBUTES OF CALF- AND YEARLINGFINISHED STEERS
P. S. Brewer, C. R. Calkins, R. M. Rasby, T. J. Klopfenstein,
R. V. Anderson
e-mail: ttubrew@yahoo.com
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
A two-year experiment was conducted to compare carcass
characteristics and palatability attributes of steers (5/8 British, 3/8 Continental) finished as calves or yearlings. Calves
(n=74) were finished after weaning in the feedlot (191 d) on
a high concentrate diet. Yearlings (n=83) grazed crop residues after weaning followed by spring and summer pasture
grazing and concluded with a short finishing period (91 d)
in the feedlot. All steers were fed to a constant fat thickness
endpoint of 1 cm. Steaks from each system were aged for 7,
14, or 21 d for Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBS) determination and 7 or 14 d for consumer sensory evaluation. Calffinished steers had lighter carcass weights, smaller longissimus muscle areas, increased percentages of kidney, pelvic, and heart fat, and higher marbling scores and USDA
quality grades (P<0.05). Calf-finished steaks had lower WBS
values, and higher sensory ratings for tenderness, juiciness,
flavor, and overall desirability (P<0.05) than yearlings. Calffinished steaks improved in sensory tenderness with aging
while yearlings showed no improvement. Both groups had
significantly lower (P<0.05) WBS values with each 7-day
increment of aging from 7 to 21 d. These data indicate calffinished steers have superior USDA quality grades, WBS
values, and sensory ratings than yearlings.
Key Words: Beef, Palatability, Finishing
EFFECTS OF SUPPLEMENTING FISH OIL AND/OR
CANOLA OIL ON ANIMAL PERFORMANCE, MEAT
QUALITY AND FATTY ACID COMPOSITION IN BEEF
CATTLE
M.H. Gillis, S.K. Duckett, B. Jacob, K.R. Smith, C.E. Realini
e-mail: sduckett@arches.uga.edu
The University of Georgia, Athens
Twenty-four Angus x Hereford steers (387 kg) were used to
determine the effects of fish oil and/or canola oil supplementation in a finishing diet on animal performance, meat
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

quality and tissue fatty acid composition. Steers were randomly allotted to one of three diets: 1) basal high concentrate diet (NONE; 88% concentrate, 12% grass hay), 2)
basal diet plus 4% canola oil (CA), or 3) basal diet plus 3%
canola oil and 1% crude fish oil (FISHCA). All steers were
implanted with Synovex-S at the initiation of the study and
fed the basal diet (NONE) for the first 41 d. After 41 d on
feed, animals were gradually switched to treatment diets
over a two-week period. From d 56 to harvest (d 106), all
steers received their appropriate treatment rations. At 24 h
postmortem, carcass data was collected, and samples were
removed from each carcass for subsequent fatty acid, sensory, shear force and lipid oxidation analyses. Data were
analyzed with dietary treatment in the model. Average daily
gain tended (P = 0.07) to be greater for FISHCA than NONE
or CA during the final 50 d on feed when treatment diets
were fed. Hot carcass weight, dressing percentage, fat
thickness, ribeye area or yield grade did not differ (P >0.05)
between treatments. Marbling score and quality grade were
higher (P <0.05) for CA and FISHCA than NONE. Lipid oxidation (TBARS, mg malonaldehyde/ kg sample) was greater
(P <0.05) for FISHCA than CA or NONE, and TBARS values
increased (P <0.05) over storage time in all treatments.
Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBS) values tended (P = 0.06)
to be higher for CA than FISHCA, with NONE being intermediate. Sensory panelist off-flavor scores were greater (P
<0.05) for FISHCA ground beef compared to NONE or CA,
which did not differ (P >0.05). Ground beef samples from
steers fed NONE or FISHCA received higher (P <0.05) juiciness and tenderness scores from sensory panelists compared
to CA. Steaks from animals fed CA received higher (P
<0.05) juiciness ratings by sensory panelists than NONE or
FISHCA, which were similar (P >0.05). Initial and overall
tenderness, beef flavor, and off-flavor ratings of steaks did
not differ (P >0.05) by dietary treatment. Concentration of
the cis-9, trans-11 CLA isomer was 30% higher (P <0.05) in
ground beef from FISHCA than NONE or CA, which were
similar (P >0.05). Concentrations of omega-3 fatty acids did
not differ (P >0.05) by dietary treatment for ground beef.
Feeding supplemental oils improved marbling score and
quality grades. Feeding supplemental fish oil decreased
WBS values in longissimus muscle samples. The addition of
fish oil with canola oil to finishing cattle diets increased
CLA concentration, lipid oxidation, and off-flavors in
ground beef. Addition of fish oil with canola oil did not
affect off-flavor ratings of steaks.
Key Words: Fish Oil, Meat Quality, Beef

109

INFLUENCE OF LEVEL OF FLAXSEED ADDITION AND


TIME FED FLAXSEED ON CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS,
SENSORY PANEL EVALUATION, AND FATTY ACID
CONTENT OF FRESH BEEF
1
T. D. Maddock, 2V. L. Anderson, 1P. T. Berg, 3R. J. Maddock, 1M. J. Marchello
e-mail: mmarchel@ndsuext.nodak.edu
1
North Dakota State University, 2Carrington Research Extension Center, 3South Dakota State University
To determine if the addition of flaxseed to cattle finishing
diets influenced sensory properties and fatty acid composition, specifically omega-3 fatty acids, ninety crossbred
steers were randomly divided into six treatment groups.
Treatments were: 1) control (corn-based diet), 2) a basal
barley based diet, 3) 3% flaxseed + barley for 28 d, 4) 3%
flaxseed + barley for 56 d, 5) 6% flaxseed + barley for 28 d,
and 6) 6% flaxseed + barley for 56 d. Finished cattle were
harvested at a commercial facility. No differences (P<0.05)
were found among treatments for 12th rib fat thickness,
REA, or marbling. Addition of flaxseed increased marbling
score compared to the basal barley diet (P= 0.03). Boneless
strip loins were removed from the carcass and a trained
sensory panel evaluated the longissimus for palatability
traits. Steers fed 6% flaxseed were rated tougher (P<0.05)
than those fed 3% flaxseed. The control (corn) diet was
rated juicier than all other treatments, but no differences
(P>0.05) were found among treatments that included barley. Flavor ratings were not affected by flaxseed addition
(P>0.4). Samples from the longissimus were used for fatty
acid content determination and were analyzed as a percent
of total fat found in the muscle. Flaxseed inclusion in the
barley diet increased (P<0.01) alpha-linolenic (18:3, n-3)
fatty acid content. Six percent addition of flaxseed resulted
in greater amounts of (P= 0.04) alpha-linolenic fatty acid
than 3%, and steers fed flaxseed 56 d had higher (P<0.01)
alpha-linolenic fatty acid content than steers fed flaxseed 28
d. Flaxseed addition did not change other measured fatty
acid content (P>0.10). The inclusion of flaxseed into barley
diets for finishing beef steers increased alpha-linolenic fatty
acid content without significantly affecting flavor or carcass
quality traits.
Key Words: Flaxseed, Omega-3, Beef
PREDICTION OF RETAIL YIELD IN GRASS-FINISHED
BEEF
1,2
E. Pavan, 1S. K. Duckett, 1H. R. Crowe
e-mail: epavan@uga.edu
1
University of Georgia, ADS, Athens, US, 2INTA-EEA Balcarce, Balcarce, Arg.

were measured at 48 h postmortem and retail cuts were


fabricated from one size after 7 day of aging at 4C. Mean,
standard deviation (SD) and range of the principal variables
are presented in the table. The correlation between all variables was evaluated, and a stepwise regression analysis was
performed to predict RY and the proportion of RY to hot
carcass weight (RY:HCW) using all carcass variables. Yield
grade (YG) was correlated to RC:HCW (p=.02, r=-.66). Although ribeye area (REA) was positively correlated to RY
(p=.05, r=.56), its correlation with RC:HCW was lower
(P=.10, r=.47) and with the quality grade (QG) was negative
(P<.01, r=-.74). Thus, QG was negatively correlated to RY
(P<.01, r=-.71) and to RY:HCW (P<.01, r=-.65). Fat thickness (FT) was correlated with LW and with HCW (P=.03,
r=.60 and P=.02, r=.62), and tended to be correlated with
RY (P=.08, r=.51), but no correlation was observed with
RY:HCW (P=.18, r=-.19). RY was best estimated when
HCW (87%) and REA (7%) were included in equation (RY =
7.08 + 0.45 * HCW + 0.44 * REA; p<.01; R 2= .93). When
QG was included in the model, REA was replaced by QG,
RY= 55.08 + 0.44 * HCW # 6.20 * QG (p<.01, R 2= .97),
where HCW explained 86.8% of the variation in RY and
QG 10.6%. The only variable that met the 0.15 significance
level to enter in the model to estimate RY as proportion of
HCW was YG (RY:HCW = 0.642 # 0.022 YG; P<0.01, R
2
=.43). However, coefficient of determination increased to
0.81 (P<.01) when QG was included in the model, in this
case RY:HCW was best explain by QG (43%) and LW
(38%; RY:HCW = 0.8225 # 0.0242 * QG # 0.0004 * LW).
In grass-finished beef the RY is mainly related to HCW and
either REA or QG (marbling), although significant its contribution is low. The negative correlation between REA and
QG may indicate that heavier muscled animals had lower
QG when animals were finished on grass for similar age. In
grass-fed beef, YG explained about 43% of the variation in
RY:HCW; in contrast, equations using LW and QG explained 81%.
Variable
FT, mm
REA, cm 2
KPH,%
YG
QG
LW, kg
HCW, kg
DP, %
RY, kg
RY:HCW

Mean
6.0
60.7
1.62
2.52
2.96
426.1
255.8
60.0
149.8
0.586

SD
2.4
8.1
0.51
0.59
0.72
33.8
24.0
1.59
13.0
0.020

Range
2.5-10.2
49.1-76.1
1.0-2.5
1.80-3.80
2.00-4.00
356.5-485.3
213.9-300.3
57.5-63.1
125.9-169.8
0.559-0.636

Key Words: grass-finished beef, carcass traits, retail yield

Thirteen Aberdeen Angus steers finished under similar grazing conditions were harvested and fabricated to establish
the relationship between carcass traits (CT) and retail yield
(RY) in grass-finished beef. After 12 h of fasting and immediately before slaughter, live weight (LW) was recorded. CT
110

American Meat Science Association

2nd Place, Ph.D. Division


Graduate Research Poster Competition
sponsored by Sara Lee Foods
EFFECT OF FORAGE VS. CONCENTRATE FEEDING WITH
OR
WITHOUT
ANTIOXIDANTS
ON
CARCASS
CHARACTERISTICS, FATTY ACID COMPOSITION, AND
QUALITY OF URUGUAYAN BEEF
1
C.E. Realini, 1S.K. Duckett, 2G.W. Brito, 2M. Dalla Rizza,
2
D. De Mattos
e-mail: sduckett@arches.uga.edu
1
Animal and Dairy Science Department, The University of
Georgia, Athens, 2National Institute of Agricultural Research
Thirty Hereford steers were finished either on forage (FOR,
n=10) or concentrate (CONC, n=20) to determine the effect
of diet and antioxidants on carcass characteristics, fatty acid
composition, and quality of Uruguayan beef. Half of the
steers finished on CONC were supplemented with 1000 IU
vitamin E/head/d (VITE). Postmortem vitamin C (VITC) was
added to ground beef (1% w/v) displayed for 8 d. CONC
carcasses had greater (P <0.05) carcass weight, conformation, degree of finishing, fat depth, and ribeye area than
FOR. FOR carcasses showed darker (P <0.05) longissimus
color and yellower (P <0.05) fat than CONC. Initial WarnerBratzler shear force (WBSF) values were similar (P >0.05)
between FOR and CONC beef. However, FOR beef had
lower (P <0.05) WBSF values at 7 and 14 d postmortem.
Longissimus -tocopherol levels were greater (P <0.01) for
FOR and CONC-VITE compared to CONC. Ground beef
from VITE had the lowest TBARS, while samples from FOR
had numerically higher TBARS levels than other treatments.
VITC treatment did not (P >0.05) reduce lipid oxidation.
Steaks from FOR and VITE had similar (P >0.05) TBARS
values, which were lower (P <0.05) than CONC during 21
d of display. VITE supplementation of CONC cattle had no
effect (P >0.05) on color stability of ground beef or steaks.
a* (redness) values were higher when VITC was added to
ground beef. Longissimus fatty acid content of CONC was
twofold greater (P <0.01) than FOR. The percentages of
14:0, 16:0, and 18:1 fatty acids were higher (P <0.01) in the
intramuscular fat of CONC, while FOR showed greater (P
<0.01) proportions of 18:0, 18:2, 18:3, 20:4, 20:5, and
22:5. Total conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and CLA isomer
c9t11 were higher (P <0.01) for FOR than CONC. VITE
supplementation of CONC increased lipid stability of
ground beef and steaks, but was unable to improve color
stability; whereas VITC addition to ground beef increased
color stability without altering lipid oxidation. Finishing
cattle on forage enhanced the unsaturated fatty acid profile
of intramuscular fat in beef including CLA and omega-3
fatty acids.
Key Words: Beef, Forage, Antioxidants
ENDOTOXIN-MEDIATED PINK COLOR DEFECT
UNCURED, COOKED CHICKEN
L. M. Sammel, J. R. Claus, M. E. Cook, M Yang
e-mail: lmsammel@wisc.edu
56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

IN

University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI


During harvest, broilers may be exposed to high levels of E.
coli endotoxin, which initiates an immune response and
production of nitric oxide by activated macrophages. As a
result, nitrite concentrations within broilers increase and
may contribute to the undesirable pink cooked color sporadically observed in breast meat. Therefore, the objective
of this study was to determine if endotoxin exposure prior to
harvest contributes to the cooked pink color defect in
broiler breast meat. Thirty broilers (approximately 2.6 Kg
live weight) were given an intraperitoneal injection of E.
coli (O55:B5) endotoxin (1mg/Kg body weight) and served
as treated birds whereas another thirty were sham injected
to represent controls. Twenty broilers (10 control and 10
treated) were harvested 8, 12, and 16 hours post-injection.
Birds were electrically stunned, bled, eviscerated, and submerged in ice water. After chilling 6 hours, the pectoralis
major muscles were removed, vacuum packaged, and
stored overnight at 2C. CIE L*a*b* values were determined
on the lateral surface of raw breasts before samples were
cooked to an internal temperature of 80C in water (85C).
Samples were stored overnight prior to cooked color and
pH measurements. CIE L*a*b* values and reflectance from
400-700nm were measured on two cross sections (2.54 cm
thick) taken from the anterior area of each breast. Percent
reflectance ratios to estimate nitrosylhemochrome
(650nm/570nm)
and
nicotinamide
hemochrome
(537nm/553nm) were calculated. Raw breasts from treated
birds harvested 12 and 16 hours after injection were darker
(p<0.05) in color (lower L* values) than control birds. No
differences in redness (a* values) or yellowness (b* values)
were observed between treated and control raw breast
samples. Cooked breasts were darker (p<0.05) in treated
birds harvested 8 and 16 hours post-injection than controls
and all breasts from treated birds were redder (p<0.05) than
control breasts regardless of harvest time. No differences in
yellowness for cooked breasts were observed between
treated and control samples. Nitrosylhemochrome concentrations were higher (p<0.05) in treated samples than control samples regardless of harvest time. Treated samples
from birds harvested 12 hours after injection had higher
nicotinamide hemochrome concentrations than control
samples and no differences were found in birds harvested 8
or 16 hours post-injection. Treated birds harvested 8 and 12
hours after injection had higher (p<0.05) pH values than
control birds. These results indicate a potential new mechanism responsible for the pink color defect in uncured,
cooked poultry. It appears that nitrite produced by live birds
is contained in the muscle and may have adverse affects on
cooked meat color. Further, birds exposed to the endotoxin
had higher muscle pH than control birds that may have
contributed to less pigment denaturation, and thus a pinker
cooked color. Therefore, it is not only important to prevent
nitrite contamination from an external source but also to
control nitrite production within the live birds prior to harvest. Reducing exposure of broilers to endotoxin may reduce the occurrence of the pink color defect.
111

