Professional Documents
Culture Documents
To cite this article: Patrik N. Juslin & Petri Laukka (2004) Expression, Perception, and Induction of Musical Emotions:
A Review and a Questionnaire Study of Everyday Listening, Journal of New Music Research, 33:3, 217-238, DOI:
10.1080/0929821042000317813
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0929821042000317813
Abstract
In this article, we provide an up-to-date overview of theory
and research concerning expression, perception, and induction of emotion in music. We also provide a critique of this
research, noting that previous studies have tended to neglect
the social context of music listening. The most likely reason
for this neglect, we argue, is that that most research on
musical emotion has, implicitly or explicitly, taken the perspective of the musician in understanding responses to
music. In contrast, we argue that a promising avenue toward
a better understanding of emotional responses to music
involves diary and questionnaire studies of how ordinary listeners actually use music in everyday life contexts. Accordingly, we present findings from an exploratory questionnaire
study featuring 141 music listeners (between 17 and 74 years
of age) that offers some novel insights. The results provide
preliminary estimates of the occurrence of various emotions
in listening to music, as well as clues to how music is used
by listeners in a number of different emotional ways in
various life contexts. These results confirm that emotion
is strongly related to most peoples primary motives for
listening to music.
1. Introduction
One of the most exciting but difficult endeavors in research
on music is to understand how listeners respond to music. It
has often been suggested that a great deal of the attraction of
music comes from its emotional powers. That is, people
tend to value music because it expresses and induces emotions. While emotion as a field has often been standing in the
shadows of its bigger brother, cognition (i.e., research on
higher mental processes of information processing such as
Correspondence: Patrik N. Juslin, Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Box 1225, SE 751 42 Uppsala, Sweden. E-mail:
patrik.juslin@psyk.uu.se
DOI: 10.1080/0929821042000317813 2004 Taylor & Francis Ltd.
218
2. Conceptual framework
219
220
That listeners may perceive the music as expressive of different emotions seems clear, but to what extent can composers and performers actually communicate particular
emotions to listeners? Few studies have explicitly investigated the extent to which composers can communicate specific emotions to listeners. However, a rare exception is the
study by Thompson and Robitaille (1992). They asked five
highly experienced musicians to compose short melodies that
should convey six emotions: joy, sorrow, excitement, dullness, anger, and peace. They were required to rely on such
information (pitch, temporal and loudness information) that
is contained in musical scores. Dead-pan performances of the
resulting compositions by a computer sequencer were played
to fourteen listeners moderately trained in music. They successfully recognized the intended emotions in the pieces.
Thus, it would seem that music composers can convey at
least some emotions reliably.
Several studies have investigated the extent to which
performers can communicate emotions to listeners. These
studies have provided fairly precise estimates of the communication accuracy. In the most extensive review of emotional expression in music performance to date (see Juslin &
Laukka, 2003) including 41 studies, a meta-analysis of the
communication accuracy showed that professional performers are able to communicate five emotions (happiness, anger,
sadness, fear, tenderness) to listeners with an accuracy
approximately as high as in facial and vocal expression of
emotions. The overall decoding accuracy, across emotions,
was equivalent to a raw accuracy score at p = 0.70 in a forcedchoice task with five response alternatives (i.e., the mean
number of emotions included in studies so far). In accordance with what has been found in studies that use listener
agreement as the dependent variable (see above), the evidence from performance studies suggests that the communication process operates in terms of broad emotion categories,
whereas finer distinctions within these categories are difficult
to communicate reliably without additional context provided
by, for instance, lyrics, program notes, or visual impressions.
For example, Juslin and Lindstrm (2003) asked nine professional music performers to play various pieces of music
in such a way that they would communicate each of the following twelve basic and complex emotions: anger, contentment, curiosity, disgust, fear, happiness, jealousy, love,
pride, sadness, shame, and tenderness. Complex emotions
were included to explore whether musicians really would
be able to communicate such subtle states to listeners. The
results showed that they could not. Basic emotions were
easier to communicate than were complex emotions as
hypothesized by Juslin (1997a).
