3.

STUDY AREA

Bhongir
Latitude: 17.5108N
Longitude:78.8889E
Description: Place name: Pragnapur Road
Latitude: 17.5108oN(1730'38.880"N)
Longitude: 78.8889oE(7853'20.040"E)

Feature description: Town

Region: Bhongir

State: Telangana
Population: in between 50100
Altitude: 454m
It has an average elevation of 448meters
3.1 Pragnapur Road:
Pragnapur is a village panchayat located in the Medak district of Telangana state, India. The
latitude 17.7986304 and longitude 78.759497 are the geo-coordinate of the Pragnapur.
Hyderabad is the state capital for Pragnapur village. It is located around 53.3 kilometer away
from Pragnapur. Pragnapurs nearest town/city/important place is Yadagirigutta located at the
distance of 31.1 kilometer. Surrounding town/city from Pragnapur are as follows.
Yadagirigutta
Malkajgiri
Bhongir
Siddipet
Ghatkeser

31.1 KM.
33.0 KM.
34.5 KM.
35.2 KM.
38.6 KM.

The convenience of learning about the distance between Jagdevpur to Pragnapur - Bhongir
Road is very helpful while travelling, which is 4 Kms (2.00 miles).
3.2 NEED FOR THE EXTENSION OF PRAGNAPUR ROAD:
As the road is state highway, which connects from Bhongir to Medak. The present
road is insufficient for traffic which causes severe disturbance. In order to facilitate easy
transportation we require to widen the existing pavement. About 2 kilometers the road is
extending.

EVTAKCOLURINGHFBDM.WS
4. METHODOLGY

The sequence of steps, are demonstrated in the form of a flow chart is given below:

ACOTEBLUSINGRHFDMP

TRAFFIC VOLUME:
4.1 Counting Method:

Two methods are available for conducting traffic volume counts: (1) manual and (2)

automatic. Manual counts are typically used to gather data for determination of vehicle

classification, turning movements, direction of travel, pedestrian movements, or vehicle

occupancy. Automatic counts are typically used to gather data for determination of vehicle
hourly patterns, daily or seasonal variations and growth trends, or annual traffic estimates.

The selection of study method should be determined using the count period. The count period

should be representative of the time of day, day of month, and month of year for the study
area.

4.1.1 Manual Count Method:

Most applications of manual counts require small samples of data at any given
location. Manual counts are sometimes used when the effort and expense of automated
equipment are not justified. Manual counts are necessary when automatic equipment is not
available. Manual counts are typically used for periods of less than a day. Normal intervals
for a manual count are 5, 10, or 30 minutes.
Manual Count Recording Methods:
Manual counts are recorded using one of three methods: tally sheets, mechanical
counting boards, or electronic counting boards.

Tally Sheets:
Recording data onto tally sheets is the simplest means of conducting manual counts.
The data can be recorded with a tick mark on a pre-prepared field form. A watch or stopwatch
is necessary to measure the desired count interval.

Mechanical Counting Boards:

Mechanical count boards consist of counters mounted on a board that record each
direction of travel. Common counts include pedestrian, bicycle, vehicle classification, and
traffic volume counts. Typical counters are push button devices with three to five registers.
Each button represents a different stratification of type of vehicle or pedestrian being
counted. The limited number of buttons on the counter can restrict the number of
classifications that can be counted on a given board. A watch or a stopwatch is also necessary
with this method to measure the desired count interval. See Figure - 1 for an example
mechanical counting board.
Electronic Counting Boards:

Electronic counting boards are battery-operated, hand-held devices used in collecting

traffic count data. They are similar to mechanical counting boards, but with some important
differences. Electronic counting boards are lighter, more compact, and easier to handle. They
have an internal clock that automatically separates the data by time interval. Special functions
include automatic data reduction and summary. The data can also be downloaded to a
computer, which saves time. See Figure - 2 for an example electronic counting board.
There are three steps to a manual traffic volume count:
1. Prepare. Determine the type of equipment to use, the field procedures to follow, and
the number of observers required. Label and organize tally sheets. Each sheet should
include information about the location, time and date of observation, and weather
conditions.
2. Select observer location(s). Observers (data collectors) should be positioned where
they have a clear view of traffic and are safely away from the edge of the roadway.
3. Record observations on site.
4.1.2 Automatic Count Method:
The automatic count method provides a means for gathering large amounts of traffic
data. Automatic counts are usually taken in 1-hour intervals for each 24-hour period. The
counts may extend for a week, month, or year. When the counts are recorded for each 24-hour
time period, the peak flow period can be identified.