Key Words: Pink Defect, Endotoxin, Broilers


EFFECTS OF BREED OF SIRE ON CARCASS
COMPOSITION AND SENSORY TRAITS OF LAMB
S. D. Shackelford, K. A. Leymaster, T. L. Wheeler, M.
Koohmaraie
e-mail: shackelford@email.marc.usda.gov
USDA-ARS, Roman L. Hruska U.S. Meat Animal Research
Center
The present report includes results of the first year of a
three-year-long experiment to evaluate effects of breed of
sire on carcass composition and sensory traits of lamb. Dorset, Texel, Rambouillet, Finnsheep, Romanov, Suffolk,
Composite, Katahdin, and Dorper rams (5 per breed) were
mated two a common breed of ewes and 270 offspring
(ewes and wethers) were slaughtered serially and evaluated.
Data were adjusted to a common slaughter age of 217 d.
Carcasses of progeny of Suffolk sires were heavier (P <0.05)
than those of the progeny of all other breeds except Dorper
and Texel. Carcasses of progeny of Romanov sires were
lighter (P <0.05) than those of the progeny of all other
breeds except Finnsheep. Progeny of Finnsheep and Romanov sires had a higher (P <0.05) kidney-pelvic fat percentage than progeny of all other breeds. Leg score was
greater (P <0.05) for progeny of Texel sires than for those of
all other breeds. Leg scores were lower (P <0.05) for progeny of Romanov sires than progeny of all other breeds except Katahdin and Finnsheep. Longissimus area was larger
(P <0.05) for progeny of Texel and Suffolk sires than for
those sired by all other breeds except Dorper. Longissimus
area was smaller (P <0.05) for progeny of Romanov sires
than for progeny of all other breeds except Dorset and Finnsheep. Despite the diversity of breeds sampled, 12th rib fat
thickness was only marginally (P <0.10) affected by breed
of sire. Fat thickness at the 4th sacral vertebrae was greater
(P <0.05) for progeny of Dorper sires than for progeny of all
other breeds. Among the 270 carcasses sampled, wholecarcass ether-extractable fat percentage ranged from 18% to
40%. Breed of sire effected (P <0.05) carcass etherextractable fat percentage with breed means ranging from
27.2% for Rambouillet to 31.3% for Dorper. The longissimus of progeny of Finnsheep and Romanov sires contained a higher (P <0.05) percentage of intramuscular fat
and received higher (P <0.05) marbling scores than that of
the progeny of Rambouillet and Composite sires. Longissimus chops from progeny of Finnsheep sires had the lowest
slice shear force values (17.3 kg) and accordingly the highest (P <0.05) trained sensory panel tenderness ratings (6.1).
Longissimus chops from progeny of Composite sires had the
highest slice shear force values (27.6 kg) and the lowest
trained sensory panel tenderness ratings (5.2). Thus, it appears that there are breed differences in lamb tenderness
that could affect consumer satisfaction. However, no differences among breeds were detected for lamb flavor intensity
or off-flavor ratings. Although the level of difference between breeds was quite small, longissimus chops from
progeny of Finnsheep sires were more juicy than those of
112

progeny of Dorper, Rambouillet, and Texel sires. Finnsheep


and Romanov, breeds known for having large litter size,
share many common carcass composition and meat quality
traits and produced the most tender loin eye muscle chops.
Key Words: Lamb, Tenderness, Sensory
THE INFLUENCE OF CREATINE AND A HIGH GLYCEMIC
CARBOHYDRATE ON THE GROWTH PERFORMANCE
AND MEAT QUALITY OF MARKET HOGS FED
RACTOPAMINE HYDROCHLORIDE (PAYLEAN)
1
C. A. Stahl, 1M. S. Carlson, 1D. L. McNamara, 1T. B.
Schmidt, 1D. J. Newman, 2C. M. Schultz Kaster, 3T. A.
Armstrong, 1E. P. Berg
e-mail: BergEP@missouri.edu
1
University of Missouri, 2Premium Standard Farms, 3Elanco
Animal Health
Crossbred barrows (n=128; 85kg) were blocked by weight
and allotted to one of 16 pens (eight pigs/pen; four
reps/treatment) using a completely randomized design.
Treatments consisted of diets A (pelletted corn-soybean
base formulated to meet or exceed all NRC requirements), B
(diet A supplemented with 0.92% creatine monohydrate
(CMH) and 2.75% dextrose), C (Diet B supplemented with
4.5 g/ton Paylean) and D (diet A supplemented with 4.5
g/ton Paylean). Animal weight and feed disappearance was
recorded at 9d intervals throughout the 27d testing duration
to determine ADG and feed efficiency. In addition, realtime ultrasound was used to establish 10th rib fat depth (FD)
and loin muscle area (LMA) on d1 and 27. No treatment
differences were noted when comparing ADG (P=0.66) and
cold carcass weight (P=0.51). Over the 27d test, diets C and
D expressed the greatest improvement in LMA growth (A:
6.84; B: 7.61; C: 9.35; D: 9.03 +/-0.58cm 2, P<0.01). Additionally, diet affected d27 FD (A: 2.21; B: 1.90; C: 1.93; D:
1.85 +/- 0.08cm, P<0.05) and total fat accumulation (A:
0.69; B: 0.48; C: 0.46; D: 0.36 +/- 0.05cm, P<0.001).
Moreover, boneless loin chops of animals fed diet C possessed a greater percentage of intramuscular fat than animals supplemented diet D (A: 2.43; B: 2.3; C: 2.45; D: 2.17
+/- 0.08%; P<0.07). Dietary treatment did not significantly
affect the ultimate pH, Japanese color score or CIE L* and
b*-values of the loin; however, the CIE a*-value of loins
from animals fed diets B and D differed (A: 5.86; B: 6.49; C:
5.81; D: 5.20 +/- 0.23, P=0.0026) from those fed diets A
and C. In conclusion, the addition of CMH and dextrose to
diets containing 4.5 g/ton Paylean does not significantly
improve growth performance; however, the data provide
evidence that this dietary addition allows for the repartitioning of nutrients without significantly altering intramuscular
fat deposition.
Key Words: Paylean, Creatine, Pigs

American Meat Science Association

CARCASS, YIELD, AND PALATABILITY TRAITS OF STEER


PROGENY OF HEREFORD, ANGUS, BRANGUS,
BEEFMASTER, BONSMARA, AND ROMOSINUANO SIRES
T. L. Wheeler, S. D. Shackelford, L. V. Cundiff, M. Koohmaraie
e-mail: wheeler@email.marc.usda.gov
USDA, ARS, U.S. Meat Animal Research Center, Clay Center, NE
In year one of two, carcass trait data were obtained for 270
steers resulting from artificial insemination matings of Hereford (22), Angus (22), Brangus (21), Beefmaster (22),
Bonsmara (19), and Romosinuano (20) sires to Angus and
composite MARC III dams. For retail product yield and palatability traits, data were obtained for 260 wholesale ribs
and 15 d postmortem longissimus thoracis steaks, respectively. Carcasses from Bonsmara- and Romosinuano-sired
steers (329 and 323 kg, respectively) were lighter (P <0.05)
than carcasses from other sire breeds (343 to 354 kg). A
greater (P <0.05) percentage of carcasses from Angus-sired
steers graded USDA Choice (75%) than carcasses from
other sire breeds (27 to 45%). Adjusted fat thickness for
carcasses from Angus- and Beefmaster-sired steers (1.1 cm)
was greater (P <0.05) than for carcasses from Romosinuanosired steers (0.8 cm). Longissimus area was greater (P <0.05)
for carcasses from Brangus-, Bonsmara-, and Romosinuanosired steers (86.5 cm 2) than for carcasses from Herefordsired steers (81.9 cm 2). Carcass yield of boneless, totally
trimmed retail product was lowest (P <0.05) for Angus-sired
steers (61.4%), intermediate for Hereford-, Brangus-, and
Beefmaster-sired steers (63.2, 63.4, and 63.2%, respectively), and highest (P <0.05) for Romosinuano- and
Bonsmara-sired steers (65.6 and 64.4%, respectively). There
were no differences (P >0.05) among sire breeds for weight
of retail product. Longissimus from carcasses of Beefmasterand Brangus-sired steers had higher (P <0.05) WarnerBratzler shear force values (4.0 and 3.8 kg, respectively)
than longissimus from Angus- and Bonsmara-sired steers
(3.4 and 3.5 kg, respectively). Trained sensory panel tenderness, juiciness, or beef flavor intensity ratings for longissimus were not different (P >0.05) among the sire breeds.
Relative to the British and American sire breeds, the
Bonsmara and Romosinuano breeds appear to provide heat
tolerance with no detriment to longissimus tenderness, improved retail product yield, and, thus, similar retail product
weight despite a lighter carcass.
Key Words: Beef, Breed, Quality

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

113

114

American Meat Science Association

POSTER SESSION

Post-Harvest Effects on Meat Quality


EFFECT OF HONEY ON COLOR AND LIPID STABILITY IN
GROUND BEEF
1
A.L. Alderton, 1C.L. Miano
e-mail: alderton@uky.edu
1
University of Kentucky
Myoglobin and lipid oxidation are major causes of quality
deterioration in fresh ground beef during storage. Honey is
a complex natural liquid reported to contain a variety of
antioxidants such as catalase, ascorbic acid, flavonoids and
alkaloids. The use of honey to enhance color and lipid stability would prove valuable to the beef industry given the
current consumer trend towards natural antioxidants. Our
objective was to investigate the antioxidant activity of light
and dark honey and also to determine the ability of honey
to delay lipid and myoglobin oxidation in ground beef
stored at refrigeration temperatures. Light and dark honeys
were obtained from a local distributor and analyzed for
total antioxidant activity using an N,N-Diphenyl-N'-(2,4,6trinitrophenyl)-hydrazyl (DPPH) colorimetric assay. Fresh
beef chuck was obtained from Angus crossbred steers (n=6)
and fine ground. Patties containing 1, 3 or 5% (by weight)
light or dark honey were formed and stored fresh at 4C.
Control (CON) patties were formed with no added honey
and stored under identical conditions. Hunter L*a*b* and
thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) analyses
were performed on days 0, 1, 3, 5 and 7 of fresh storage.
Total antioxidant activity (TOA) of dark honey was greater
(P<0.05) than TOA of light honey as indicated by the DPPH
colorimetric assay. TBARS values of patties containing either light or dark honey were lower (P<0.05) than CON
following at least 5 days of refrigerated storage. In addition,
the ability of honey to offset lipid oxidation increased with
increasing honey concentrations. Finally, dark honey delayed lipid oxidation more effectively that light honey as
indicated by TBARS and supported by TOA. No differences
in Hunter L*a*b* color values (P>0.05) were observed in
ground beef with added honey relative to CON. The addition of both light and dark honey to fresh ground beef at 1,
3 and 5% delayed lipid oxidation following at least five
days of storage, but had no significant impact on meat
color.
Key Words: Ground Beef, Lipid Oxidation, Antioxidants

Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association


Reciprocal Meat Conference
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

THE ROLE OF SUBCUTANEOUS FAT ON EATING


SATISFACTION OF TOP LOIN BEEF STEAKS RELATIVE TO
MARBLING CLASS
Paul T. Berg, Martin J. Marchello, William D. Slanger
e-mail: pberg@ndsuext.nodak.edu
North Dakota State University
The objective of this study was to evaluate the role of subcutaneous fat (subQ) on the eating satisfaction of top loin
beef steaks of 8 different marbling classes. Two short loins
(NAMP #174) were selected by concensus of three trained
evaluators for marbling classes PD, TR, SL, SM, MT, MD,
SA and MA. Care was taken to ensure each loin was within
the middle 20% of each marbling class ( i.e. SM 40 - 60). The
short loins were aged 7 days in their vacuum bags at 1C.
before being processed into 2.54cm boneless, centercut
strip steaks (NAMP #1180A). Eight steaks were retained
from each loin. SubQ fat was left on 4 steaks from each loin
prior to cooking. Thus a total of 16 steaks from each marbling class was available for the taste panel. The steaks
were randomly sorted, packaged in groups of 4 and labled
to correspond to a specific table designation. A ''white table
cloth'' restaraunt (its chef and serving staff) was rented and
128 adults were invited to participate as an untrained taste
panel. The panelists were randomly seated at tables of 4
and a pre-identified package of 4 steaks was prepared for
each table. Meals were standardized except for marbling
class of the steak and whether the steak was flame broiled
with the fat on or off. The steaks broiled with fat on had
subQ fat removed prior to serving the guest. There were no
duplicate treatments among the guests seated at any table to
minimize verbal comparison influence. Panelists were
asked to evaluate steaks for juiciness (J), flavor (FL), tenderness (T), residual connective tissue (CT) and overall acceptability (AC) using the AMSA 8 point hedonic scale. Except
for J (P = 0.012), no significant differences were associated
with marbling class although there was a tendency for panelists to rank steaks of greater marbling higher for T, FL and
AC. The influence of marbling was greater for FL in fat on (P
= 0.03) than fat off steaks (P = 0.94).Pvalues for T, CT and
AC for influence of marbling by preparation method were
greater than 0.05. The perception that J and T were related
was apparent in fat on but not for fat off steaks (P = 0.0001
for fat on vsP= 0.29 for fat off). Similarly, the perception that
J and CT were related producedPvalues of 0.001 and 0.82
for fat on and fat off steaks respectively.
Key Words: Subcutaneous fat, Marbling class

115

IMPACT OF PORK QUALITY AND ENHANCEMENT ON


THE SENSORY CHARACTERISTICS OF PORK.
1
B.S. Bidner, 2D.S. Sutton, 1M.S. Brewer, 1T.R. Carr, 1M.E.
Ellis, 1F.K. McKeith
e-mail: b-bidner@uiuc.edu
1
University of Illinois, 2Smithfield Packing Co., Smithfield
VA
Fresh pork loins (n=100) were selected to evaluate the impact of quality and enhancement on the palatability characteristics of pork. Loins were selected based on subjective
color score of the longissimus blade end (A, B, C, D, for
color score 1, 2, 3, and 4+, respectively, n=25 per group).
Selected loins were divided into two equal sections, and
randomly allocated to enhanced (brine solution containing
sodium tripolyphosphate, potassium lactate, salt and natural
flavorings) or control groups. Loin sections were vacuum
packaged and aged 14d before chops (2.5 cm thick) were
removed, vacuum packaged and frozen for Warner-Bratzler
Shear force, and sensory analysis. Selection based on blade
color score resulted in a wide range in fresh pork quality
characteristics. Drip loss ranged from 0.1 to 7.0 %, Minolta
L* ranged from 33.4 to 56.1 and glycolytic potential ranged
from 28.5 to 158.4 mole/g. Dramatic differences in pork
quality existed between quality groups A and D for most
traits measured. Group B and C loins did not differ for most
meat quality traits except Minolta L*, subjective color score
and subjective firmness score which reflected the color difference that was apparent in the blade end. Aging for 14d
resulted in higher Minolta L*, a* and b* values. Enhancement improved most fresh pork quality characteristics,
which were evaluated after the14d-ageing period, as well
as, improving palatability characteristics as evaluated by a
six member trained panel. Cooking loss and shear force
decreased, while sensory tenderness, juiciness and saltiness
increased for enhanced verses non-enhanced pork. Enhancement, however, resulted in an increased incidence of
visually apparent stripes in the cut surface of the loin. Sensory tenderness increased with quality group. A proportion
of the variation in tenderness (R 2= 0.20 and 0.23) of enhanced and non-enhanced pork, respectively, was explained with ultimate pH using linear regression. These results suggest that selection for high quality pork and enhancement can impact palatability characteristics.
Key Words: Pork , Quality, Palatability

THE EFFECTS OF FEEDING SUPRANUTRIONAL


CONCENTRATIONS OF VITAMIN D3 TO FINISHING
PIGS ON WARNER-BRATZLER SHEAR FORCE, SENSORY
EVALUATION, COOKING LOSS, AND SHELF LIFE
T.R. Bonner, C.R. Kerth, W.F. Owsley, W.R. Jones, L.T.
Frobish
e-mail: ckerth@acesag.auburn.edu
uburn University, Auburn University, AL
Yorkshire-cross pigs (n = 49) were assigned to one of five
experimental finishing diets to determine the effects of high
levels of vitamin D3 with or without phosphorus fed for 10
or 50 days prior to slaughter on meat quality traits. The diets
were 1) a standard finishing (SF) diet which served as the
control (CON); 2)a SF diet with 30,000 IU/kg supplemental
vitamin D3 fed for 50 days prior to slaughter (50); 3) a SF
diet with 30,000 IU/kg supplemental vitamin D3 fed for 10
days prior to slaughter (10); 4) a SF diet with 30,000 IU/kg
supplemental vitamin D3 without supplemental phosphorous fed for 50 day prior to slaughter (50-P); and 5) a SF diet
with 30,000 IU/kg supplemental vitamin D3 without supplemental phosphorous fed for 10 days prior to slaughter
(10-P). After 14 days of aging in a vacuum bag chops were
frozen until they could be analyzed for Warner-Bratzler
shear force (WBS) and by a trained sensory panel. Fresh
chops were placed in a simulated retail setting for seven
days and L *, a *, and b * values were taken with a Hunter
Mini Scan to determine shelf life. Diet means were separated using orthogonal contrast and repeated measures for
retail display were separated using Tukey#s multiple range
analysis. WBS values for the 10-P diet were 1.07 kg higher
when contrasted with those values from the 10 diet (P =
0.02). Cooking loss percentages for all animals fed diets
containing supplemental vitamin D3 tended to be lower
when contrasted with animals fed the CON diet (P = 0.07).
Initial juiciness scores tended to be higher for chops from
pigs fed the 10 diet when contrasted with those fed the 10-P
diet (P = 0.09). Animals fed the 50 and 50-P diets tended to
have higher sustained tenderness sensory scores when contrasted with animals fed the 10 and 10-P diets (P = 0.09).
Pork flavor intensity scores were higher for animals fed the
50 and 50-P diets when contrasted with animals fed the 10
and 10-P diets (P = 0.05). L *, a *, and b * values did not differ for any diets at any day (P >0.05). These data indicate
that feeding high levels of vitamin D3 and restricting phosphorus may improve sensory evaluation. WBS values may
increase when phosphorous is restricted in the diet. Cooking loss and shelf life were not improved by feeding these
diets.
Key Words: Swine, Pork Quality , Vitamin D