What are the reasons for musics inability to communicate
more specific emotions reliably? There are, in fact, several
reasons: first of all, musics ability to communicate emotions
is heavily dependent on its similarity to other forms of nonverbal communication and the kinds of emotions that are
possible to communicate through those channels (cf. Clynes,
1977; Davies, 1994; Juslin, 1997a); for instance, the patterns
Emotion
Happiness
Sadness
Anger
221
Fear
Tenderness
Musical features
Fast tempo, small tempo variability, major mode, simple and consonant harmony, medium-high sound level, small sound
level variability, high pitch, much pitch variability, wide pitch range, ascending pitch, perfect 4th and 5th intervals, rising
micro intonation, raised singers formant, staccato articulation, large articulation variability, smooth and fluent rhythm,
bright timbre, fast tone attacks, small timing varibility, sharp contrasts between long and short notes, medium-fast
vibrato rate, medium vibrato extent, micro-structural regularity
Slow tempo, minor mode, dissonance, low sound level, moderate sound level variability, low pitch, narrow pitch range,
descending pitch, flat (or falling) intonation, small intervals (e.g., minor 2nd), lowered singers formant, legato
articulation, small articulation variability, dull timbre, slow tone attacks, large timing variability (e.g., rubato), soft
contrasts between long and short notes, pauses, slow vibrato, small vibrato extent, ritardando, micro-structural
irregularity
Fast tempo, small tempo variability, minor mode, atonality, dissonance, high sound level, small loudness variability, high
pitch, small pitch variability, ascending pitch, major 7th and augmented 4th intervals, raised singers formant, staccato
articulation, moderate articulation variability, complex rhythm, sudden rhythmic changes (e.g., syncopations), sharp
timbre, spectral noise, fast tone attacks/decays, small timing variability, accents on tonally unstable notes, sharp contrasts
between long and short notes, accelerando, medium-fast vibrato rate, large vibrato extent, micro-structural irregularity
Fast tempo, large tempo variability, minor mode, dissonance, low sound level, large sound level variability, rapid changes in
sound level, high pitch, ascending pitch, wide pitch range, large pitch contrasts, staccato articulation, large articulation
variability, jerky rhythms, soft timbre, very large timing variability, pauses, soft tone attacks, fast vibrato rate, small
vibrato extent, micro-structural irregularity
Slow tempo, major mode, consonance, medium-low sound level, small sound level variability, low pitch, fairly narrow pitch
range, lowered singers formant, legato articulation, small articulation variability, slow tone attacks, soft timbre, moderate
timing variability, soft contrasts between long and short notes, accents on tonally stable notes, medium fast vibrato, small
vibrato extent, micro-structural regularity
Note. Shown are the most common findings in the literature. For a more detailed treatment of studies, see Gabrielsson and Juslin (2003),
Juslin (2001a), Juslin and Laukka (2003), and Juslin and Lindstrm (2003).
and (more) performer-related features (such as tempo). Performance features such as tempo, loudness, and timbre, many
of which music has in common with the non-verbal aspects
of speech (Juslin & Laukka, 2001), may largely reflect a
speech code. We recently made a systematic comparison of
104 studies of emotional speech and 41 studies of emotion
in music performance (Juslin & Laukka, 2003). Results
showed among other things that performers use primarily the
same emotion-specific patterns of acoustic parameters that
are used in emotional speech (as originally argued by
Spencer, 1857). This is one example of cross-modal similarities in expressive form between different non-verbal communication channels, which has been suggested by several
authors (e.g., Clynes, 1977; human movement is another candidate for explaining musical expressiveness, e.g., Davies,
1994). Speech prosody may also help to explain some of the
emotional connotations associated with melodic contours
(e.g., Fnagy & Magdics, 1963; Papousek, 1996), which
seem to play an important role in the early interactions of
infants and caregivers. Various other aspects of composed
musical structure are not as easily explained. However, features of a piece of music that are usually indicated in the
notation of the piece (e.g., harmony, tonality, melodic progression) are likely to reflect to a larger extent characteristics of music as a human art form that follows its own
intrinsic rules and that varies from one culture to another.
Some of the effects of composer-features (e.g., conso-
222
Fig. 1. Extended lens model (ELM) of musical communication of emotions (from Juslin & Lindstrm, 2003). Note. The results included
in the figure come from a simultaneous regression analysis of a listeners happiness ratings of musical pieces (R = .95, adj. R2 = .90). Values
for individual cues refer to the beta weights (b) of the regression analysis.
223
Brain imaging and EEG studies have suggested that listeners responses to music involve subcortical and cortical
regions of the brain that are known from earlier research to
be involved in emotional reactions (e.g., Altenmller
et al., 2002; Blood & Zatorre, 2001; Blood et al., 1999;
Peretz, 2001; Schmidt & Trainor, 2001). Supporting evidence also comes from lesion studies (e.g., Gottselig, 2001).