Automatic Count Recording Methods:

Automatic counts are recorded using one of three methods: portable counters,
permanent counters, and videotape.
Portable Counters:
Portable counting is a form of manual observation. Portable counters serve the same
purpose as manual counts but with automatic counting equipment. The period of data

collection using this method is usually longer than when using manual counts. The portable
counter method is mainly used for 24-hour counts. Pneumatic road tubes are used to conduct
this method of automatic counts (see Figure 3).
Permanent Counters:
Permanent counters are used when long-term counts are to be conducted. The counts
could be performed every day for a year or more. The data collected may be used to monitor
and evaluate traffic volumes and trends over a long period of time. Permanent counters are
not a cost-effective option in most situations. Few jurisdictions have access to this equipment.
Videotape:
Observers can record count data by videotaping traffic. Traffic volumes can be
counted by viewing videotapes recorded with a camera at a collection site. A digital clock in
the video image can prove useful in noting time intervals. Videotaping is not a cost-effective
option in most situations. Few small jurisdictions have access to this equipment.
There are three steps to a traffic volume study using automatic counting equipment:
1. Prepare. Coordinate data activities with appropriate state and local officials. For
example, you may need to coordinate traffic control activities. Assemble and inspect
tools, supplies, and equipment. Test all equipment.
2. Deploy and calibrate data collection equipment. Provide traffic control to protect
workers in lanes of traffic. After the equipment is placed, make sure it is functioning
properly. Secure it in place.
3. Check data and retrieve equipment.
4.1.3 Methods:
There are two ways of counting system

Long term count

Short term count

We use the short term method in this traffic study. This method also divided into two methods

Direct Method.

Indirect method.

We use the direct method dummy on the traffic volume study survey. We were divided in two
group. One were counting the vehicles which were passing from Bhongir to Pragnapur in the
upward direction from 8.30am to 7.30pm, and other is from Pragnapur to Bhongir in the
downward direction from 8.30 to 7.30pm.
4.2 Collection of data:
From the above process we should collect the data of particular day from 8.30am to
7.30pm. Similarly we should collect the data of a week.
4.2.1 Conversion of traffic volume into in to PCUs:
General, traffic volume data should be converted into PCUs. As per IRC: 106-1990
the traffic volume is converted into passenger car unit. For this conversion we required to
calculate Hourly Expansion Factor, Daily Expansion Factor, Monthly Expansion Factor by
this values we get the Annual Average Daily Traffic.

SURVEYING:
Levelling:
Levelling is a branch of surveying the object of which is
1) To find the elevations of given points with respect to given or assumed
datum, and
2) To establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with
respect to a given or a assumed datum. The first operation is required to
enable the works to be designed while the second operation is required in
the setting out of all kinds of engineering works. Levelling deals with
measurements in a vertical plane.
Datum:
Datum is any surface to which elevations are referred. The mean sea level affords a
convenient datum world over, and elevations are commonly given as so much above or below

sea level. It is often more convenient, however, to assume some other datum, especially if
only the relative elevations of points are required.

Elevation:
The elevation of a point on or near the surface of the earth is its vertical distance
above or below an arbitrarily assumed level surface or datum. The difference in the elevation
between two points is the vertical distance between the two level surfaces in which the two
points lie.
Mean sea level:
Mean sea level is the average height of the sea for all stages of the tides. At any
particular place it is derived by averaging the hourly tide heights over a long period of 19
years.
Bench mark:
Bench mark is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation with respect
to some assumed datum is known. It is used either as a starting point for levelling or as a
point upon which to close as a check.
4.2 METHODS OF LEVELLING:
Barometric levelling:
Barometric levelling makes use of the phenomenon that difference in elevation
between two points is proportional to the difference in atmospheric pressures at these points.
A barometer, therefore, may be used and the readings observed at different points would yield
a measure of the relative elevations of those points.
At a given point, the atmosphere does not remain constant in the course of the day,
even in the course of an hour. T he method is, therefore, relatively inaccurate and is little used
in surveying work except on reconnaissance or exploratory surveys.
Trigonometric levelling(Indirect levelling):