116

American Meat Science Association

EFFECT OF AGING ON WARNER-BRATZLER SHEAR


VALUES OF SELECTED MUSCLES FROM THE CHUCK
AND ROUND
1
C.L. Bratcher, 1D.D. Johnson, 2 B.L. Gwartney
e-mail: bratcher@animal.ufl.edu
1
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 2National Cattlemen's Beef Association, Centennial, CO
Studies from University of Florida and University of Nebraska Scientists revealed that a significant number of muscles from the chuck and the round, when removed separately and cut across the grain, were very acceptable in sensory panel scores. Their conclusions were that there are
numerous muscles that could be up-graded in value by cutting them into steaks rather than selling them as part of a
roast or grinding into ground beef. The objective of this
study was to determine the aging patterns of nine selected
muscles from the chuck and round from two quality grades
of beef. Two grades of cuts were studied: US Select and the
upper 2/3 of the US Choice grade. The IMPS 115 2-piece
chuck was separated and the following muscles were selected for study: infraspinatus, triceps brachii # lateral head,
triceps brachii # long head, serratus ventralis, complexus,
splenius, and rhomboideus. The IMPS 167A knuckle was
also separated and the vastus lateralis and rectus femoris
was evaluated. These nine muscles were selected because
of the possibility that these could be used as steak cuts
where tenderness is critical due to the probability that they
would be cooked with a dry cooking method. All cuts were
purchased from a major packer of known USDA grade and
slaughter date. Each muscle was divided into four portions,
progressing from anterior to posterior orientation to the carcass, or from dorsal to ventral orientation to the carcass.
One steak was removed from each portion of the muscle to
be used for evaluation. Postmortem aging was conducted at
7, 14, 21, or 28 days, at 22C temperature cooler. After
achieving their appropriate postmortem aging treatment
Warner-Bratzler Shear force analysis were conducted on an
Instron Universal Testing Machine. Eight of each subprimal
for each grade was sampled and replicated twice. Postmortem aging affects all of the muscles evaluated in this study
in a similar fashion. Therefore, consistent recommendations
about postmortem aging can be given for these muscles.
This study did find that USDA grade had an effect on postmortem aging, in that muscles from the upper 2/3 of USDA
Choice grade would not be necessary to hold beyond a
seven day postmortem aging period. Muscles from lower
marbled grades (i.e. USDA Select), should be aged a minimum of 14 days postmortem. Location within a muscle was
found to have an effect on Warner-Bratzler shear values in
four of the nine muscles evaluated. This would indicate that
muscles would have to be treated on an individual basis
when fabrication and merchandising individual retail cuts
or portions from these muscles. For some muscles, location
within the cut can be ignored and for others location must
be considered for tenderness enhancement or product utilization.
Key Words: Beef, Tenderness, Aging
56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

COLOR TRAJECTORIES AS INDICATORS OF SPOILAGE


IN FRESH MEAT
1
R. S. Cusick, 2R. A. LaBudde
e-mail: ral@lcfltd.com
1
Farmland Foods Inc., Wichita, Kansas, USA, 2Least Cost
Formulations, Ltd., Virginia Beach, Virginia, USA
Samples of fresh modified atmosphere packaged ground
pork and beef were stored in a controlled environment and
under controlled illumination. Each day sample packages
were randomly selected and measured for color using two
different measurement instrument systems. In addition,
aerobic plate counts were determined and the samples subjectively evaluated for acceptable color. Statistically detectable shifts in color were observed at the same approximate
points in time (+/- 1 day) using all of the methods, with the
usual microbial "index of spoilage" (>10 M CFU/g) corresponding to the breakpoint in color. Although multiple coordinate systems (RGB, CIE XYZ, CIE L*a*b*) or multiple
criteria (R, rms difference, a*, Chroma, Cusick score a*-b*)
provided acceptable detection of color shifts, examination
of the color trajectories (i.e., b* vs. a* curves) for spoilage
indicated a simple structure of apparent initial loss of
chroma with near constant hue, followed by a strong deviation from the radial trajectory at the moment detectable
spoilage occurred. Consequently spoilage is most easily
detected using the single parameter (Cusick score) of a*-b*
or by reporting the results in a new L* r* s* coordinate system obtained by rotating the a* b* axes by +45 degrees.
Initial loss of color then occurs principally along the r* axis,
with s* becoming non-zero at the point of spoilage.
Key Words: Color, Spoilage, CIE
COMPARISON OF THE ANTIOXIDANT EFFECTIVENESS
OF CINNAMON AND GINGER IN COOKED GROUND
BEEF
Saumya Dwivedi, D. P. Cornforth
e-mail: darenc@cc.usu.edu
Utah State University, Logan, Utah/USA
The effects of cinnamon and ginger (0.1-1.0%) were tested
as antioxidants in cooked ground beef, using the thiobarbituric acid (TBA) test. TBA values increased with time especially in controls or samples with 0.1% spice. However,
samples formulated with 0.5 or 1.0 % cinnamon or ginger
had TBA values below 1.0 for 15 days at 2C. Thus, both
cinnamon and ginger had significant antioxidant effects. A
usage level of 0.5% was optimum for both spices. Treatments with 1% spice were not different from treatments
with 0.5% spice. Treatments with 0.5% cinnamon or ginger
had lower TBA values (p<0.05) than treatments with 0.1%
cinnamon or ginger.
Key Words: Antioxidant, Cinnamon, Ginger

117

THE EFFECT OF HIGH POWER ULTRASOUND ON


THERMAL TRANSITION AND SHEAR PROPERTIES OF
POST RIGOR BEEF
S.D. Jayasooriya, B. R. Bhandari, P. Torley, B. R. D'Arcy
e-mail: s4026320@student.uq.edu.au
School of Land and Food sciences, University of Queensland, Queensland Australia
Applications of high powder ultrasound to alter the physical
and chemical properties of meat and meat products have
attracted the interest of research workers for the past few
decades. It is a pure physical technique which can be used
as an alternative method in meat tenderization to chemical
or thermal means of processing. In this research work, post
rigor beef Semitendinosus and Longissimus dorsi muscle
samples were subjected to ultrasonic treatment (24 kHz
ultrasonic probe at an operational power output of 85 W
cm -2) for 0, 30, 60, 120 and 240 seconds followed by 1, 3,
5 and 7 days of aging. The specific effect of high power
ultrasound on pH, water holding capacity, thermal transitions, and Warner Bratzler shear values of the treated meat
samples was investigated. Ultrasound treatment resulted in
slight increase in pH and reduced the cooking losses. Differential scanning calorimetry revealed changes in endothermic transitions of myosin, collagen and actin. There was
a decrease in objective shear force measurements, which
indicated increase in tenderness of the treated specimens.
Key Words: Beef, High power ultrasound , Tenderness
USE OF HIGH AND LOW VOLTAGE ELECTRICAL
STIMULATION
STRATEGIES
ENHANCE
MUSCLE
TENDERNESS AND COLOR FROM IMMATURE GOAT
CARCASSES
1
D. A. King, 1K. L. Voges, 1D. S. Hale, 2D. F. Waldron, 3C.
A. Taylor, 1J. W. Savell
e-mail: andy_king99@hotmail.com
1
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 2Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, San Angelo, TX, 3Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Sonora, TX
The production of immature, meat-type goats for cabrito has
become a large market for goat producers in Texas. However, consumer complaints regarding the tenderness and
color of meat from these carcasses have been a concern. A
study was conducted to examine the use of high and low
voltage electrical stimulation in conjunction with postmortem storage to mitigate these problems. Boer cross (n = 60)
kids were selected to be similar in weight and muscling and
assigned to electrical stimulation treatments. The mean age
and weight of the kids were 150 5 d and 23 2 kg, respectively. At approximately 45 min postmortem, the carcasses were electrically stimulated with 550 V (1.8 sec on,
1.8 sec off) for 2 min (HES), 20 V (2 sec on, 3 sec off) for 2
min (LES), or received no electrical stimulation. Muscle
temperature and pH were monitored at 0, 2, 6, and 24 h
after stimulation. At 24 h postmortem, carcasses were separated between the twelfth and thirteenth rib and at a point
118

immediately anterior to the aitch bone. The M. longissimus


thoracis and M. gluteus medius were allowed to bloom for
15 min before L*, a*, and b* values were measured. Paired,
short-cut, shank-off legs were vacuum packaged. One leg
from each carcass was frozen immediately. The remaining
legs from 42 carcasses were aged for 14 d to evaluate the
effects of extended aging. In commercial practice, carcasses
of this type are often frozen for shipment after 3 d. Therefore, the remaining legs from 18 carcasses were frozen on d
3. Warner-Bratzler shear force was determined on the M.
biceps femoris of each leg. Statistical analysis was conducted separately on the Warner-Bratzler shear force for
each aging time. All carcasses chilled rapidly with temperatures falling below 4 C within 6 h. No differences in temperature were observed between treatments at any time
measured. Low voltage electrical stimulation had no effect
on any variable measured. Carcasses receiving the HES
treatment had a much faster pH decline than those from the
LES or control treatments. Values for pH were lower (P
0.05) in the HES treated carcasses at 0, 2, and 6 h postmortem. Ultimate pH was not different between treatments.
HES treated carcasses had higher (P 0.05) redness (a*) and
yellowness (b*) values in the M. gluteus medius than LES or
control carcasses. Additionally, M. longissimus thoracis
from HES carcasses tended (P 0.1) to have higher L* and b*
values than control carcasses. In legs aged for 1 or 14 d, the
HES treatment tended (P = 0.09) to decrease WarnerBratzler shear force values. Additionally, aging for 14 d improved (P 0.05) tenderness regardless of stimulation treatment. In the carcasses from which legs were aged for 1 or 3
d, Warner-Bratzler shear force values were lower (P 0.05)
for muscles from HES treated carcasses than either of the
other treatments. Aging for 3 d had no effect on the tenderness of muscles regardless of stimulation treatment. These
data indicate that high voltage electrical stimulation and
extended aging were effective in improving the tenderness
of meat from cabrito carcasses. However, aging for 3 d was
inadequate to improve tenderness. Furthermore, high voltage electrical stimulation made small improvements in the
muscle color of these goats.
Key Words: Goat, Tenderness, Electrical stimulation
MUSCLE
COLOR,
PH,
AND
SHEAR
FORCE
RELATIONSHIPS AMONG EIGHT BEEF MUSCLES
T.J. Koger, D.M. Wulf
e-mail: tanyakoger@hotmail.com
South Dakota State University
One hundred beef carcasses were selected at three packing
plants and used to determine muscle color, pH and shear
force relationships among eight muscles. Individual muscles
were excised from one hindquarter of each carcass at d-7
postmortem: longissimus lumborum (LL), psoas major (PM),
gluteus medius (GM), tensor fasciae latae (TF), rectus femoris (RF), semimembranosus (SM), biceps femoris (BF), and
semitendinosus (ST). Ultimate pH and colorimeter readings
were measured on freshly-cut surfaces following a 90-min
American Meat Science Association

bloom time for all eight muscles at d-7 postmortem. Samples were frozen at d-7 postmortem and later thawed and
cooked to 70C for Warner-Bratzler shear force determination. Coefficients of determination (r 2) were calculated using linear regression for inter-muscle relationships and
quadratic regression for intra-muscle relationships. Coefficients of determination (r 2) for using LL L* to predict L*
readings of other muscles were significant (P<0.05) for GM
(0.71), ST (0.70), SM (0.65), TF (0.41), RF (0.34), PM (0.30),
and BF (0.24). Coefficients of determination (r 2) for using LL
ph to predict pH readings of other muscles were significant
(P<0.05) for GM (0.58), ST (0.49), SM (0.42), BF (0.13), PM
(0.09), RF (0.05), and TF (0.04). Coefficients of determination (r 2) for individual muscles for using LL shear force to
predict shear force values of other muscles were significant
(P<0.05) for RF (0.27), GM (0.22), SM (0.19), ST (0.15), BF
(0.13), and TF (0.09). Coefficients of determination (R 2),
calculated separately for each muscle, for using pH and pH
2
to predict shear force were significant (P<0.05) for SM
(0.26), GM (0.25, LL (0.11), and ST (0.08). When dark cutters (n = 11) were excluded from analysis, the relationship
between pH and shear force was generally weaker (R 2 =
0.11 for SM, 0.10 for GM, 0.04 for LL, 0.07 for ST). Coefficients of determination (R 2), calculated separately for each
muscle, for using L* and L* 2 to predict shear force were
significant (P<0.05) for LL (0.20), SM (0.14), GM (0.12), TF
(0.09), and RF (0.08). When dark cutters (n = 11) were excluded from the analysis the relationship between L* and
shear force changed only slightly (R 2 = 0.17 for LL, 0.10 for
TF and RF, and 0.09 for SM). For BF and PM, the relationships of shear force with pH and shear force with L* were
not significant (P<0.05). In general, color, pH, and shear
force of LL exhibited weak to moderate relationships to
color, pH, and shear force of the other muscles. Within
muscles, shear force was related to color and pH of SM,
GM, and LL.
Key Words: pH, Muscle differences, Tenderness
3rd Place, M.S. Division
Graduate Research Poster Competition
sponsored by Sara Lee Foods
EVALUATING CONSUMER ACCEPTABILITY AND
WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR VARIOUS BEEF CHUCK
MUSCLES
A. C. Kukowski, R. J. Maddock, S. W. Fausti, G. L. Taylor,
D. M. Wulf
e-mail: annakukowski@hotmail.com
South Dakota State University

Muscles from USDA Choice boneless boxed beef subprimals were aged 14 days, frozen, and cut into 2.5-cm-thick
steaks. Consumers received two of each type of steak for inhome evaluations of uncooked steak appearance traits and
cooked steak palatability. After in-home evaluation of
steaks, consumers participated in a random-nth-price auction session to determine willingness to pay for those steaks.
Muscles differed for overall like of appearance (P<.05) with
the LD, TB, and SS rated similar and highest, and the SV
lowest. Like of shape, size, and leanness differed among
muscles (P<.05) with the LD and TB rated similar and highest for like of shape, and the SV the lowest; the LD rated
highest for like of size, the SS and SV similar and lowest; the
LD rated highest for like of leanness, the SV lowest. Palatability traits differed among muscles (P<.05) with the LD
rated highest for overall like, and the SS and SV similar and
lowest; the LD and IF rated similar and highest for tenderness, the SS and SV similar and lowest; the LD and IF rated
similar and highest for juiciness, and the SS lowest; the LD
and IF rated similar and highest for flavor, and the SV and
SS similar and lowest. Weighted-average price per pound
(determined using binding price for each auction round; n =
35) was $4.38, $4.23, $3.78, $2.82, and $1.96 for the LD,
IF, TB, SS and the SV, respectively. Average price differentials (determined using all bid prices for each auction
round; n = 370) differed significantly from the LD and were
$-0.71, $-0.79, $-1.75, and $-2.44 per pound for the TB, IF,
SS and SV, respectively. Average price differentials were not
different between the TB and IF (P>.05). Average price differentials for the SS and SV were different from the TB and
IF and each other (P<.05). Average appearance trait differentials were significantly correlated to average price differentials; for the IF, like of shape had the highest correlation (r
= .28); for the TB like of leanness had the highest correlation (r = .52); for the SS overall like of appearance was the
only significant contributor of appearance traits for average
price differential (r = .29); for the SV like of size had the
highest correlation (r = .46). Average palatability trait differentials were significantly correlated to average price differential; for the IF overall like had the highest correlation (r =
.39); for the TB juiciness had the highest correlation (r =
.45); for the SS tenderness had the highest correlation (r =
.41); for the SV overall like had the highest correlation (r =
.44). Demand analysis showed demand decreased by
2.60%, 2.44%, 2.09%, 1.96%, and 1.59% for every 1.00%
increase in price for the SS, TB, LD, IF, and SV respectively.
These data indicate the IF and TB were acceptable to consumers as steaks, however at prices lower than the LD.
Key Words: Beef, Consumer, Willingness-to-pay

In-home consumer steak evaluations, followed by centralized laboratory setting auctions (n = 74 consumers) were
used to determine consumer acceptability and willingness
to pay for various beef chuck muscles. Four muscles from
the beef chuck: the infraspinatus (IF), serratus ventralis (SV),
supraspinatus (SS), and the triceps brachii (TB), and the
longissimus (LD) from the rib were evaluated, with the LD
used as a reference to determine price and trait differentials.
56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