Studies of peak experiences have indicated that music
might be one of the most effective triggers of such experiences (Maslow, 1976; Panzarella, 1980), and further that
peak experiences with music typically involve strongly felt
emotions with accompanying physiological responses, as
indicated by hundreds of retrospective, free phenomenological reports (Gabrielsson, 2001).
Recent physiological studies suggest that, in contrast to
the discouraging findings of most early studies (Bartlett,
1996), pieces of music that express different emotions may
really produce different physiological reactions in listeners
(Davis & Thaut, 1989; Krumhansl, 1997; Lundqvist et al.,
2000; Nyklcek et al., 1997; Vaitl et al., 1993; Witvliet &
Vrana, 1996). Researchers have also investigated a particular kind of response to music called thrills or chills,
proposing that such responses are fairly common and may
be more prevalent for sad than for happy pieces of music
(Goldstein, 1980; Panksepp, 1995).
Questionnaire and diary studies confirm that listeners
respond emotionally to music, and that music may serve
different emotional functions (Behne, 1997; North et al.,
2000; Roe, 1985; Sloboda & ONeill, 2001; Stratton &
Zalanowski, 2003; Thayer et al., 1994; Wells & Hakanen,
1991; Zillman & Gan, 1997; see also the present study).
Mood induction studies that use various methods to induce
moods in order to explore their effects on cognitive
processes and behavior indicate that music could be the
most effective of the mood induction strategies available
(Westerman et al., 1996). Studies using music (for a
review, see Vstfjll, 2002) indicate that, in addition to producing reliable effects on self-report, there are effects of
music on several other behavioral measures that are
believed to reflect moods (e.g., word association, writing
speed, distance approximation, decision time).1
Further evidence of musics emotional impact on human
behavior and action tendencies comes from consumer
research (North & Hargreaves, 1997a) and socialpsychological studies concerning, for instance, musics
effects on helping behavior (Fried & Berkowitz, 1979; North
et al., 2004) and interpersonal attraction (May & Hamilton, 1980) and conflict (Honeycutt & Eidenmller, 2001).
Applications and empirical evaluations of music therapy
emphasize the roles of music in facilitating the expression,
identification, and experience of emotions; improving the
1
224
225
226
of occurrence of various phenomena, we opted for a questionnaire approach. Thus, a questionnaire consisting of 38
items (forced-choice, quantitative ratings, and open-ended
responses) was administered to 141 participants in Sweden.
The aim was to establish general trends that might guide
future research. The listener sample may be described as a
sample of convenience. No attempt was made to achieve a
strictly random or representative sample. However, we tried
to include listeners with varying backgrounds in terms of age,
gender, musical training, musical preferences, education, and
occupation to increase the generalizability of the findings.
The questionnaire was designed to investigate the following
seven themes: Listening context; Musical expressivity;
Musical communication; Emotion perception; Emotion
induction; Relationship between perception and induction;
and Basic motives for listening to music. This is, to our knowledge, the first questionnaire study to directly ask participants
about the frequency of occurrence of certain phenomena
related to music and emotion (e.g., the occurrence of particular emotions or situations). By relying on a questionnaire, it
complements previous studies that were based on electronic
diaries (e.g., Sloboda & ONeill, 2001). Similarly, by focusing on the relative frequency of occurrence of different phenomena, it complements previous questionnaire research that
focused on a single, particularly memorable musical event
(e.g., Gabrielsson, 2001; Scherer et al., 2002).
4.1 Method
4.1.1 Participants
The participants were 141 music listeners, 77 females (55%)
aged 1874 years (M = 36) and 64 males (45%) aged 1770
years (M = 33). Seventy-two of the participants (51%, 34
females and 38 males) played a musical instrument, and were
hence classified as musically trained, whereas the remaining 49% were classified as untrained. The musically trained
listeners reported having played a musical instrument for
between 1 and 43 years (M = 16). All participants were
Swedish, and participated on a voluntary basis.
4.1.2 Material and procedure
A questionnaire featuring 38 items (forced-choice, quantitative ratings, and open-ended responses) was developed to
explore listeners views in regard to: Listening context;
Musical expressivity; Musical communication; Emotion perception; Emotion induction; Relationship between perception and induction; and Basic motives for listening to music.