Trigonometric levelling or indirect levelling is the process of levelling in which the

elevations of points are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal distances measured
in the field, just as the length of any side in any triangle can be computed from proper
trigonometric relations. In a modified form called stadia levelling, commonly used in
mapping, both the difference in elevation and the horizontal distance between the points are
directly computed from the measured vertical angles and staff readings.
Spirit levelling( Direct levelling):
It is that branch of levelling in which the vertical distances with respect to a horizontal
line ( perpendicular to the direction of gravity ) may be used to determine the relative
difference in elevation between two adjacent points. A horizontal plane of sight tangent to
level surface at any point is readily established by means of a spirit level or a level vial. In
spirit levelling, a spirit level and a sighting device ( telescope ) are combined and vertical
distances are measured by observing on graduated rods placed on the points. The method is
known as direct levelling. It is the most precise method of determining elevations and the one
most commonly used by engineers.
4.2.2 LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS:
The instruments commonly used in direst levelling are
1. A level
2. A levelling staff
1.LEVEL:
The purpose of a level is to provide a horizontal line of sight. Essentially, a level
consists of the following 4 parts:
a.
b.
c.
d.

A telescope to provide line of sight

A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal
A levelling head( tribrach & trivet stage) to bring the bubble in its center of run.
A tripod to support the instrument.

There are the following chief types of levels

a.
b.
c.
d.

Dumpy level.
Automatic level.
Y or Wye level.
Reversible level.

e. Tilting level.
2. LEVELLING STAFF:
A levelling staff is a straight rectangular rod having graduations, the foot of the staff
representing zero reading. The purpose of a level is to establish a horizontal line of sight. The
purpose of the levelling staff is to determine the amount by which the station (i.e., foot of
the staff) is above or below the line of sight. Levelling staff may be divided into two classes.
a. Self reading Staff.
b. Target Staff.
A Self reading staff is the one which can be read directly by the instrument man through
the telescope. A target staff on the other hand, contains a moving target against which the
reading is taken by staff man.
4.2.3 DIRECT LEVELLING (SPIRIT LEVELLING):
A level provides horizontal line of sight i.e., a line tangential to a level surface at the
point where the instrument stands. The difference in elevation between two points is the
vertical distance between two level lines. Strictly speaking, therefore, we must have a
level line of sight and not a horizontal line of sight, but the distinction between a level
surface and a horizontal plane is not an important one in plane surveying.
Neglecting the curvature of the earth and refraction, therefore, the theory of direct
levelling is very simple. With a level set up at any place, the difference in elevation
between the rod readings taken on these points. By a succession of instrument stations
and related readings, the difference in elevation between widely separated points is thus
obtained.
4.2.4 SPECIAL METHODS OF SPIRIT LEVELLING
1. Differential Levelling:
It is a method of direct levelling the object of which is solely to determine the
difference in elevation of two points regardless of the horizontal positions of the points
with respect to each other. When the points are apart, it may be necessary to set up the
instruments several types. This type of levelling is known as Fly Levelling.

2.Profile Levelling:
It is the method of direct levelling of object of which is to determine the elevation of
points at measured intervals along a given line in order to obtain a profile of the surface
along that line.
1. Cross Levelling:
It is a process of taking levels on each side of a main line at right angles to that line, in
order to determine a vertical cross section of the surface of the ground or of
underlying strata or of both.
2. Reciprocal Levelling:
It is a method of levelling in which the difference in elevation between two points is
accurately determine by two sets of reciprocal observations when it is not possible to
set up the level between the two points.
3. Precise Levelling:
It is the levelling in which the degree of precision required is too great to be attained
by ordinary methods, and in which, therefore, a special equipment or special
precautions or both necessary to eliminate, as far as possible, all sources of error.
4.2.5 TERMS AND ABBREVATIONS
1. Station:
In levelling, a station is that point where the level rod is held and not where level is
set up. It is the point whose elevation is to be ascertained or the point that is to be established
at a given elevation.
2. Height of Instrument:
For any set up of the level, the height of instrument is the elevation of plane of sight(
Line of sight) with respect to the assumed datum. It does not mean the height of the telescope
above the ground where the level stands.
3. Back Sight:
It is sight taken on a rod held at a point of known elevation, to ascertain the amount
by which the line of sight is above that point and thus to obtain the height of instrument. Back
sighting is equivalent to measuring up from the point of known elevation to the line of sight.
It is also known as a plus sight as the back sight reading is always added to the level of datum

to get the height of the instrument. The object of back sighting is, therefore, to ascertain the
height of the plane of the sight.
4. Fore Sight:
It is a sight taken on a rod held at a point of unknown elevations, to ascertain the
amount by which the point is below the line of sight and thus to obtain the elevation of the
station. Fore sighting is equivalent to measuring down from the line of sight. It is also known
as Minus Sight as the Fore Sight reading is always subtracted( except in special cases tunnel
survey) from the height of instrument to get the elevation of the point. The object of fore
sighting is, therefore, to ascertain the elevation of the point.