119

EFFECTS OF POSTMORTEM TIME AND STORAGE AND


DISPLAY
TEMPERATURES
ON
DEPTH
OF
OXYGENATION AND COLOR ATTRIBUTES OF BEEF
LONGISSIMUS LUMBORUM AND PSOAS MAJOR
MUSCLES AT 3 H BLOOM TIME
R. Limsupavanich, D.H. Kropf, M.C. Hunt, E.A.E. Boyle,
D.L. Boyle, T.M. Loughin
e-mail: rli0115@ksu.edu
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS
The combined effects of postmortem time (PT; 3, 5, 10, or
14 d), storage temperature (ST; 0 or 4.4 C), and display
temperature (DT; 0 or 3.3 C) on depth of pigment oxygenation and instrumental color of beef Longissimus lumborum
(LL) and Psoas major (PM) muscle cubes were investigated
at 3 h of bloom. For each of 4 replications, sixteen samples
of LL or PM from the right side of USDA Select (n=48) and
Choice (n=16), were stored in vacuum at 0 or 4.4 C. At
each PT, LL or PM from each ST was cut into a cube and
placed into an open-top, clear plexi-glass container (3.8-cm
3
for LL, 3.2-cm 3 for PM). Two sides of each muscle cube
were placed tightly to the container wall to facilitate digital
image photography of the oxygenated layer 3 h after cutting
and displaying at 0 or 3.3 C. Instrumental color measurement (illuminant A/10 observer of CIE L*, a*, b*, and reflectance spectral data) was performed on the top surface of
each muscle cube, which had been covered with polyvinyl
chloride film and exposed to air. Oxymyoglobin (OMb),
deoxymyoglobin (DMb), and metmyoglobin (MMb) formation on the muscle surfaces were quantified using K/S spectral data. Digital images were processed using Adobe Photoshop 5.0 software. The depth of the oxygenated layer was
analyzed using the Scion Image software (National Institute
of Health). LL had a deeper (3.45 mm, P<.05) oxygenated
layer than PM (2.02 mm) and more (P<.05) OMb, but less
(P<.05) MMb and DMb by surface reflectance measurement. However, least squares means for a* did not differ
(P>.05) between the 2 muscles. LL had greater (P<.05) L*,
b*, saturation index (SI), %R630 - %R580, and hue angle
values, but less (P<.05) a*/b* and %R630 -%R580 than the
PM cubes. Muscles stored 14 d had greater (P<.05) L*, a*,
b*, and %R630 - %R580 than 3 or 5 d, but did not differ
(P>.05) from those stored 10 d. Muscles stored 10 d had
less (P<.05) MMb, greater (P<.05) a*, SI, and %R630
%R580 values than those from 3 or 5 d. Colder DT increased L* and %R630 - %R580 (P<.05), while colder ST
increased (P<.05) %R630 %R580. ST at 4.4 C allowed
deeper (2.78 mm, P=.05) oxygenated layer than 0 C (2.68
mm). All factors affected hue angle and a*/b* values. This
study suggests that longer PT (10 or 14 d) improved bloom
color attributes. The oxygenated layer depth at 3 h was related to surface bloom color attributes of LL or PM.
Key Words: Oxygenated Layer, Image Analysis, Beef Bloom
Color

120

EFFECTS OF ENDPOINT TEMPERATURE, COOKING


METHOD, AND QUALITY GRADE ON SHEAR FORCE OF
BEEF LONGISSIMUS LUMBORUM, BICEPS FEMORIS,
AND DEEP PECTORALIS MUSCLES
E. Obuz, M.E. Dikeman, J.P. Grobbel, J.W. Stephens, T.M.
Loughin
e-mail: mdikeman@oznet.ksu.edu
Kansas State University
Our objectives were to evaluate the effects of endpoint
temperature, cooking method, and quality grade on Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF) of three different beef muscles. Subprimals (loin, boneless strip loin, NAMP 180; outside round, flat, NAMP 171B; brisket, deckle-off, boneless,
NAMP 120) from USDA Select and Choice, Certified Angus
Beef carcasses were purchased and divided into respective
muscles. Muscles were vacuum packaged and held at 1C
for 14 days and then frozen (-37C). Each frozen muscle
was sawed into 2.54-cm thick steaks, vacuum packaged,
and stored frozen until cooking. Steaks were randomized
statistically in a split-split plot design to one of two cooking
treatments: a Magikitchn electric belt grill at 93C, or a
water bath at 93C; and one of nine endpoint temperatures:
40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, or 80C. Steaks were thawed
at 4C before cooking. The center temperatures of steaks
were monitored using copper-constantan thermocouples.
Cooked steaks were then refrigerated overnight at 1C. Six
cores were removed parallel to the muscle fiber direction
from each steak, and WBSF was measured using an Instron Universal testing machine. Water-bath cooking resulted in higher (P<0.0001) WBSF (3.20 kg) than belt-grill
cooking (2.88 kg) for the longissimus lumborum (LL). The
combination of Select quality grade and cooking to higher
endpoint temperatures resulted in higher (P<0.05) WBSF for
LL. Endpoint temperature was the only significant factor
(P<0.05) for the biceps femoris (BF) with two distinct phases
of tenderization/toughening occurring. Between 40 and
60C, WBSF decreased from 4.48 kg to 3.89 kg, whereas
between 60 and 70C, WBSF increased from 3.89 kg to
4.53 kg for BF. Water-bath cooking resulted in higher
(P=0.0001) deep pectoralis (DP) WBSF (7.25 kg) than beltgrill cooking (6.04 kg). Endpoint temperature significantly
affected (P<0.0001) WBSF for DP, evidenced by a strong
decline between 45 and 65C, irrespective of the cooking
method. Then, there was an increasing trend in WBSF between 65 and 80C. Endpoint temperature and cooking
method were more important factors than quality grade for
the WBSF of the three muscles studied, with quality grade
being significant only for LL. In contrast to commonly accepted literature, we did not observe a distinct toughening
trend in WBSF between 40 and 50C for the LL, BF, or DP.
However, we observed an increasing trend for WBSF for
either LL, BF, and DP between 65 and 80C, but this increasing trend was not as steep as in previously reported
research. Our results suggest that optimum tenderness for
the LL occurs at 55C and optimum tenderness for the BF
and DP occurs between 60 and 65C. Higher marbling provides insurance for tenderness at higher endpoint temperaAmerican Meat Science Association

tures. More rapid conduction cooking on the Magikitchn


belt grill results in lower WBSF than slower, convection,
water-bath cooking.

muscles followed by the appropriate cooking regime offers


a new means of ensuring consistently tender products.

Key Words: Beef, Endpoint Temperature, Shear Force

Key Words: Marination, Cooking regime, Semimembranosus muscle

INFLUENCE OF MARINATION AND COOKING REGIME


ON THE TENDERNESS OF BEEF AND BISON TOP
ROUND ROASTS
Z. Pietrasik, J.S. Dhanda, P.J. Shand, R.B. Pegg
e-mail: dhanda@sask.usask.ca
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

EFFECTS OF MPSC RINSE AND CHILL TECHNOLOGY ON


BEEF VISUAL CASE LIFE, PALATABILITY AND SHEAR
FORCE AND LIVER PALATABILITY
B. J. Reuter, D. T. Bartholomew, D. Timmerman
e-mail: breuter@auri.org
Agricultural Utilization Research Institute

Collagen is the dominant protein of connective tissue and is


largely responsible for textural differences between muscles.
During thermal processing the insoluble portion of collagen
denatures but denaturation is dependant upon the temperature employed. For this reason, an optimal temperature and
rate of cooking are essential in achieving the desirable texture for a particular muscle cut. The objective of this study
was to determine the combined effect of marination and
different cooking regimes on the cooking yield and palatability of bison and beef top round roasts. Semimembranosus (SM) muscles from beef and bison top rounds were injected with a marinade to achieve 20% extension by weight
and 0.5% sodium chloride and 0.3% sodium tripolyphosphate levels in the finished product. After injection, each
muscle was divided into four equal sized roasts; these were
steam-cooked in a smokehouse to a final internal temperature of 71C using one of the following four cooking regimes: cooking at a constant temperature of 75C (control);
similar to the control treatment except that roasts were held
at an internal temperature of 50C for 45 minutes (H45) or
for 90 minutes (H90); and for the final regime, roasts were
cooked at 55C with a 5C increase in smokehouse temperature every hour (UP) until the required internal temperature was reached. Hydration properties (i.e., cooking
yield, expressible moisture, purge during storage of vacuum
packaged slices) and textural characteristics (i.e., shear
force) of processed roasts were determined.Marination by
injection helped to improve the yield and tenderness of beef
and bison SM muscles. The cooking yield for injected samples (78%) was significantly (P0.05) higher compared to
non-injected controls (68%). When comparing beef and
bison samples, injected SM muscle from bison had lower
cooking losses than that from beef, whereas control samples
from these two species did not differ in their cooking yields.
Beef SM muscle was more tender than bison SM muscle;
however, moisture enhancement was able to significantly
reduce the shear force values of SM muscle roasts for both
species (shear force values of 82N in control samples was
reduced to 63N in injected ones). The cooking regimes,
H45, H90 and UP, yielded products with significantly lower
shear force values than that of the control. Based on the
cooking yield and time involved, however, the H45 treatment performed the best. The results suggest that moisture
enhancement of lesser value cuts of beef and bison SM

The objective of this research was to evaluate effects of


MPSC, Inc., Rinse and Chill technology (R&C) on visual
case life, palatability and shear force of the longissimus
muscle (LM) and triceps brachii (TB) as well as palatability
on liver. Limousin steers (n = 40) were harvested in four
groups at G&C Packing Company in Colorado Springs, CO.
MPSC, Inc., Rinse and Chill technology was administered
postexsanguination to 5 of 10 animals in each group. Liver
samples were collected at harvest and packaged for later
testing. At 48 h postmortem, carcasses were shipped to the
BSI plant in Hartley, IA for breaking and the LM and TB
were dissected from the left side of each carcass and vacuum packaged. Shear force and visual case life were preformed on fresh samples on d9 and d9 through d21 postmortem respectively. Muscle samples were frozen on d7
postmortem and cut into steaks for future evaluation. Triceps brachii steaks from R&C carcasses had higher lean
color case life panel scores (P 0.05) than control TB steaks
from d0 through d8 and less discoloration (P 0.05) d2
through d6. Rinse and Chill TB steaks had a significantly
lower percent of steaks deemed unacceptable on d5 and d6
with both R&C and control TB steaks less than 50 percent
unacceptable between d7 and d8. Minolta a* values for
R&C TB tended (P 0.1) to be higher d0 through d12 and b*
values tended to be higher d0 through d5. Rinse and Chill
LM steaks had higher lean scores (P 0.05) than control TB
steaks from d0 through d6. Control LM steaks had less discoloration (P 0.05) d7 through d12. Control LM samples
had a lower percent of steaks deemed unacceptable on d7
and d8 with R&C and control LM steaks reaching less than
50 percent unacceptable on d8 and d9 respectively. L* values tended to be higher (P 0.1) for R&C LM steaks d0
through d9. Rinse and Chill TB steaks had higher (P = 0.06)
sensory panel tenderness scores than control TB steaks.
Shear force values for TB steaks were not significantly different between R&C and control groups. Rinse and Chill LM
steaks had lower (P = 0.04) shear force values than control
LM steaks. Liver samples from R&C cattle had less flavor
intensity (P = 0.03) and liver flavor (P = 0.02) than control
liver samples. The results of this research support previous
work done on Rinse and Chill technology as well as introduce new information about the technology.

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

Key Words: Beef, Rinse and Chill

121

COMPARING PORK FAT COLOR FROM BARLEY AND


CORN FED PORK USING IMAGE ANALYSIS
T. P. Ringkob
e-mail: tringkob@scs.unr.edu
University of Nevada, Reno, NV
The objective of this study was to compare pork fat color
from a barley or corn diet with store-bought pork of unknown feeding regimes. A thin slice (~.5 cm) was cut from
the 10-11 rib area of the pork loin. The slice was wrapped
in film used for retail display and scanned on a HP 6350
flatbed scanner. Twenty-four pork loin chops were purchased at 3 local supermarkets. Small (1x2 cm) samples of
subcutaneous fat were cut and placed on a tray overwrapped with retail display film and scanned. The uncompressed tif files were imported into the IPLab image analysis
program. The Japanese pork fat models were used as
benchmarks. It was found that the yellow split of the CMY
format produced linear results with a decent range. The
image values for the yellow split of Japanese fat block models were as follows: white fat block no. 1 # 66.5; no. 2 #
75.8; no. 3 # 86.7 and the slightly yellow no.4 # 96.0. The
barley fed pork produced extra white fat (yellow split value
of 54.9) which was even whiter than the Japanese no. 1 fat
block model (66.5). The barley fed pork was much whiter
(P<.05) than the corn fed pork which had a yellow split
value of 90.6. The corn fed pork produced pork fat at the
midpoint of the Japanese fat model no. 3. The yellow split
value for the corn diet was not different (P<.05) from the
store-bought pork (yellow split value of 91.6). Less than half
of the corn fed and the store-bought samples would qualify
for the Japanese export market (no. 1 and 2). However,
100% of the barley fed pork would qualify for the Japanese
export market.
Key Words: Pork fat color, Barley, Image analysis

1st Place, M.S. Division


Graduate Research Poster Competition
sponsored by Sara Lee Foods
TENDERIZATION
EFFECTS
OF
ELECTRICALLY
PRODUCED HYDRODYNAMIC SHOCK WAVES ON TOP
ROUND AND STRIP LOIN MUSCLES OF BEEF
J.V.V. Sagili, J.R. Claus
e-mail: jrclaus@facstaff.wisc.edu
Department of Animal Sciences, University of WisconsinMadison
Four experiments were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of electrically generated Hydrodynamic Shockwaves
(HSW) using a TenderClass System (TCS) to tenderize
USDA Select beef top round (TR) and strip loin (SL) muscles. Experiment 1 was conducted on TR (n=20) to evaluate
the uniformity in tenderization by HSW across the TCS
processing tunnel (Hydrodyne Inc.). Experiment 2 determined tenderization effects of HSW within SL (n=10) from
the rib end through the sirloin end after removing a control
steak from each end. Experiment 3 investigated whether the
HSW treatment eliminates the need to age fresh and enhanced SL (n=20). The HSW treated fresh (T) strip loins
were compared to 2 reference controls (C1- not aged, C2aged 14 d). The HSW treated and enhanced SL (not aged,
TE) were compared to enhanced and aged controls (CE).
The SL were injected (8% injection) with a solution containing 0.25% NaCl and 0.4% sodium tripolyphosphate. In Experiment 4, SL (n=9) were used to compare blade tenderization (BT) with HSW tenderization. Tenderness was measured by Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBSF) testing on the
steaks cooked to 71C. Results from Experiment 1 indicated
tenderness improvement (P<0.05) of 17 to 19% (WBSF reduction) throughout the processing tunnel. Experiment 2
showed reduced (P<0.05) WBSF by 16.3% (C=3.79, T=3.17
kg) for rib end and 32.3% (C=4.46, T=3.02 kg) for sirloin
end of SL. Experiment 3 indicated HSW treatment eliminated the need to age as C2 and T (3.09 and 3.16 kg, respectively) were equally effective in improving the tenderness (P<0.05) compared to C1 (3.57 kg). Enhanced steaks
were more tender than non-enhanced. Aged and enhanced
controls were more tender than non-aged, enhanced HSW
steaks (CE=1.62, TE=2.40 kg). In experiment 4, BT and
HSW treatments equally reduced WBSF (P<0.05) compared
to controls (C=4.53, T=3.38, BT=3.52 kg). Hydrodynamic
shockwave processing of TR and SL muscles of beef produced consistent tenderization in all the experiments. HSW
treatment minimized the tenderness variation with reduced
shear values within a muscle. In addition, the HSW treatment has the potential to eliminate the need for aging and
could replace the existing blade tenderization process to
tenderize meats.
Key Words: Beef, Tenderization, Electrically generated
shock waves