The questionnaire was designed to proceed from more openended questions on each theme (to not influence the answers)
to more standardized and targeted questions on the same
subject. While this approach created a slight element of
redundancy concerning some issues, it also presumably
enhanced the reliability and informativeness of the
responses. Some of the questions in the questionnaire were
227
228
Table 2. Listeners responses to the following question: If you listen to music in connection
with other activities, then what are these activities? (Indicate how often each activity occurs in
connection with music).
When I wake up
While bathing
While exercising
While working
While doing housework
When relaxing
While eating
As background when socializing
As background to romantic company
While reading
Going to sleep
While driving, cycling, or running
On the train, bus, or plane
Never (%)
Sometimes (%)
Often (%)
43
58
25
22
4
12
25
6
17
56
64
8
34
37
28
36
47
31
51
61
48
59
36
25
46
47
20
14
39
32
64
37
15
46
25
11
46
19
229
Table 3. Frequencies with which various emotion labels were selected in response to the question What emotions can music express? (N = 141).
Emotion
Freq.
Emotion
Freq.
Emotion
Freq.
Joy
Sadness
Love
Calm
Anger
Tenderness
Longing
Solemnity
Anxiety
Hate
Humour
Loneliness
Tension
99% (98%)
91% (91%)
90% (89%)
87% (89%)
82% (83%)
82% (86%)
77% (71%)
76% (73%)
75% (90%)
74% (69%)
74% (87%)
73% (79%)
72% (89%)
Pride
Pain
Desire
Hope
Nostalgia
Fear
Contempt
Tiredness
Regret
Expectancy
Confusion
Disgust
Surprise
71% (69%)
70% (86%)
69% (74%)
67% (70%)
67% (76%)
63% (79%)
55% (53%)
55% (52%)
53% (56%)
51% (66%)
49% (65%)
47% (51%)
47% (68%)
Curiosity
Boredom
Disappointment
Guilt
Satisfaction
Admiration
Jealousy
Sympathy
Shame
Trust
Interest
Humiliation
Other
46% (63%)
45% (47%)
43% (49%)
42% (43%)
42% (57%)
37% (37%)
35% (42%)
34% (39%)
31% (39%)
30% (33%)
29% (44%)
28% (31%)
10% (16%)
Note. Numbers within parantheses indicate the corresponding results from a questionnaire
study of 135 musicians who received the same question (Lindstrm et al., 2003).
230
music (M = 4.3), according to these participants. Interestingly, listeners who report often experiencing emotions to
music also report being more prone to experience specific
emotions than are those that rarely experience emotions
(Pearsons r = 0.39, p < 0.0001), suggesting the possibility
that listeners who experience emotions often are more able
to distinguish and label their own emotional reactions.
Given that music listening appears to often take place in
situations where other people are present (see the section on
listening context), it seems pertinent to ask listeners when
they find it most easy to experience emotions to music,
alone or together with others?. The results indicate that
53% thought that emotional reactions to music are easiest to
achieve while listening alone, 4% thought that they are
easiest to achieve together with others, and 43% thought
that they are equally easy in both cases. Hence, although
music commonly occurs in social contexts, it appears that a
significant proportion of emotional responses to music occur
while people are listening to music alone; this is confirmed
by the participants free responses to the question In what
situations are you especially prone to experiencing emotions
to music?. The responses were content-analyzed and divided
into four categories (inter-coder agreement, k = 0.76). Thus,
50% of the listeners reported being especially prone to experiencing emotions to music when alone (typically in combination with highly attentive listening); 41% mentioned
social situations (e.g., parties, concerts, disco); 35% mentioned emotional situations (e.g., romantic moments, tragic
events, feeling alone); and 21% mentioned other situations
(the most common responses were when Im drunk, after
or during physical exercise, when I have chosen the music
myself , and while dancing).
A related question asked the participants In what states
of mind are you especially prone to experience emotions to
music?. Content analysis of their free responses (inter-coder
agreement, k = 0.92) revealed that 47% of the participants
responses could be categorized as when already in an emotional state; 16% when being rested, relaxed, and calm;
8% when being tired; and 6% while drunk; 20% of the
participants responded with a variety of answers (e.g., I
dont know, always, when Im receptive).
One final open question of a similar type asked listeners
With what types of music are you especially prone to experience strong emotions?. Categorization of styles and characteristics of music is a highly complex topic. To simplify
matters, we tried to stay as close as possible to the listeners
own responses in the categorization (inter-coder agreement,
k = 0.75) that produced nine categories (that are not mutually exclusive): happy music (8%), sad music (8%),
calm music (22%) arousing music (11%), magnificent
and/or solemn music (4%), popular music (47%), classical music (29%), music that one recognizes and likes
(14%), and others (23%). These results indicate, more than
anything else, that no particular kind of music dominates in
emotional reactions to music the music may be calm or
arousing, classical or popular.