5.Turning Point/ Change point:

It is a point on which both minus sight and plus sight are taken on a line of direct
levels. The minus sight is taken on the point in one set of instruments to ascertain the
elevation of the point while the plus sight is taken on the same point in other set of the
instrument to establish the new height of the instrument.
6.Intermediate sight:
It is a point, intermediate between two turning points, on which only sight( minus
sight) is taken to determine the elevation of the station.
7.Formation Level:
Formation level is British term for what Civil Engineers in the US term as Top of
Sub grade. Top of sub grade is elevation at which earth work ends and pavement layers
begin. Pavements layers may include sub-base, base course, and Portland cement concrete or
asphaltic concrete.
8.Exsiting Level:
It is the actual level of the ground surface that is naturally existing.

4.2.6 STEPS IN LEVELLING:

There are two steps in levelling.

a. To find by how much amount the line of sight is above the bench mark, and
b. To ascertain by how much amount the next point is below or above the line of sight.
A level is set up approximately mid-way between the bench mark (or a point of known
elevation) and the point, the elevation of which is to be ascertain by direct levelling. A
back sight is taken on the rod held at the bench mark. Then
H. I. = Elevation of B.M. + B.S.
Turning the telescope to bring into view the rod held on point B, a fore sight is taken.
Then
Elevation = H.I. F.S.
4.2.7 DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING
The operation of levelling is to determine the elevation of points at some distance a
part is called Differential Levelling and is usually accomplished by direct levelling. When
two points are at such a distance from each other that they cannot both be within range of
level at the same time, the difference in elevation is not found by single setting but the
distance between the points is divided into two stages by turning points on which the staff is
held and the difference of elevation of each of succeeding pair of such turning points is found
by separate setting of the level.

4.3 CBR TEST:

4.3.1 Collection of soil samples:
To know the thickness of the pavement we should do the soil test for which we require soil
samples. The road length is of 2 kilometers where we have collected three soil samples at
initial point, at 1000 meters and at 2000 meters.
4.3.2 Testing the soil:
There are two stages for testing the soil sample. They are:
1. Compaction test
2. CBR test
1. Compaction test:

Apparatus
The following apparatus are required:
a) Moulds - There shall be cylindrical moulds conforming to the moulds described above.
The mould of diameter 101.6 mm shall have a height of 116.4 mm, and therefore will be
of a volume 942.47 cm3.
The moulds shall be fitted with a detachable base plate and a removable extension
approximately 50 mm high.
b) A metal Rammer - There shall be a metal rammer having a 50 mm diameter circular
face, and weighing 2.49 kg. The rammer shall be equipped with a suitable arrangement
for controlling the height of drop to 305mm. ( Alternatively there can be rammer of 2.5
kg weight with a drop 300 mm)
c) Balances - A balance readable and accurate to 1 g ( with a capacity 20 kg) and a balance
readable and accurate to 0.01 g,
d) Sieves - A 75 mm sieve, a 19 mm sieve and a 4.75 mm sieve.
e) Mixing tools - Miscellaneous tools such as mixing pan, spoon, trowel, spatula etc.
f) Metal tray - A large metal tray ( 600 mm X 500 mm and 80 mm deep).
g) Straightedge - A Steel straightedge, 300 mm long, 25 mm wide, and 3 mm thick with
one beveled edge.
h) Sample extruder - (Optional) An apparatus (such as a jack) for extruding specimen from
the mould.
i) An oven - Thermostatically controlled oven to provide temperature 105 -110 Co.
j) Cans - Cans to take samples for moisture content determination.
Procedure:
1. Obtain approximately 2.5 kg of air dried soil in the mixing pan, break all the lumps
so that it passes the sieve 4.75mm.
2. Add suitable amount of water.
3. Determine the weight of the empty mould without the base plate and the collar (M 1) to
the nearest 1g.
4. Fix the collar and the base plate.
5. Compact the moist soil in to the mould in three layers of approximately equal mass