122

American Meat Science Association

QUALITY ATTRIBUTES OF ENHANCED CASE-READY


PORK LOIN CHOPS
1
G. A. Searls, 1R. J. Maddock, 1D. M. Wulf, 2C. P. Allison,
2
M. E. Doumit, 3T. W. Hothaus, 3R. C. Johnson
e-mail: robert_maddock@sdstate.edu
1
South Dakota State University, 2Michigan State University,
3
Farmland Foods
This experiment evaluated quality attributes of case ready
pork loin chops from three loin locations. Forty-five pigs
representing two genetic lines and two sex classes (barrows
and gilts) were randomly assigned to either a control diet
(D1) or a diet containing 4.5g Paylean/day for two weeks
prior to slaughter (D2). Boneless loins were obtained,
pumped to a target of 112% of green weight and stored for
one week. Three chops (C1, C2 and C3, 2.5 cm thick) representing the midpoint of each third of the loin (cranial,
middle and caudal, respectively) were taken from each loin.
Each chop was evaluated for quality characteristics (Day 6).
Chops were retail packaged, placed in a modified atmosphere master-pack, boxed and stored 12 d. On Day 18
postmortem, the master-packs were opened, the retail
packages were placed in a simulated retail display setting
and evaluated for quality characteristics. Chops were displayed for 24 h and quality characteristics were re-assessed
(Day 19). Warner-Bratzler Shear (WBS) force was determined for each chop. Data was analyzed as a 2 x 2 x 2 x 3
factorial with main effects of finishing diet, genotype, sex
and loin location and their two-way interactions. Loin
pump and drip loss percentages were not affected (P >0.05)
by any interactions or main effects. On Day 6, visual color
did not differ among main effects, but L* and a* were affected by loin location with C3 being darker (P <0.05) than
C1 and C2. Moreover, firmness differed by loin location
with C3 being firmer (P <0.05) than C1 and C2. In addition,
marbling differed by sex class with chops from gilts having
lower marbling scores (P <0.05). On Day 18, color, firmness and marbling were affected (P <0.05) by genotype,
with chops from genetic line 1 having higher L* values,
lower firmness scores, and more visual marbling. In addition, gilt chops had higher L* values (P <0.05) and lower (P
<0.05) visual marbling scores. Similar to Day 6, firmness on
Day 18 was affected by loin location with C3 being firmer
(P <0.05) than C1 and C2. On Day 18, a finishing diet x
genotype interaction was observed for marbling score
where genetic line 1 pigs fed D2 had more marbling (P
<0.05) than all other finishing diet x genotype combinations. Day 19 evaluations were similar to Day 6 with regards to firmness. On Day 19, pigs fed finishing diet D2
displayed more (P <0.05) marbling. Day 19 color scores (a*
and b*) were affected by sex and loin location with gilt
chops possessing lower a* and b* values (P <0.05) and C3
chops displaying higher a* and b* values (P <0.05) than C1
and C2. Additionally, WBS force evaluations were affected
(P <0.05) by genotype, sex and loin location with chops
from genetic line 1 being more tender, barrows being more
tender, and C1 being more tender than C2 and C3, and C2
more tender than C3. In conclusion, quality attributes of
56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

enhanced case-ready pork loin chops were significantly


affected by production practices and location of chops
within the loin.
Key Words: Pork, Enhanced, Case-ready
CONSUMER SENSORY ACCEPTANCE AND VALUE OF
DOMESTIC GRAIN-FED, CANADIAN GRAIN-FED, AND
AUSTRALIAN GRASS-FED BEEF STEAKS
1
B. M. Sitz, 1C.R. Calkins, 1D. M. Feuz, 2W. J. Umberger, 1K.
M. Eskidge
e-mail: bsitz1@bigred.unl.edu
1
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 2Colorado
State University, Fort Collins, CO
To determine consumer acceptance and value of beef from
various countries, twenty-four taste panels of consumers (n
= 273) were conducted in Denver and Chicago. Two pairs
of steaks were evaluated for flavor, juiciness, tenderness,
and overall acceptability on eight-point hedonic scales.
One pair consisted of Australian grass-fed strip steak and
domestic grain-fed strip steak. The other pair included Canadian and domestic grain-fed strip steaks. The pairs were
matched to similar Warner-Bratzler shear values and marbling scores to reduce variation caused by tenderness and
juiciness between the steaks. Panelists were paid fifty dollars for participation in the taste panel. A n th price auction,
a variation of the Vickery auction, used silent, sealed bids to
determine the value the panelists placed on the samples.
Steaks (0.45 kg) from the same strip loin sampled in the
taste panel were auctioned. The panelists who won auctions paid for the steaks from their participation money.
Consumers placed significantly higher (P <.0001) scores for
flavor, juiciness, tenderness, and overall acceptability for
domestic samples than Australian samples. A significantly
higher (P <.0001) value was also placed on the domestic
samples than the Australian samples. Domestic samples
averaged 3.68 dollars/0.45 kg, while consumers placed an
average value of 2.48 dollars/0.45 kg on Australian samples. Consumers rated Canadian samples numerically lower
for juiciness (P = .09) and lower (P <.005) for flavor, tenderness, and overall acceptability than domestic samples.
The willingness to pay for domestic samples was significantly higher for domestic samples (P <.01) versus Canadian samples. Consumers were placed an average value of
3.95 dollars/0.45 kg for domestic samples and 3.57 dollars/0.45 kg for Canadian samples. However, niche markets
may be developed for the consumers who preferred the
Australian grass-fed and Canadian samples over the domestic grain-fed samples. Consumers who preferred Australian
grass-fed samples over domestic grain-fed samples (19.0%)
paid 1.38 dollars/0.45 kg more (P <.0001). Consumers who
favored the Canadian samples over the domestic grain-fed
samples (29.3%) paid 1.37 dollars/0.45 kg more (P <.0001)
for the Canadian samples. A majority of United States consumers appear to be accustomed to the taste of grain-fed
beef and prefer domestic samples to beef from Australia
grass-fed and Canada.
Key Words: Beef, Feeding regime, Palatability
123

2nd Place, M.S. Division


Graduate Research Poster Competition
sponsored by Sara Lee Foods
MECHANICAL PROBES USED ON UNCOOKED STRIP
LOINS CAN PREDICT COOKED LONGISSIMUS BEEF
TENDERNESS
J. W. Stephens, J. A. Unruh, M. E. Dikeman, M. C. Hunt, T.
E. Lawrence, T. M. Loughin
e-mail: jwstephe@oznet.ksu.edu
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS
Strip loins (IMPS 180) were used to evaluate the use of mechanical probes and instrumental color to predict trained
sensory panel (TSP) tenderness. In a preliminary study, uncooked longissimus muscle (n = 29) was evaluated at 2 d
postmortem with five mechanical probes and a spectrophotometer to predict 14 d trained sensory panel (TSP) tenderness. The most successful probes were the sharp needle,
sharp blade and plumb bob probes, which were correlated
with TSP tenderness (r = -0.77, -0.52, and -0.53, respectively). Fifty-three strip loins were used to develop regression equations to predict TSP tenderness from combinations
of probe peak force, total energy or cross product (peak
force x total energy) measurements and instrumental color
values. The predicted values of equations were also used to
classify the strips into tenderness groups, and this classification was compared to the actual TSP tenderness. The sharp
needle probe combined with L* predicted 49% of the variation in TSP tenderness. Of the 41 strip loins predicted to be
tender (predicted tenderness >5.0), 35 (85.4%) were actually tender (TSP tenderness >5.0), and 9 of the 12 (75%)
strip loins predicted to be tough (predicted tenderness <5.0)
were actually tough (TSP tenderness <5.0). The sharp blade
probe and L* equation predicted 50% of the variation in
TSP tenderness, and that equation was correct in its classification of 35 of 40 (87.5%) strip loins as tender and 10 of 13
(76.9%) as tough. The plumb bob probe combined with L*
predicted 47% of the variation in TSP tenderness. Of the 45
strip loins this equation predicted to be tender, 36 (80%)
were actually tender, and 6 of the 8 (75%) strip loins predicted to be tough, were actually tough. An equation using
WBSF predicted 58% of the variation in TSP tenderness.
The WBSF equation predicted 38 strip loins to be tender
and 32 (84.2%) were actually tender and predicted 15 strip
loins to be tough and 9 (60%) were actually tough. The
sharp needle, sharp blade, and plumb bob probe prediction
equations were comparable to WBSF in classifying strip
loins into tenderness groups determined by a trained sensory panel.

EFFECTS OF FINISHING PIGS USING A DEEP-LITTER,


GROUP HOUSING SYSTEM OR A CONVENTIONAL
CONFINEMENT HOUSING SYSTEM ON PORK MUSCLE
QUALITY
1
K. K. Sweeter, 1D. M. Wulf, 2R. Morrison, 2L. J. Johnston,
1
R. J. Maddock
e-mail: ksweeter10@hotmail.com
1
South Dakota State University, 2University of Minnesota
Two hundred eighty pigs, which resulted from the mating of
Duroc boars with white maternal sows, were finished in
either a deep-litter, group housing system (n = 160) or a
conventional confinement housing system (n = 120) to determine the effects of housing system on pork muscle quality. For the deep-litter, group housing treatment, pigs were
finished on straw bedding in a hoop barn with two pens (n
= 80 pigs each) allowing 1.86 m 2 per pig. For the conventional confinement housing treatment, pigs were finished on
concrete, slatted floors in eight pens (n = 15 pigs each) allowing 0.74 m 2 per pig. All pigs were assigned to housing
treatments at 34 kg live wt and fed the same corn-soybean
meal based diet, with no supplemental fat, until a target
market weight of 114 5 kg was reached. The pigs were
transported approximately 400 km to a commercial slaughter facility where they were harvested. Forty vacuum packaged, boneless pork loins, from a single harvest group (n =
20 per treatment), were retrieved from the commercial facility for further analysis. At 7 d after the loins were packaged,
purge loss, glucose in the purge, visual color scores, Minolta L* values and visual marbling scores were evaluated
for each loin. In addition, glycolytic potential, 48 h drip
loss, cook loss and Warner-Bratzler shear force values were
determined for each loin. Loins from the conventional confinement housing treatment had higher NPPC marbling
scores (2.88 vs. 2.34), less purge loss (1.51% vs. 2.27%),
less drip loss (1.25% vs. 1.98%) and had lower shear force
values (3.09 kg vs. 3.50 kg) than loins from the deep-litter,
group-housing treatment (P <0.05). Color, pH, glucose in
the purge, and glycolytic potential did not differ between
housing treatments (P >0.05). Overall, pigs finished in a
conventional confinement housing system had loins with
higher muscle quality than pigs finished in a deep-litter,
group housing system.
Key Words: Pork, Housing, Muscle Quality

Key Words: Beef, Tenderness, Measurement

124

American Meat Science Association

AGING AND ENHANCEMENT EFFECTS ON SENSORY


CHARACTERISTICS OF BEEF STRIP STEAKS
S. Wicklund, F.K. McKeith, M.S. Brewer
e-mail: swicklun@uiuc.edu
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL
The Longissimus was removed 24 h postmortem from 20
paired beef sides to assess the effects of enhancement and
aging time on quality attributes of beef strip steaks. Sides
were pumped to 108% of original weight to contain .4%
sodium phosphate, .4% salt, and added water for comparison with unpumped samples. Ten paired sides were then
cut into four sections and aged 7, 14, 21, and 28 days. The
remaining ten paired sides were cut into 2 sections, aged 7,
14, 21, and 28 days. Following aging, two steaks were removed and the remainder of the section was for comparison
with unpumped samples. The steaks (2.5 cm thick) were
grilled to an internal temperature of 70 C and evaluated by
an 8 member trained sensory panel. Sensory characteristics
evaluated included tenderness, juiciness, saltiness, and metallic off-flavor intensity. A 2(pump level) x 4(aging time)
factorial design was used for statistical analyses. There was
an interaction (p<0.05) between pump level and aging period for tenderness when the samples were enhanced prior
to aging. There was a trend for tenderness, juiciness, and
saltiness to be enhanced by pumping while metallic offflavor was inhibited for samples enhanced prior to aging.
This trend was also seen in samples that were aged prior to
enhancement with the exception that there was no significant difference in metallic off-flavor. Tenderness and juiciness were significantly affected by aging time in samples
that were enhanced prior to aging. The samples aged 28 d
were more tender, while no significant difference between
aging 7, 14, and 21 d was found. The samples aged 7 d
were juicier, but no significant difference was seen between
14, 21, and 28 d. There was a significant difference between the samples enhanced prior to aging and those enhanced after aging. The samples were more tender and juicier in the samples enhanced prior to aging than in samples
enhanced after aging. There was an interaction (p<0.05)
between pump level, aging period, and time of enhancement for tenderness, saltiness, and juiciness. Results of this
study show that pumping beef loins prior to aging allows for
decreased aging periods while increasing appealing characteristics (tenderness and juiciness) and inhibiting unappealing characteristics (metallic off-flavor).
Key Words: Beef, Sensory, Aging
THE EFFECT OF USDA QUALITY GRADE, DEEP
MARINATION, AND DEGREE-OF-DONENESS ON
PALATABILITY OF GAS-GRILLED BEEF STEAKS FROM
SEVEN DIFFERENT MUSCLES
B. A. Streff, D. M. Wulf, R. J. Maddock
e-mail: brick140@hotmail.com
South Dakota State University

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of


USDA quality grade, deep marination, and degree-ofdoneness on palatability of gas-grilled beef steaks from
seven different muscles. A 7 X 3 X 2 factorial design was
used involving seven muscles: gluteus medius (GM), infrapinatus (IF), longissimus (LD), psoas major (PM), rectus femoris (RF), serratus ventralis (SV), and triceps brachii (TB);
three classes: top choice (TCH), USDA select (SEL), and
deep-marinated USDA Select (DMS); and two degrees-ofdoneness: 63C and 79C. The experiment was replicated
ten times for taste panel evaluation and 14 times for shear
force assessment. Certified Angus Beef (used for TCH) and
USDA Select subprimals were purchased commercially,
aged 14 d from box date at 3C, and then frozen. One-half
of the USDA Select subprimals were pumped 1 d prior to
freezing to 108% of green weight with a brine consisting of
91.9% water, 5.0% salt, and 3.1% sodium tripolyphosphate
for the DMS class. Steaks (2.5-cm-thick) were cut from frozen subprimals and randomly assigned to degree-ofdoneness level and shear force or taste panel. Steaks were
thawed 24 h at 3C, seasoned with salt and black pepper,
and grilled on popular consumer-model liquid-propane
grills. Steaks cooked to 63C had lower shear force, were
more tender and juicy, and had more intense beef flavor
than steaks cooked to 79C (P<0.05). Top choice steaks had
lower shear force, were more tender and juicy, and had
more intense beef flavor than SEL steaks (P<0.05). Deepmarinated USDA Select steaks had lower shear force, were
more tender and juicy, and had more intense beef flavor
than SEL steaks (P<0.05). Deep-marinated USDA Select
steaks were more tender and had more intense beef flavor
than TCH steaks (P<0.05). The interaction of degree-ofdoneness and class was significant only for shear force, and
indicated that both marbling and deep marination had
greater effects on shear force when steaks were cooked to
79C versus 63C. Muscles differed more in tenderness ratings than in juiciness or flavor intensity ratings and ranked
from most tender to least tender as follows: PM >IF >LD
and RF >SV, TB, and GM (P<0.05). Of the seven muscles,
the IF had the most and the LD had the least total off-flavors
(P<0.05). Psoas major and IF steaks had the highest and
second highest incidence of livery off-flavors, respectively.
The interaction of muscle and degree-of-doneness was significant for all palatability traits; palatability of SV steaks
was only slightly affected by degree-of-doneness, whereas
palatability of GM and LD steaks was much lower at 79C
versus 63C. The interaction of muscle and class was significant for shear force and panel tenderness; higher marbling (TCH versus SEL) resulted in more tender IF, LD, SV,
and TB steaks (P<0.05), but had no effect on tenderness of
GM, PM, and RF steaks (P>0.05). While deep marination
improved tenderness in most of the muscles tested, the
greatest improvement was observed in LD and TB steaks
(P<0.05). In conclusion, DMS steaks had palatability attributes equal to or greater than TCH steaks, but the effects of
deep marination and marbling were greater at higher degrees-of-doneness and varied by muscle.
Key Word: Enhancement, Meat cooking, Palatability
125

126

American Meat Science Association

POSTER SESSION

Processed Meats & Ingredient Technology


THE EVALUATION AND COMPOSITION OF BEEF
SEMITENDINOSUS UTILIZING A COOK-OUT PURGE
COLLECTION SYSTEM
B.L. Booren, J.L. Baumert, R.W. Mandigo
e-mail: blbooren@neo.tamu.edu
University of Nebraska-Lincoln

EFFECTS OF THE ADDITION OF VARIOUS BINDERS ON


QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF SAUSAGE PREPARED IN
A MODEL SYSTEM
R.L. Husak, D.R. Doerscher, G. Prabhu
e-mail: ryan.husak@proliantinc.com
Proliant Inc., Ames, Iowa, USA

Cook-out purge, commonly an under-utilized product, is


typically discarded by meat processors. The utilization of
cook-out purge by a meat processor would increase the
value of the meat item. The effect of cooking dwell time on
the chemical and physical properties of cooked meat and
cook-out purge utilizing a cook-out purge collection system
was examined. Beef semitendinosus (n=48) muscles were
randomly assigned a cooking dwell time of 0, 60, 90, or
120 min within a treatment combination of added level of a
3% salt and 0.3% sodium phosphate enhancement solution
(0% or 12%) and internal endpoint temperature (60C or
65C). The cooked meat and cook-out purge yields were
not affected (P>0.05) among cooking dwell times for samples with 12% added enhancement solution. WarnerBratzler Shear and Lee-Kramer Shear values for cooked
meat tenderness resulted in differences (P<0.05) among
cooking dwell times, as did moisture, ash, fat and protein
levels of cooked meat. Cook-out purge samples had no differences (P>0.05) among cooking dwell times for moisture,
ash, fat, and total collagen levels. Protein levels for cookout purge resulted in a difference (P<0.05) among cooking
dwell times. The addition of a 12% enhancement solution
may decrease the variation cooking dwell time has on the
chemical and physical properties of cooked meat and cookout purge. This may be beneficial to meat processors in
creating a meat product that utilizes cook-out purge as the
only component affected by cooking dwell time is the level
of protein. The amount of protein found in cook-out purge
may be affected by altering the components and levels
within the enhancement solution, which could be used for
other functions within a food product like sauces and gravies.