Happy*
Relaxed*
Calm*
Moved
Nostalgic
Pleasurable*
Loving*
Sad*
Longing*
Tender
Amused
Hopeful
Enchanted
Expectant*
Solemn*
Interested
Admiring
Angry*
Ecstatic*
Lonely
Content*
Desiring
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
Empathic
Proud
Spiritual
Curious
Relieved
Bored
Indifferent
Frustrated*
Tense*
Disappointed*
Surprised*
Honored*
Regretful
Contemptuous
Confused*
Anxious*
Afraid*
Jealous
Disgusted
Guilty
Shameful*
Humiliated
231
232
5. General discussion
The preceding review has shown that there are a number of
ways in which music can express and induce emotions. Our
knowledge about music and emotion has increased rapidly
over the last decade. Yet, much remains to be done. In particular, an important conclusion that could be drawn from the
present review is that previous research has largely neglected
the social context of music and emotion. This has probably
shaped our views on music and emotion more than we
realize. To address this problem, we presented novel findings
from a questionnaire study. The present results replicate, as
well as extend, and partly also modify, the results from previous studies of emotional responses to music in everyday
life. From these findings emerges a picture of the ordinary
music listener as someone who listens to music many times
a day, often in mundane everyday contexts where music listening is not the primary activity. Its a listener who chooses
to listen to music to a large extent because of the valued emotional experiences it offers. Music is used to enhance or
233
Acknowledgements
Fig. 3. Hypothesized relationships between (a) emotions commonly induced in everyday life, (b) emotions commonly expressed
by music, (c) emotions commonly induced by music (illustrated by
a Venn diagram).
Table 5. Adjective scales intended specifically for the measurent of musically induced emotions, as proposed by Bartel (1992), Asmus (1985),
and Juslin and Laukka (this study).
Investigator
Bartel (1992)
Unmoved-moved
Emotionalunemotional
Forgettableunforgettable
Joyful-sad
Inspiringuninspiring
Excitingdepressing
Deadeningenlivening
Coldhot
Dejectedelated
Thrillingboring
Distastefuldelightful
Pleasantdisturbing
Asmus (1985)
Evil factor: anger, rage. Cruelty, hate, frustrated
Sensual factor: love, tender, beautiful, romantic
Potency factor: victorious, heroic, stately, patriotic, majestic
Humour factor: comical, humorous, amused, playful, cheerful
Pastoral factor: peaceful, calm, relaxed, gentle, pleasant
Longing factor: yearning, longing, lonely
Depression factor: depressed, dreary, blue, sad, gloomy
Sedative factor: contemplative, reflective, serene, tranquil, sedative
Activity factor: determined, vibrant, vigorous, exuberant
234
Askenfelt and two reviewers for helpful comments on a previous version of this paper. Correspondence regarding this
article may be addressed to Patrik N. Juslin, Department of
Psychology, Uppsala University, Box 1225, SE751 42
Uppsala, Sweden. E-mail: Patrik.Juslin@psyk.uu.se
References
Altenmller, E., Schrmann, K., Lim, V.K., & Parlitz, D. (2002).
Hits to the left, flops to the right: different emotions during
listening to music are reflected in cortical lateralisation patterns. Neuropsychologia, 40, 22422256.
Asmus, E.P. (1985). The development of a multidimensional
instrument for the measurement of affective responses to
music. Psychology of Music, 13, 1930.
Band, J.P., Quilter, S.M., & Miller, G.M. (20012002). The
influence of selected music and inductions on mental
imagery: Implications for practitioners of Guided Imagery
and Music. Journal of the Association for Music and
Imagery, 8, 1333.
Bartel, L.R. (1992). The development of the cognitive-affective
response test music. Psychomusicology, 11, 1526.
Bartlett, D.L. (1996). Physiological reactions to music and
acoustic stimuli. In: D.A. Hodges (Ed.), Handbook of Music
Psychology (2nd ed.). San Antonio, TX: IMR Press,
343385.
Becker, J. (2001). Anthropological perspectives on music and
emotion. In: P.N. Juslin, & J.A. Sloboda (Eds.), Music and
Emotion: Theory and Research. New York: Oxford University Press, 135160.