Researchers have frequently used meat model systems, such as


sausage type emulsions prepared under laboratory conditions,
to study the effects of various binders on the functionality of
meat batters. Model systems allow for more precise control of
external processing parameters. Binders such as starches and
soy proteins are commonly added to meat products to improve
water retention, consistency, texture, and sliceability. Other
binders such as collagen proteins, plasma proteins, and whey
proteins can also provide functionality in processed meat systems. The objective of this study was to compare the water
binding and texture modifying performance of several different
binders using a sausage model system. The model system was
formulated with a master blend consisting of beef (80% lean)
and pork (80% and 50% lean). The meat was first ground
through a 1/8" plate. The lean meat was mixed with half of the
water, salt, phosphate, sodium erythorbate, and sodium nitrite
for 3 min. Then the fat meat was added and mixed for an additional 2 min. The binders used in this study were 1.0% soy
protein concentrate (SPC), 1.0% modified corn starch (MCS),
1.0% beef plasma (BP), 1.0% pork collagen (PC), and 1.0%
whey protein concentrate (WPC). The master blend was divided into 250g batches and the binders were mixed into each
batch at the above mentioned usage levels, recommended by
the manufacturer. The mixture was then stuffed into plastic test
tubes and cooked in a water bath at 72C for 30 min. The
samples were then held overnight at 8C. Triplicate measurements of processing yield, texture, proximate analysis, and
color were measured for all treatments. Data indicated that
there was a significant increase (P<0.05) in processing yield for
the MCS treatment when compared to treatments containing
SPC, BP, and WPC. However, the texture of the MCS treatment
decreased significantly (P<0.05) compared to the SPC, BP, PC,
and WPC treatments. In addition, proximate analysis provided
differences between treatments, but data did not support practical trends across treatments. The color observations of L*, a*,
and b* expressed no significant difference (P>0.05) across all
treatments. As the data indicated, each binder achieved differences in processing yield, texture, and proximate analysis enabling processors to use this data to choose desirable final product attributes.

Key Words: Cooked beef composition, Cook-out purge


composition, Cooking dwell time

Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association


Reciprocal Meat Conference
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

Key Words: Sausage, binders, model system

127

APPLICATION OF ACID SOLUBILIZATION ISOELECTRIC


PRECIPITATION TO PORK PRODUCTS
J.M. James, C.A. Mireles Dewitt
e-mail: jjennie@okstate.edu
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK
An evaluation of an alternative process has been investigated for its potential to improve low valued red meat
products. The acid solubilization isoelectric precipitation
(SIP) method is used to obtain a more functional and stable
protein concentrate from low valued meat products. This
process takes advantage of differences in protein solubility
to separate myofibrillar proteins from collagen, fat, and
bone. Our previous research has established the applicability of using beef heart to extract proteins that have acceptable nutritional, compositional, and binding properties, but
more work was needed to determine if the process could be
used with red meat from different species and on products
that contained higher levels of fat and bone. The objective
was to determine the composition and characteristics of
pork heart (PH) and pork meat and bone meal (PMB) when
utilizing Acid-SIP. Protein obtained from PH Acid-SIP and
PMB Acid-SIP derived from the picnic shoulder were adjusted to 78% moisture and treated with or without 2%
NaCl. Proximate analysis, color, and cholesterol were
evaluated for each raw treatment. The remaining protein
from each treatment was stuffed into 21 mm cellulose casing and cooked in a 90C water bath for 30 min. Proximate
analysis, color, water holding ability (WHA), cook yield,
and textural properties were determined for each cooked
treatment. The PMB Acid-SIP extracted proteins had significantly less fat, cholesterol, and ash than the original meat
and bone meal. Both Acid-SIP proteins from PH and PMB
showed good WHA (2.230.53 g water/g protein and
2.250.37 g water/g protein, respectively) and cook yield
(99.792.85% and 92.943.20%). Texture Profile Analysis
(TPA) of the cooked links further demonstrated the gelling
ability of the proteins. Based on results, utilizing Acid-SIP
on PH and PMB improves nutritional composition and textural properties. Further work needs to be done to see if this
method would have an economic value for applying the
process to mechanically separated meat and other byproducts.
Key Words: protein solubilization, gel functionality, byproducts
EFFECT OF ANTIOXIDANTS ON STABILIZATION OF
MEAT PRODUCTS WITH n-3 FATTY ACIDS
1
S Lee, 2D Djordjevic, 2Y Park, 1C Faustman, 2E Decker
e-mail: cfaustma@canr.uconn.edu
1
University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 2University of Massachusettes, Amherst, MA
Muscle food products from terrestrial livestock have the
potential to be fortified with long chain n-3 polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFAs) and thus serve as a source of this important nutrient class. However, n-3 PUFA fortification may
128

enhance the susceptibility of muscle food products to lipid


oxidation. The objective of the present study was to determine an optimal combination of antioxidants to minimize
lipid oxidation in n-3 PUFA - fortified meat products. An
emulsion of n-3 PUFAs was prepared (25% algal oil, 2.5%
whey protein isolates, 10 mM sodium citrate, 0.2% potassium sorbate, 500 ppm of 70% Mixed tocopherols, 100 mM
EDTA, pH 3, pasteurized at 75C for 30 min) and incorporated into fresh ground turkey, and fresh ground pork sausage (20% fat) to achieve a concentration of 500 mg n-3
PUFA/110 g meat. An antioxidant cocktail containing
rosemary (0.2% w/w; radical quencher), citrate (0.5% w/w;
sequestrant) and erythorbate (1g/kg product; reductant) was
prepared and incorporated into ground turkey patties (5 cm
dia, 1.5 cm thick) or pork breakfast sausages (7.5 cm dia.
25 cm length). These were stored at 4C or -18C and analyzed for color (L*, a*, b* value), lipid oxidation (TBARS
and peroxide value) and n-3 PUFA profile. a* Values of
refrigerated ground turkey patties decreased with storage ,
but no antioxidant cocktail effect was observed until 4 days
(p>0.05). For refrigerated breakfast sausages, control+antioxidant (CON+ANTI) and n-3+antioxidant (n3+ANTI) groups showed higher a* values than controls
(CON) indicating that the antioxidant cocktail played a stabilizing role toward meat color. TBARS and peroxide values
of both n-3 PUFA enhanced meat products increased markedly with storage time (p<0.05) compared to other treatment groups, and there were no significant changes in
TBARS values or peroxide values over time for treatments
containing the antioxidant cocktail (p<0.05). The recovery
of n-3 PUFA in both meat products was greater than 90 %;
there was no difference in n-3 PUFA concentration within
any treatment during storage (p<0.05). These results provide
support for including antioxidant protection in n-3 PUFA
fortified meat products for the purpose of minimizing lipid
oxidation.
Key Words: n-3 PUFAs, fortification, meat color, antioxidant, lipid oxidation
REDUCING LIPID OXIDATION IN IRRADIATED
GROUND BEEF PATTIES BY NATURAL ANTIOXIDANTS
I. Movileanu, J.T. Keeton
e-mail: jkeeton@tamu.edu
Texas A&M University
Meat irradiation is a proven bactericidal process that enables "pasteurization" of raw meat while reducing the risk of
Escherichia coli O 157:H7 contamination and retarding the
germination of Clostridium botulinum spores through competitive inhibition by surviving spoilage bacteria. The free
radicals and hydroperoxides generated by irradiation can
increase lipid oxidation, produce off-flavor compounds reduce organoleptic properties, and destroy endogenous antioxidants. Therefore, this study was performed to compare
the antioxidant properties of dried plum puree, butylated
hydroxyanixole/butylated hydroxy toluene (BHA/BHT), and
American Meat Science Association

rosemary extract in irradiated (0,1.5, or 2.0 kGy) ground


beef patties. Fresh ground beef patties containing 20% fat
with (1) no antioxidant, (2) 0.02% BHA/BHT,(3) 3% dried
plum puree, or (4) 0.25% rosemary extract were packaged
under partially aerobic conditions, irradiated at 0, 1.5, or
2.0 kGy (actual levels were 1.7 or 2.3 kGy), and stored at
4C. The samples were evaluated for thiobarbituric acid
(TBARS) values, sensory descriptive attributes, subjective
color, and color space values after 0, 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28
days. For statistical validity, three batches of the experiment
were conducted. Statistical analyses of the date were performed using the General Linear Model of the SAS system.
Least square means of the main effects and interactions
were analyzed for significance at P<0.05. All antioxidants
were effective for retarding oxidative rancidity, as determined by TBARS values, in irradiated (1.5, 2.0 kGy targets;
actual average levels 1.7, 2.3 kGy) ground beef patties
stored at 4oC for 28 days. Rosemary (0.25%) and BHA/BHT
(0.02%) were the most effective antioxidants. Dried plum
puree (3%) also decreased lipid oxidation during storage,
but was not as effective as the other antioxidants. The L*
and b* color space values were not affected by irradiation
dose, but 2.0 kGy irradiation caused redness (a*) values to
decrease on day 0 and day 28. No differences in redness
were noted among treatments over the remaining storage
period. Subjective ground beef color (GBC) did not differ
from the control during the storage period, but the percent
surface discoloration after day 0 increased from 1-19% to
20-39% and then remained unchanged. Dried plum puree
slightly increased the amount of surface discoloration
(AMDSC), possibly due to the color of the puree. Irradiation
dose at 1.5 and 2.0 kGy lightened GBC (surface meat color)
at day 0 resulting in a moderate cherry red and very light
cherry red appearance, respectively but remained unchanged over the storage period. Descriptive sensory analysis showed only very small changes in sensory attributes
over the storage period. Sensory differences of all treatments, when significant, were only marginally different,
usually less than 1 unit difference on a 16 point scale. rradiation dose changes were only marginally detectable for
sensory attributes
Key Words: Lipid oxidation, Meat irradiation, Antioxidants
THERMAL DENATURATION OF MYOSIN IN CHICKEN
MYOFIBRILS
SUBJECTED
TO
OXIDATION
BY
HYDROXYL RADICAL-GENERATION SYSTEMS
T. Ooizumi, Y.L. Xiong
e-mail: ooizumi@uky.edu
Department of Animal Sciences, University of Kentucky

study was to elucidate which portion of myosin was destabilized, i.e. subfragment-1(S-1), rod, or both by means of
thermal analysis of oxidatively stressed myosin. Myofibrils
prepared from commercial postrigor chicken breast muscle
were treated with non-enzymatic, hydroxyl radicalgeneration systems (HRGS) consisting of 0.1 mM ascorbic
acid, 0.01 mM ferric chloride, and 0.1-5 mM of hydrogen
peroxide at 0C for 18 h. Oxidized myofibrils were washed
with a 0.1 M potassium chloride, 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5)
buffer to remove HRGS, and subsequently subjected to heat
treatment at 45-49C for up to 24 h. Changes in myosin CaATPase activity and salt solubility as well as chymotryptic
production of S-1 and rod from myosin were monitored as
indices of the thermal denaturation process of myosin. CaATPase (0.2 mg/ml myofibrillar protein) was assayed in the
medium of 0.5 M potassium chloride, 5 mM calcium chloride, 25 mM Tris-maleate (pH 7.0), and 1 mM ATP at 25C.
Salt solubility of myosin was densitometrically determined
from SDS-PAGE of salt soluble fraction of the oxidized myofibrils in 0.5 M potassium chloride with 1 mM ATP-Mg.
Chymotryptic digestion of myofibrils was carried out in the
medium of 0.1 M potassium chloride with 1 mM EDTA, and
the production of S-1 as well as rod was determined by
densitometry of SDS-PAGE. HRGS treatment of myofibrils
caused cross-linking of myosin heavy chains via disufide
bonding and an increase in Ca-ATPase activity, suggesting
that thiol groups of myosin including those at the active site
were modified. On the other hand, salt solubility and chymotryptic digestibility of myosin was not affected by HRGS
treatment. HRGS treatment promoted thermal inactivation
and insolubilization of myosin, confirming that oxidation of
myofibrils decreased thermal stability of myosin. Furthermore, a decrease in chymotryptic production of S-1 and rod
from myosin by heat treatment of myofibrils was observed.The S-1 production from myosin in the oxidized
myofibrils decreased more rapidly than that in unoxidized
myofibrils. The decrease in S-1 production by heat treatment was in accordance with the Ca-ATPase decay. However, the HRGS treatment did not affect chymotryptic production of rod from myosin by heat treatment. The results
strongly suggested that destabilization of myosin due to
oxidation occurred in the S-1 portion rather than the rod
portion. The altered myosin denaturation pattern as induced
by oxidation may explain functionality changes in oxidatively stressed myofibrillar proteins including gelation.
Key Words: Myosin, Oxidation, Denaturation

Oxidation of myofibrillar proteins is believed to be involved


in quality changes of fresh and processed muscle foods during storage. Recent studies have suggested that these quality
changes, especially decreases in gel-forming ability, are
related to destabilization of myosin caused by oxidation.
However, little information is available regarding the denaturation process of oxidized myosin. The objective of the
56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

129

PARTICLE SIZE AND NON-MEAT ADJUNCT EFFECTS ON


THE PROTIN FUNCTIONALITY OF BONELESS CURED
PORK FORMULATED WITH PSE AND RFN RAW
MATERIAL
1
M.W. Schilling, 2C.Z. Alvarado, 1N.G. Marriott
e-mail: mschilli@vt.edu
1
Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, 2Texas
Tech University
Utilization of pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) pork in the
formulation of processed meat products leads to decreased
water holding capacity, pale cooked color, and insufficient
protein-protein binding. Incorporation of either 25 or 50 %
PSE raw material combined with soy protein, starch, milk
protein, and/or carrageenan in the formulation of boneless
cured pork is an effective outlet for this low value raw material. In this experiment, boneless cured pork was produced
from a combination of 25 % PSE and 75 % red, firm, and
non-exudative (RFN) semimembranosus muscle. A randomized complete block design with six replications was utilized to test the treatment effects of adjuncts (no adjuncts, 2
% soy protein concentrate (SPC), and 2 % SPC +1.5 %
modified food starch (MFS)) and raw material size (2.54
cm*2.54 cm and 10.16* 5.08 cm) on protein functionality
in a 3*2 factorial design. CIE L *, CIE a *, CIE b *, cooking
loss, expressible moisture, and protein-protein bind were
measured for all treatments. Utilization of the smaller raw
material size decreased (p<0.05) expressible moisture, CIE
L*, and CIE b*, providing increased functionality through
increasing water holding capacity and improving color.
Utilization of the smaller raw material size also decreased
(p<0.001) protein-protein bind. This result is not crucial
since all treatments exhibit excellent bind (>2.3 kg peak
force). SPC increased (p<0.05) lightness and yellowness, but
no adjuncts affected any other protein functionality measurement. Under these experimental conditions, SPC and
MFS had minimal effects on protein functionality. Product
formulations utilizing smaller particle size in a chunked and
formed product demonstrate the potential to improve the
water holding capacity and cooked color in deli ham rolls
formulated from a combination of 25 % PSE and 75 % RFN
pork.
Key Words: PSE, Water holding capacity, Cooked color
THE EFFECTS OF REDUCING AGENTS ON PREMATURE
BROWNING IN GROUND BEEF
H. A. Sepe, C. Faustman, S. Lee, J. Tang, S. Suman
e-mail: cfaustma@canr.uconn.edu
University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT
Research has shown that ground beef patties will appear
brown (i.e. done) before they have reached the USDA recommended internal temperature of 71 C. This may lead to
consumption of ground beef that has not been properly
heat-treated to kill significant food-borne pathogens. The
objective of this study was to investigate the effects of foodgrade reducing agents on counteracting premature brown130

ing. Sodium erythorbate (SE), erythorbic acid (EA), sodium


ascorbate (SA), ascorbic acid (AA), and ascorbyl palmitate
(AP) were added to ground beef (15% fat) at a concentration
of 2.3 mM. Beef was made into patties, wrapped and stored
at 4 C for 48 hrs or frozen at -18 C for 14 days. Color (L*,
a*, b*) was measured before and after cooking to internal
temperatures of 65 C, 71 C, and 77 C. Lipid oxidation
(TBARS; thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) and reducing activity were measured for raw patties. All reducing
agents decreased lipid oxidation and increased the reducing
activity of raw patties when compared to controls (p <0.05).
Measured a* values (redness) of raw patties containing SE,
EA, SA, and AA were higher than those of controls after
refrigerated storage, but lower than those of controls after
frozen storage (p <0.05). For refrigerated samples, addition
of SE, EA, SA, and AA resulted in higher internal a* values
compared to controls when cooked to 65 C (p <0.05).
Only patties containing SE and SA had higher internal a*
values when cooked to 71C (p <0.05). There was no difference for a* values between treatment and control patties
when they were cooked to 77 C (p >0.05). Frozen patties
containing SE, EA, and SA had higher internal a* values
compared to controls when cooked to 65 C or 71 C (p
<0.05). When frozen patties were cooked to 77C, addition
of SE and SA resulted in higher internal a* values compared
to controls (p <0.05). In general, SE and SA were more effective at maintaining red color and preventing premature
browning in ground beef.
Key Words: Premature browning, a* values, reducing activity
PREDICTION OF INTER-MUSCULAR FAT IN THE FRESH
PORK LEG
1
A. J. Stetzer, 2R. E. Klont, 2A. A. Sosnicki, 1F. K. McKeith
e-mail: stetzer@uiuc.edu
1
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana IL,
2
PIC USA, Franklin, KY
This experiment was carried out to quantify the relationship
of linear carcass measurements to star fat in hams and to
predict the amount of star fat in hams. A total of 90 carcasses (45 gilts and 45 barrows) of the same genetic background were selected based on hot carcass weight at ranges
of 70.8 to 83.6 kg, 84.4 to 90.4 kg, and 90.9 to 98.9 kg (L,
M and H groups, respectively). Paired fresh pork legs (n =
178) were utilized in which the left side was processed into
hams for center cut slice area measurements and processing
yields. Right side fresh pork legs were utilized for fresh ham
composition and cutting yields. In addition, three subcutaneous fat thicknes points (midpoint, ventral and dorsal)
were measured on the right ham at the position where a
center cut slice would be removed. Selection based on hot
carcass weight resulted in a wide range of fat and lean
measurements. Mean ham weights ranged from 8.09 to
12.07 kg, and last rib fat ranged from 0.76 to 3.05 cm. Ham
weights also varied for the left side of 11.26, 10.64, and
9.82 kg and for the right side of 11.19, 10.53, and 9.66 kg
American Meat Science Association