Behne, K.E. (1997). The development of musikerleben in adolescence: How and why young people listen to music. In:
I. Delige, & J.A. Sloboda (Eds.), Perception and Cognition
of Music. Hove, UK: Psychology Press, 143159.
Berlyne, D.E. (1971). Aesthetics and Psychobiology. New York:
Appleton Century Crofts.
Blood, A.J., & Zatorre, R.J. (2001). Intensely pleasurable
responses to music correlate with activity in brain regions
implicated in reward and emotion. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences USA, 98, 1181811823.
Blood, A.J., Zatorre, R.J., Bermudez, P., & Evans, A.C. (1999).
Emotional responses to pleasant and unpleasant music correlate with activity in paralimbic brain regions. Nature Neuroscience, 2, 382387.
Bolger, N., Davis, A., & Rafaeli, E. (2003). Diary methods: capturing life as it is lived. Annual Review of Psychology, 54,
579616.
Bonnano, G.A., & Mayne, T.J. (2001). The future of emotion
research. In: T.J. Mayne, & G.A. Bonnano (Eds.), Emotions:
Current Issues and Future Directions. New York: Guilford
Press, 398410.
Bonny, H.L., & Savery, L.M. (1973). Music and Your Mind.
New York: Station Hill.
Bresin, R., & Friberg, A. (2000). Emotional coloring of computer-controlled music performance. Computer Music
Journal, 24, 4462.
235
236
Juslin, P.N., & Sloboda, J.A. (2001b). Music and emotion: Introduction. In: P.N. Juslin, & J.A. Sloboda (Eds.), Music and
Emotion: Theory and Research. New York: Oxford University Press, 320.
Juslin, P.N., & Scherer, K.R. (in press). Vocal expression of
affect. In: J. Harrigan, R. Rosenthal, & K.R. Scherer
(Eds.), Handbook of Nonverbal Behavior Research
Methods in the Affective Sciences. New York: Oxford University Press.
Juslin, P.N., & Zentner, M.R. (2002). Current trends in the study
of music and emotion: overture. Musicae Scientiae, Special
Issue 20012002, 321.
Jrgensen, H. (1988). Musikkopplevelsens psykologi [The psychology of music experience]. Oslo: Norsk Musikforlag.
Kivy, P. (1989). Sound Sentiment: An Essay on the
Musical Emotions. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University
Press.
Kleinen, G. (1968). Experimentelle Studien zum musikalischen
Ausdruck [Experimental studies of musical expression].
Hamburg, Germany: Universitt Hamburg.
Konecni, V.J. (1982). Social interaction and musical preference.
In: D. Deutsch (Ed.), The Psychology of Music. San Diego,
CA: Academic Press, 497516.
Krumhansl, C.L. (1997). An exploratory study of musical emotions and psychophysiology. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 51, 336352.
Laukka, P. (2004). Instrumental music teachers views on
expressivity: a report from music conservatoires. Music
Education Research, 6, 4556.
Levenson, R.W. (2003). Autonomic specificity and emotion In:
R.J. Davidson, K.R. Scherer, & H.H. Goldsmith (Eds.),
Handbook of Affective Sciences. New York: Oxford University Press, 212224.
Lindstrm, E., Juslin, P.N., Bresin, R., & Williamon, A. (2003).
Expressivity comes from within your soul: a questionnaire
study of music students perspectives on expressivity.
Research Studies in Music Education, 20, 2347.
Lundqvist, L.-O., Carlsson, F., & Hilmersson, P. (2000). Facial
electromyography, autonomic activity, and emotional experience to happy and sad music. International Journal of
Psychology, 35, 225.
Maslow, A.H. (1976). The Farther Reaches of Human Nature.
New York: Penguin Books.
May, J.L., & Hamilton, P.A. (1980). Effects of musically evoked
affect on womens interpersonal attraction toward and perceptual judgments of physical attractiveness of men. Motivation and Emotion, 4, 217228.
Meyer, L.B. (1956). Emotion and Meaning in Music. Chicago,
IL: Chicago University Press.
Middleton, R. (1990). Studying Popular Music. Milton Keynes,
UK: Open University Press.
Miller, M.M., & Strongman, K.T. (2002). The emotional effects
of music on religious experience: a study of the PentecostalCharismatic style of music and worship. Psychology of
Music, 30, 827.
Moore, B.C.J. (1989). An Introduction to the Psychology of
Hearing (3rd edn.). New York: Academic Press.
237
238