(H, M, and L, respectively). Also, last rib fat was different for
barrows (2.49 cm) and for gilts (2.16 cm;P<0.05). Star fat
weight increased with the weight groups (0.08, 0.10 and
0.11 kg, respectively for L, M and H;P<0.05). Linear fat
measurements did not consistently predict star fat weight.
Star fat area measurements had a correlation to seam fat
weight (0.29). The three subcutaneous fat depth measurements taken at the midpoint, ventral and dorsal sites had
moderate correlations of (0.17, 0.19 and 0.19, respectively)
to star fat weight. However, these midpoint, ventral and
dorsal fat depth measurements had higher correlations to
seam fat (0.35, 0.29 and 0.28, respectively) and subcutaneous fat (0.76, 0.72 and 0.71, respectively). Both, seam and
subcutaneous fat can explain a portion of the variation in
star fat weight using cubic (R 2 = 0.27) and linear regressions (R 2 = 0.30), respectively. In addition, hot carcass
weight can explain a portion of the variation in star fat
weight using cubic regression (R 2 = 0.27). By utilizing a
few key variables, star fat weight could be minimized in
ham production.
Key Words: Pork, Composition, Ham
EFFECT OF ERYTHORBATE, STORAGE AND PACKAGING
ON PREMATURE BROWNING IN GROUND BEEF
S.P. Suman, C Faustman, S Lee, J Tang,PVasudevan, T Annamalai, M Manojkumar,PMarek, K.S. Venkitanarayanan
e-mail: cfaustma@canr.uconn.edu
University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT
The color of cooked ground beef is often used as an indicator of doneness. For safety reasons, it is recommended that
the center of ground beef products be cooked to 71C. Premature browning (PMB) is the condition in which beef may
appear done before reaching 71C. Ground beef with added
erythorbate at 0.04%(ERY), and without erythorbate (CON),
was formed into patties. In Experiment 1, patties were
stored at 4C for 48 hr (REF), or at -18C for 21 days (FROZ),
or frozen at -18C for 21 days, thawed at 4C for 24 hr (F-T),
and cooked. Bulk ground beef (0.5kg) was stored (BULK) at
-18C for 24 days, thawed for 24 hr at 4C, and patties prepared and cooked immediately. In Experiment 2, patties
were overwrapped with PVC film (WRAP) or packed in
Modified Atmospheres (80% O2 and 20% N2), stored for
48 hr at 4C (MAP), or frozen for 21 days at -18C (MAPF)
and cooked. Total reducing activity (TRA) of the meat was
measured immediately prior to cooking. The patties were
cooked to internal end point temperatures of 60, 66, 71
and 77C. External raw color and internal cooked color ( L*,
a* and b* values) were measured. TRA was higher for ERY
for all storage conditions; FROZ ERY patties had higher TRA
than F-T ERY and REF ERY treatments ( P<0.05). After 48 hr
MAP storage at 4C, TRA was lower for CON and ERY
when compared to their aerobically packaged counterparts
( P<0.05). Beef with 0.04% erythorbate and cooked to internal temperatures of 60, 66 and 71C had higher a* values than CON ( P<0.05). The a* values for cooked patties
were higher for ERY than CON under all storage and pack56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

aging conditions at 60 and 66C ( P<0.05). The presence of


erythorbate in ground beef patties appeared to maintain red
color at cooked internal temperatures of 60 and 66C and
to prevent premature browning. MAP did not exert any effect relative to conventional fresh meat wrap packaging for
patties stored at 4C for 48 hr and cooked.
Key Words: Premature Browning, Ground beef, Erythorbate
THE EFFECT OF HAND TRIMMING, MECHANICAL
PRESSING, AND STORAGE TIME ON CHEMICAL AND
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOUS VIDE LAMB
SHOULDER IN CURRY SAUCE
P. Udomvarapant, E.A. Boyle, L.S. VanderWal, D.H. Kropf,
C.L. Kastner, R.J. Danler, T.M. Loughin
e-mail: pud8777@ksu.edu
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS
Sheep meat is objectionable to some people due to its
strong, unique odor and flavor as well as a waxy mouthfeel
caused by fat. To encourage lamb meat acceptance in U.S.
and utilization of low value portions of carcasses, a sous
vide lamb shoulder product was prepared. The objective of
this trial was to discover practical and least cost methods in
terms of labor and time to remove fat, and to study the effect of these fat removal methods and storage time on
chemical and physical properties of lamb products. Boneless lamb shoulders were trimmed by hand and then cut
into 2.54cm 3 cubes -untrimmed, coarsely trimmed, and
closely trimmed (22%, 14%, and 6% fat respectively). Half
of untrimmed and coarsely trimmed cubes were precooked
to 70-75C in hot water and pressed by modified Instron
(490Kgf and 10 mm/min speed) to create pressed untrimmed and pressed coarsely trimmed meat (25 and 14%
fat respectively). For each treatment, samples of 227g of
lamb cubes were mixed with the same amount of curry
sauce (Creative Seasonings&Spices, Inc., Sturtevant, WI),
and then anaerobically cooked in heat-resistant bags in
smokehouse, holding meat at 90C for 2h. All products
were chilled immediately by cool water following USDA
regulation, and kept at 4C for examinations at 1, 30, 60,
90, 120, and 150 days. All 5 treatments were replicated 3
times, in a strip-split plot design. The data was analyzed by
SAS. The proximate analysis of meat (raw material) was
determined. Cooked lamb meat was evaluated for tenderness (fork tenderness, initial tenderness, and fiber breakdown), sheep meat aroma and taste, oxidative rancidity,
and fat-mouth coating traits by 6-12 trained panelists on 6point scale. Objective tenderness by Lee Kramer Shear, pH,
TBARS, and color (CIE L*, a*, and b*) were examined. Hand
trimming was effective in removing fat composition in meat
cubes (p<0.05). The heating/pressing methods caused an
increase of fat level in untrimmed category (p<0.05), but
did not affect fat of coarsely trimmed lamb (p>0.05). They
decreased subjective tenderness as well as L* and b* value,
but increased TBARS. Pressed meat was evaluated between
''slightly tender and moderately tender'', but non-pressed
items were ''moderately tender''. Objective tenderness
131

trend was similar to subjective tenderness. Panelists found


''no rancidity'' in all samples at d1, but gradually detected
stronger rancidity when the products were kept longer. The
meat at d120 was less acceptable and scored ''slight rancidity detection''. Sheep meat aroma, sheep meat taste, fatmouth coating, and pH was not affected by fat trimming,
pressing, nor storage time (p>0.05). Closely trimmed product was the most desirable, but time consuming with high
labor cost for preparation. Coarsely trimmed meat was an
accepatable raw material, whereas untrimmed lamb
showed high variation in product qualities. None of fat removal methods by heating/pressing was successful.
Key Words: sous vide , lamb meat , storage time
DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM USAGE LEVELS OF
VARIOUS ANTIOXIDANTS IN COOKED GROUND MEAT
Mihir Vasavada, D.P. Cornforth
e-mail: darenc@cc.usu.edu
Utah State University, Logan UT / USA
According to USDA regulations, butylated hydroxytoluene
(BHT) may be added as an antioxidant in fresh pork sausage
at 0.01% of fat content. However, our previous work
showed that this level (0.01% of fat weight) was too low to
inhibit rancidity after cooking. We similarly found that
0.2% rosemary oil (% of meat weight) was not inhibitory to
lipid oxidation in cooked ground pork. Thus, the objective
of this study was to determine the effective usage level for
BHT and rosemary in cooked ground pork. We also evaluated cumin and coriander as antioxidants in cooked ground
beef as measured by the thiobarbituric acid (TBA) value.
After 15 days storage, cooked pork samples with 0 (control),
0.002, 0.01 and 0.02% BHT had mean TBA values of 5.0,
4.8, 2.0 and 1.8 respectively. Thus, a minimum of 0.01%
BHT (% of meat weight) was needed to obtain antioxidant
effects in cooked ground pork.Rosemary oil at 0.05-0.2% of
raw meat weight was not effective for inhibition of lipid
oxidation of cooked ground pork. Ground rosemary at 0.40.8% was very effective in maintaining TBA values at 1.0 or
less after 15 days of storage at 2C. 0.1% coriander inhibited oxidation in cooked ground beef as compared to controls, but 0.5% cumin was required for antioxidant activity.
Key Words: antioxidant, rosemary, BHT
THE EFFECTS OF NON-MEAT INGREDIENTS, BLADE
TENDERIZATION AND VACUUM-TUMBLING ON HIGH
CONNECTIVE TISSUE CUTS OF BEEF
1
T.A. Williams, 1R.K. Miller, 1J.T. Keeton, 1L. Rooney
e-mail: rmiller@neo.tamu.edu
1
Texas A&M University

function within the animal. Therefore, they vary in color,


pH, drip loss and palatibility. The challenge is to develop a
processing system for individual muscles that would maximize color, package purge or drip loss, and palatibility in
high oxygen, modified atmosphere retail packaging systems.
While injection of non-meat ingredients is a traditional
method of impacting the aforementioned attributes, the
combination of blade tenderization and vacuum-tumbling
could potentially help reduce package purge and improve
tenderness while not negatively impacting beef color, juiciness or flavor. Our objective was to evaluate the effects of
non-meat ingredients, blade tenderization and vacuum
tumbling on the textural, visual and sensory characteristics
of steaks from Biceps femoris, Triceps brachii long head,
Supraspinatus and Longissimus dorsi muscles packaged in a
high oxygen, modified atmosphere retail package. Muscles
were assigned to one of 24 treatments: control, injection
(injected or non-injected), blade tenderization (0, 1 or 2
passes)and vacuum tumbling (0, 5, 10 or 20 minutes). Injected muscles contained up to 10% of brine containing
water and 1.55% potassium lactate, 0.1% sodium diacetate,
0.3% sodium tripolyphosphate and 0.4% salt in the final
product. After injection, the muscles were vacuum tumbled
and then blade tenderized sequentially. Steaks sliced from
the muscles were stored in high oxygen (80% O2, 20%
CO2)modified atmosphere packaging for 1, 3, 7, 10 or 14
days at 2C. Steaks were evaluated for purge (%), WarnerBratzler shear force (kg), CIE Minolta color space values (L*,
a*, b*), trained meat descriptive attribute color panel, cook
yield (%)and pH on each storage day. A trained meat descriptive attribute sensory panel evaluated steaks on day 1
only. Injected Biceps femoris and Supraspinatu} steaks had
less purge (P 0.05), lower Warner-Bratzler shear force values (P 0.05) and were darker in color (P 0.05) than noninjected steaks. Injection improved muscle fiber tenderness
(P 0.01) and overall tenderness (P 0.01). Injected steaks
had higher flavor intensity (P 0.01); higher salt (P 0.01) and
bitter basic tastes (P 0.01); and higher chemical flavor aromatic (P 0.05) compared to non-injected treatments. Blade
tenderized Biceps femoris and Supraspinatus had higher
cook loss (P 0.05). Blade tenderization decreased WarnerBratzler shear force values (P 0.05) in the Supraspinatus,
but not Biceps femoris. However, blade tenderization decreased purge (P 0.05) in the Biceps femoris. Injection of
non-meat ingredients can improve the tenderness of high
connective tissue cuts of beef.
Key Words: Beef, Non-meat Ingredients, High Connective
Tissue

Use of non-meat ingredients to extend shelf-life, enhance


flavor and color, and improve palatibility of beef steaks in
high oxygen, modified atmosphere retail packaging has
become a beef industry practice. However, beef muscles
vary in physical and chemical characteristics due to their
132

American Meat Science Association

POSTER SESSION

Food Safety
MICROBIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BEEF TOP BUTTS
STORED AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURE SCENARIOS
DURING AGING
J. M. Behrends, J. W. Savell, G. R. Acuff
e-mail: Jmbehrends@cs.com
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX
Restaurants and food services continue to utilize aging as a
process to improve tenderness and increase palatability of
beef. The process may include initially aging subprimals for
2 to 3 weeks followed by an additional aging period for
steaks during distribution and storage before cooking and
serving. We evaluated four scenarios to determine the impact of storage refrigeration temperatures on lactic acid bacteria and aerobic bacteria populations on top butts (m. gluteus medius; TB) and steaks during aging. The temperature
parameters for TB subprimals were -1C (TBLow) and 4.5C
(TBHigh) for 26 days followed by cutting into steaks with
additional 13 days of aging at these temperature treatments:
2 days at -1C; 4 days at 1.5C; 7 days at 4.5C (STLow) and
2 days at 4.5C; 4 days at 1.5C; 7 days at 7C (STHigh).
The four scenarios included TBLow/STLow; TBLow/STHigh;
TBHigh/STHigh; TBHigh/STLow. Three TB were obtained
for each of the two storage temperatures (-1C and 4.5C)
and three evaluation days (initial, 13, and 26; n=18 top
butts total). Excised samples (10 cm 2 surface area 1mm
deep) were removed on each of the TB according to their
assigned aging day and assessed for microbial populations.
On d 26, TB were cut into 6 steaks each (n=54 TB steaks)
and vacuum packaged: 3 steaks from each TB were randomly allotted to low temperature parameters and 3 were
randomly allotted to high temperature parameters for an
additional 13-d storage time and were evaluated for microbial populations on three days (27 d, 33 d, and 40 d total
aging time). Product stored at all four scenarios reached
aerobic bacteria populations of questionable acceptability
(>6 log10/cm 2). Initial populations were relatively low,
however, increasing numbers of anaerobic bacteria and
lactic acid bacteria populations indicate growth during storage despite the different treatment groups applied. The
aerobic populations tended (P = 0.07) to be lower for
TBLow versus TBHigh. There was a significant increase in
aerobic populations from day 1 to 13 for top butt subprimals. Also, there was an increase in aerobic populations for
steaks from day 27 to 33. Top butt steaks from TBLow were
Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association
Reciprocal Meat Conference
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

significantly lower in aerobic bacteria populations versus


those from TBHigh. Interaction for treatment day was not
significant for aerobic bacteria populations. The TBHigh
subprimals displayed higher lactic acid bacteria populations
than TBLow subprimals (P <0.05). There was an increase in
lactic acid bacteria populations from day 1 to 13. In addition, TBLow subprimals had steaks that were significantly
lower in lactic acid bacteria populations than TBHigh subprimals. There was an increase in lactic acid bacteria populations from day 27 to 33. Samples that were aged using
TBLow/STLow and TBLow/STHigh treatments displayed
lower lactic acid bacteria populations than TBHigh/STHigh
and TBHigh/STLow treatments. This study shows that control of the temperatures during the initial aging stage is essential to control the microbial populations on top butts.
There is need to assess any off odors, as well as any off flavors that may be attributed to the microbial growth during
the aging process.
Key Words: Beef, Aging, Food Safety
COST ANALYSIS OF IRRADIATING BONELESS SLICED
HAM
F. Cordona, P. D. O'Rourke, B. R. Wiegand
e-mail: brwiega@ilstu.edu
Illinois State University
The objective of this study was to estimate production costs
for sliced boneless ham. Data were collected on the cost
structure of irradiation of meat products by interviewing
personnel at firms providing irradiation equipment and services to firms producing processed pork products. A computer simulation was developed based on these data and an
estimate of potential profitability was made for irradiation of
sliced boneless ham using three mutually exclusive scenarios. The simulation used a model that included net present
value, internal rate of return, break-even point and unit
costs for four rates of throughput under the three scenarios.
The scenarios included irradiation using X-ray, irradiation
using Cobalt-60 and irradiation by contracting the irradiation services. The four rates of throughput were 50, 100,
150, and 250 million pounds annually. Based on the simulation results, it is evident that profit can be attained in each
of the three scenarios. However, these profits are dependent
on annual throughput of the facility. X-ray irradiation was
profitable at volumes over 51 million pounds annually. Cobalt-60 irradiation showed the greatest profitability with an
internal rate of return almost twice that of capital cost. Contracting irradiation services was advisable for volumes of

133

150 million pounds or more annually because irradiation


and transportation charges combined would exceed net
income before interest and tax for lesser volumes. Total
costs per pound ranged from $0.04 (50 million pounds) to
$0.01 (200 million pounds) for X-ray, $0.02 (50 million
pounds) to $0.008 (200 million pounds) for Cobalt-60, and
$0.06 (50 million pounds) to $0.05 (200 million pounds) for
contracting irradiation services. The rate of return ranged
from 15% to 71% for X-ray, 27% to 100% for Cobalt-60,
and up to 196% for contracting irradiation services. These
results indicate that based on specific assumptions, operation of and/or contracting of irradiation facilities is a profitable enterprise and is dependent on annual throughput volume.
Key Words: Ham, Irradiation, Cost Analysis
A MICROBIOLOGICAL PROFILE OF RED MEAT
CARCASSES
PROCESSED
IN
VERY
SMALL
ESTABLISHMENTS IN THREE GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS
OF THE UNITED STATES
1
S. L. Flowers, 2M. Costello, 2P. M. Gray, 2D. Kang, 3M. M.
Brashears, 3A. Echeverry, 3J. E. Mann, 1W. R. Henning, 1E.
W. Mills, 1C. N. Cutter
e-mail: slf14@psu.edu
1
The Pennsylvania State University, 2Washington State University, 3Texas Tech University
A total of 866 red meat carcasses were sampled in very
small meat establishments in four states (Pennsylvania,
Washington, Idaho, and Texas) from July 2002 to March
2003 to establish a baseline for carcass hygiene and the
prevalence of foodborne pathogens. Carcasses were aseptically swabbed using the U. S. D. A. 3-site sponge sampling
method after the final rinse step during primary processing
or after 48 h of chilling. Generic E. coli, total coliform and
mesophilic aerobic plate counts (APC) were determined
with Petrifilm # and the presence or absence of Salmonella
spp., E. coli O157:H7, and Campylobacter spp. by appropriate enrichment and culture methods. Colonies that were
presumptively identified as positive for pathogens were confirmed by latex agglutination or polymerase chain reaction,
as suitable. Mean microbial loads for all carcasses were
3.86 log10 CFU/ml for generic E. coli, 3.86 log10 CFU/ml
for coliforms, and 6.38 log10 CFU/ml for APC. APC did not
differ substantially among species. Lamb carcasses contained significantly greater (P <0.01) loads of generic E. coli
(4.64 log10 CFU/ml) and coliforms than beef and pork. No
distinctions in generic E. coli or coliform counts were evident among the two veal types, beef, or pork. Pathogens
were not detected on special-fed veal (n = 28) or chevon (n
= 1). Salmonella spp. were present on 0.39% (2/519) of
beef, 1.96% (3/153) of pork, 0.74% (1/136) of lamb, and
13.79% (4/29) of bob veal carcasses with an overall presence of 1.15% (10/866). Though not isolated from beef,
four pork (2.61%), two lamb (1.47%), and six bob veal
(20.69%) carcasses were contaminated with E. coli
O157:H7 for an overall prevalence of 1.39%. Bob veal
134

(41.38%) and lamb samples (17.65%) contained Campylobacter spp. along with 6.54% of pork and 0.39% of beef
swabs for an overall prevalence of 5.54%. Future research
will investigate the effectiveness of a variety of antimicrobial rinses on the reduction of bacterial loads on carcass
surfaces. This information will be transferred to very small
meat establishments to assist with carcass decontamination
methods.
Key Words: antimicrobial interventions, very small establishments, baseline
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AEROSOLIZED MICROBIAL
LOAD AND CONTAMINATION OF FULLY COOKED
THEN FROZEN MEAT PRODUCTS
1
A.A. Helm, 1C.R. Kerth, 1W.R. Jones, 1T.A. McCaskey, 1D.E.
Conner
e-mail: ckerth@acesag.auburn.edu
1
Auburn University
Air has long been thought to be a potential source of microbial contamination. Recently, research has shown that
microbial organisms, including pathogenic bacteria, have
been found in significant numbers in air. The objective of
this research was to determine relationships between the
microbial concentration in air and the level of contamination of fully cooked meat products. Air in a commercial
processing facility was sampled (n=113) for microbiological
organisms during a 5-month period by using an EM MAS100 Eco air monitoring system with plate count agar. Air
was sampled for 5 minutes 2-4 times per day in 45-minute
intervals in the packaging area at either next to the conveyor, where product is exposed to air, or in the area of
highest employee traffic and expressed as log cfu/500L of
air. Product samples were collected in 15-minute intervals
to accumulate a 3 sample composite every 45 minutes,
which corresponded to each air-sampling period. Serially
diluted product samples and air samples were incubated at
37C for 24 h or 48 h. Twenty-four hour air counts ranged
from 0.15 to 2.54 log cfu/500L, with a mean of 1.25 log
cfu/500L, and 48 hour counts ranged from 0.30 to 2.54 log
cfu/500L, with a mean of 1.65 log cfu/500L. Product counts
ranged from 0.30 to 2.9 log cfu/g at 24 hours and from 0.30
to 3.78 log cfu/g at 48h, with means of 1.60 log cfu/g and
1.9 log cfu/g for 24 h and 48 h respectively. No correlations
existed between 24 or 48 h air counts at either the conveyor
or traffic areas and 24 or 48 h product counts (P >0.05).
Simple regression found at most 9.4% of the variation in air
counts was accounted for by times doors were opened.
Multiple regression models showed that opening of doors,
wind velocity at the area of highest employee traffic, wind
velocity at the conveyor, and time of day accounted for
21% of the variation in air quality, and day of year, outside
temperature, times doors were opened, number of employees, and freezer conveyor speed described 34% of the
variation in product contamination. These data indicate that
no direct relationship exists between microbial air quality
and product contamination, but environmental conditions
American Meat Science Association

may account for up to one-fifth of the variation in air contamination and one-third of the variation in product contamination.
Key Words: Air Quality, Microbial Contamination, Fully
Cooked Product
CONSUMABLE HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS USED FOR
DECONTAMINATING RETAIL PORK LOIN CHOPS
Lisa McKee, Lori Neish, Nancy Flores
e-mail: lorineish@yahoo.com
New Mexico State University
As awareness of foodborne illness has increased, efforts
have been made to reduce contamination of raw meats.
Rinsing or spraying carcasses with water, organic acids and
other substances have been investigated on a commercial
scale as a means of reducing microbial loads. This study
focused on consumer rinsing methods to decontaminate
raw pork loin chops at home. Ten common consumable
products (apple juice, cranberry juice, orange juice, distilled white vinegar, Coca-Cola, 2% lowfat milk, clam
juice, 10% sodium bicarbonate solution, 10% sodium chloride solution and tap water) were used as rinsing agents to
decontaminate raw pork loin chops. All samples were
evaluated for total aerobic plate (APC), total coliform and
Escherichia coli ( E. coli) counts before and after rinsing using a swab method and standard procedures for Petrifilm
plates. Total coliforms and E. coli counts were below detectable levels both before and after rinsing. No differences
(p=0.7061) in before rinsing APC were detected. Before
rinsing counts ranged from 4.09 to 4.74 logs. After rinsing
APC for vinegar treated chops (2.26 logs) was lower
(p0.0052) than after rinsing APC for all other treatments. No
differences (p 0.1138) were detected between the remaining
treatments. All treatments reduced bacterial loads, but vinegar seemed to be the most effective rinsing agent under the
study conditions. Additional rinsing agents and exposure
time of the rinsing agents are currently being studied.
Key Words: Pork, Rinsing, Consumer
DESTRUCTION OF NON-PATHOGENIC ESCHERICHIA
COLI IN BEEF JERKY MADE WITH HOME-STYLE
DEHYDRATORS
S.R. Pohlman, N. Kalchayanand, W.J. Means, R.A. Field,
A.W. Wolf
e-mail: means@uwyo.edu
Univeristy of Wyoming Laramie WY USA
Association of jerky products, made in the home by traditional drying methods, with foodborne disease has raised
questions about their safety. Our objectives were to determine 1) consumer acceptance of beef jerky made with antimicrobial ingredients, and 2) destruction of nonpathogenic Escherichia coli in beef jerky processed in
home-style dehydrators. Four recipes were developed using
ingredients with known antimicrobial properties. Recipes
56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

consisted of the following as percent of the meat block: 2%


salt, 1.25% sugar, 0.4% ground black pepper, 0.33% garlic
powder (S); 2.91% Mortons Tender Quick , 0.77% sugar,
0.4% ground black pepper, 0.33% garlic powder (CS); S
with 17% red wine vinegar (SV); and CS with 17% red wine
vinegar (CSV). Chemical and physical analyses, as well as a
consumer acceptance evaluation, were performed on jerky
produced from the four recipes. Time/temperature performance of four dehydrator models readily available to consumers was recorded while drying full loads of beef jerky.
Two recipes (CS & CSV), based on consumer evaluation
results, and two dehydrators, based on time/temperature
performance, were selected to test beef jerky inoculated
with Escherichia coli NCSM. Inoculated (6.3 to7.4 log cfu)
and non-inoculated control meat strips were surface plated
on plate count agar containing 1% glucose (PCA) and violet
red bile agar (VRBA) at selected stages of jerky production.
Bacterial populations of inoculated CS strips were reduced
(P<0.01) by 0.7 log on VRBA after refrigeration (~8C, 14
h). Addition of vinegar (CSV) caused a greater reduction
(1.7 log, P<0.01) on VRBA after refrigeration. Post drying,
inoculated CS bacterial populations were reduced by 4.8
log (P<0.01) and 5.3 log (P<0.01) on PCA and VRBA, respectively. Using CSV, each dehydrator achieved greater
than 6.0 log reduction of E. coli NCSM in the final product
(P<0.01). CSV and overnight refrigeration can effectively
control E. coli NCSM in beef jerky dried in home-style dehydrators that reach 66C during drying.
Key Words: E. coli, Jerkey, Beef
EFFECTS OF VACUUM TUMBLING ON Salmonella
MIGRATION INTO THE INTERIOR OF INTACT,
MARINATED TURKEY BREASTS
C.R. Warsow, B.P. Marks, E.T. Ryser, A. Orta-Ramirez, A.M.
Booren
e-mail: warsowch@msu.edu
Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 48824
Vacuum tumbling with a phosphate marinade is a common
method used to increase the juiciness and infuse flavors into
whole-muscle roasts. As marinade infiltration is enhanced,
there may be potential for migration of surface bacteria into
the inner portions of the muscle, which are believed to be
sterile. Penetration of bacteria to the interior of meat using
invasive tenderization techniques has been studied; however, the incursion of surface pathogens, like Salmonella,
during vacuum tumbling with a marinade has not been
tested. Therefore, the objective of our study was to quantitatively determine the migration of Salmonella into whole
muscle turkey breasts during vacuum tumbling. Initially, a
study was conducted to determine the extent of unidirectional penetration of Salmonella in turkey breast muscle
when exposed to vacuum. Irradiated turkey breast (10L x
10W x 5H cm) was placed in a marinade (salt, mixed phosphate, and water) containing 10 8 CFU/ml of a cocktail of
Salmonella, and exposed to vacuum (101.3 kPa) for various
times (0, 5, 10, 20 min). Samples were removed aseptically
135

by coring vertically with a 1.27 cm diameter WarnerBratzler hand corer. The cores were sectioned into 1 cm
segments, macerated in buffered peptone water and enumerated on aerobic Petrifilms. Salmonella counts decreased (P<0.001) with depth below the inoculated surface
and increased (P<0.001) with application of the vacuum.
Although these tests did not exactly mimic a commercial
process, they did demonstrate that significant migration
could occur into whole-muscle product during marination,
even without any mechanical action. Subsequently, using
two different techniques, tissue samples were excised aseptically from the inner portions of a whole turkey breast after
marination with a Salmonella-inoculated marinade. Combined, these methods examined Salmonella multidirectional
penetration when the entire muscle was subjected to vacuum tumbling. In one study the muscle was vacuum tumbled with the marinade for various durations (5, 10, 20
min). In a separate experiment, whole breast was exposed
for 20 min to the following treatments: (1) vacuum tumbling, (2) tumbling without vacuum, (3) vacuum without
tumbling, and (4) still marination (control). Results confirmed significant (P<0.001) migration of Salmonella into
the samples during marination. Additionally, both vacuum
and tumbling resulted in greater (P<0.05) Salmonella counts
inside the samples, as compared to the inoculated control.
Pathogens on or below the surface of whole meat products
need to be inactivated as part of any commercial cooking
process. Salmonella penetration may need to be integrated
into microbial inactivation models to accurately determine
the fate of pathogens during further processing of whole
muscle products.

ing at 37C for 48 h. Because preliminary data indicated


HHP34550 would not be sufficient for destruction of E. coli
O157:H7 even in conjunction with BMIX, treatments were
increased to 414 MPa for 5 min at 50C (HHP41450) for the
inoculation study. Twenty-eight packs of two 27 g frankfurters were inoculated with 6 log/ml of cocktail and subjected
to HHP41450or HHP41450+BMIX. Survivors were enumerated by pour plating on TSY and VRBA agars and incubating 48 h at 37C. In 6 log-inoculated packs, HHP41450
resulted in 2.4 and 4.6 log reduction on TSY and VRBA,
respectively; while HHP41450+BMIX resulted in a 5.7 and
5.9 log reduction on TSY and VRBA, respectively. HHP
(414 MPa, 50C for 5 min), alone was insufficient to destroy
E. coli O157:H7 in frankfurter packs. However, an important synergistic effect was observed using HHP in conjunction with bacteriocins of lactic acid bacteria, postulated to
be due to changes in cell membrane morphology during
pressurization. This combination of treatments effectively
destroyed E. coli O157:H7 in inoculated frankfurters.
Key Words: Escherichia coli O157:H7, Hydrostatic Pressure,
Pediocin, Nisin

Key Words: Vacuum Tumbling, Salmonella, Turkey


ESCHERICHIA COLI O157:H7 DESTRUCTION IN
FRANKFURTERS USING HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND
BACTERIOCINS
A.W. Wolf, S. Bandyopadhyaay, N. Kalchayanand, B. Ray,
W.J. Means
e-mail: means@uwyo.edu
Univeristy of Wyoming Laramie WY USA
Escherichia coli O157:H7 has cost the food industry 270
million dollars a year from 1992-2002. High hydrostatic
pressure (HHP) is a non-thermal processing technique used
to control pathogens. Our goal was to determine if HHP, in
conjunction with bacteriocins of lactic acid bacteria, could
destroy E. coli O157:H7 in vacuum-packaged frankfurters.
Bacteriocins were produced by fermentation and purification. After purification, bacteriocin mixture (BMIX) was
made consisting of 2500 au nisin and 2500 au pediocin.
Seven strains of E. coli O157:H7 were grown to early stationary phase and subjected to 345 MPa for 5 min at 25C
(HHP34525) or 345 MPa for 5 min at 50C (HHP345 50).
Five relatively pressure-resistant strains were selected and
mixed in an equal-ratio cocktail. Cocktail mixtures were
treated with HHP34550 with or without BMIX. Survivors
were enumerated by pour plating on TSY agar and incubat136

American Meat Science Association

POSTER SESSION

Education
KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES, AND BEHAVIOR RELATED
TO GAME HANDLING PRACTICES IN NORTH DAKOTA
DEER AND ELK HUNTERS
J. A. Garden-Robinson, M. J. Marchello, C. S. Stoltenow, G.
P. Lardy, D. J. Klenow, D. D. Hulse
e-mail: mmarchel@ndsuext.nodak.edu
North Dakota State University
Resident and non-resident hunters spent $166.4 million on
hunting activities in North Dakota (ND) in 2001, an amount
generating an additional $199 million in secondary economic effects, for a gross business volume of $365.4 million. Nineteen percent of North Dakotans ages 16 and older
hunted in 2001. This study of ND deer and elk hunters
practices and perceptions included a series of focus groups
and separate 10-minute telephone surveys to a random
sampling of 267 successful deer hunters and all successful
elk hunters (n = 30). Results indicate a need for improved
handling and preparation procedures. Several differences
between deer and elk hunters with respect to processing
and choices of finished products were apparent. Sixty-eight
percent of deer hunters processed their own animals at
home, while 45% of elk hunters did so. Ninety percent of
the deer hunters made sausage out of at least a portion of
their venison, 60% made use of fresh chops, steaks or
roasts, and 48% prepared ground venison. Nearly all of the
elk hunters (97%) made use of fresh chops, steaks or roasts.
Ninety percent made ground elk, and 48% made sausage.
Less than 13% of deer and elk hunters reported eating any
organ meats, such as hearts and livers. Two deer hunters
reported eating brain. While 76% of deer hunters and 90%
of elk hunters reported owning a meat thermometer, only
5% of deer hunters and 16% of elk hunters who prepared
fresh roasts reported using a thermometer to test for doneness. Only 6% of deer hunters and 13% of elk hunters who
made sausage said they used thermometers to check internal temperature of the cooked product. While the low frequency of thermometer use is problematic for all types of
meat products, the lack of use for sausage and other ground
meat poses the most significant health threat. Almost all the
deer and elk hunters reported eating meat from the animals
they had harvested. In addition, more than 90% of both
hunting groups reported that family members also consumed the meat. Sixty-three percent of deer hunters also
shared their meat with relatives and friends; whereas, 90%

of elk hunters shared meat products. Regarding knowledge


of chronic wasting disease (CWD), 29% of deer hunters and
52% of elk hunters rated themselves knowledgeable or
highly knowledgeable about the disease. More than 57% of
deer hunters expressed little or very little concern about
CWD. Elk hunters offered mixed responses, with more than
half reporting little concern; while 25% indicated a high
level of concern. Despite concern about CWD, 76% of deer
hunters and 84% of elk hunters havent changed their handling practices in response to CWD. Survey responses indicated the most effective means of informing ND deer and
elk hunters was through brochures mailed with hunting
licenses. Magazines, radio, and television were also rated
highly effective. The results of this survey indicate the need
for improved educational efforts in the area of wild game
handling and preparation procedures to prevent possible
outbreaks of food-borne illness
Key Words: Hunters, Attitudes, Handling

Proceedings of the 56th American Meat Science Association


Reciprocal Meat Conference
June 15-18, 2003, Columbia, Missouri
www.meatscience.org

56th Annual Reciprocal Meat Conference

137

The American Meat


Science Association
1111 N. Dunlap Avenue
Savoy, Illinois 61874
www.meatscience.org

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