(Each layer shall be compacted by 25 blows in the case of 101.6 mm diameter mould
and 56 blows in the case of 152.4 mm diameter mould. Blows must be distributed
uniformly over the surface of each layer so that the rammer always falls freely. The
amount of soil must be sufficient to fill the mould, leaving not more than 6mm to be
struck off when the extension is removed.).
6. Detach the collar carefully without disturbing the compacted soil inside the mould and
using a straight edge trim the excess soil leaving to the mould.
7. Obtain the weight of mould with the moist soil (M2) after removing the base plate.
8. Extrude the sample and break it to collect the sample for water content determination
preferably at least two specimens one near the top and other near the bottom.
9. Weigh an empty moisture can, M3 and weigh again with the moist soil obtained from
the extruded sample in step 8 (M4).
10. Keep this can in the oven for water content determination.
11. Repeat step 4 to 10. During this process weight M 2 increases for some time with the
increase in moisture and decreases thereafter. Conduct at least two trials after the
weight starts to reduce.
12. After 24 hours get the weight of oven dried sample (M5).
2. CBR test:
APPARATUS:
1. CBR equipment consisting of 152.4 mm diameter and 178 mm height, An extension
collar of a diameter 51 mm, spacer disk of 150.8mm diameter and 61.4 mm height.
2. Mechanical compaction rammer 50.8 mm die, 2.49 kg and capable of free fall of 305
mm.
3. Surcharge weight to simulate the effect of overlaying pavement weight.
4. CBR machine: A compression machine, which can operate at a constant rate of
1.3mm/min. A metal piston of 1935mm2 is attached to it.

PROCEDURE:
1. CBR equipment consisting of 152.4 mm diameter and 178 mm height, An extension
collar of diameter 51 mm, spacer disk of 150.8 mm diameter and 61.4 mm height.
2. Mechanical compaction rammer 50.8 mm die, 2.49 kg and capable of free fall of 305
mm.
3. Surcharge weight to simulate the effect of overlying pavement weight.
4. CBR machine: A compression machine, which can operate at a constant rate of 1.3
mm/min. A metal piston of 1935mm2 is attached to it.
5. The representative crushed aggregate/soil sample is sieved through 20 mm sieve.
About 5 kg of crushed aggregate/soil is taken and mixed with optimum moisture content
(OMC).
6. Clamp the mould to the base plate, attach the extension collar and weight. Insert the
spacer disk into the mould and place a coarse filter paper on the top of the disk.
7. Compact the aggregate /soil water mixture into the world in 3 equal layers to give a
height of 127 mm compact each layer in the 10 blows, 30 blows and 65 blows for each
sample.
8. Determine the water content of the crushed aggregate /soil mixture.
9. Remove the extension collar, and using on straight edge, trim the compacted crushed
aggregate/soil even with the top of the mould surface. Remove the spacer disk and
weight the mould with sample.
10. Place the mould with crushed aggregate/soil on the CBR machine and place the
surcharge weight .seat the penetration piston, set the dial gauges for load and penetration.
11. Apply the loads to the penetration piston at the rate of 1.27mm/min and record the
load at 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0, 12.5mm penetration respectively.

4.4 Designing:
Flexible Pavement Design using CBR values of sub grade soil:

California State Highways Department Method

Required data
Design traffic in terms of:
Cumulative number of standards
Axles(cumulative standard axles)
CBR value of sub grade

Traffic Data:

Initial data in terms of number of commercial vehicles per day (CVPD).

Traffic growth rate during design life in percentage.
Design life in number of years.
Distribution of commercial vehicles over the carriage way.

Traffic In terms of CSA (8160 Kg) during design life:

Initial traffic
In terms of Cumulative Vehicles/day
Based on 7 days 24 hours classified traffic
Traffic Growth Rate

Establishing models based on anticipated future development or based on past trends

Growth rate of two wheelers, three wheelers, four wheelers, six wheelers are
different.
Design Life:

National Highways 15 years

Expressways and Urban Roads 20 years
Other Category Roads 10 to 15 years

Vehicle Damage Factor:

Axle Load, t

No. of axles

Total axles

Eq. Factor

Damage

0-2
2-4
4-6
6-8
8-10

30
366
1412
1362
98

34
291
204
287
513

64
657
1616
1649
611

0.0002
0.014
1616
1649
1.044

Factor
0.0128
9.198
213.312
857.48
637.884

Indicative VDF values:

Initial Traffic in terms of

Terrain

CV/PD
Plain/Rolling

Hilly

0-150

1.5

0.5

150-1500

3.5

1.5

>1500

4.5

2.5

Distribution of traffic:

Single lane roads:

Total no. of commercial vehicles in both the directions
Two lane single carriageway roads:
75% of total no. of number commercial vehicles in both the directions

Four lane single carriageway roads:

40% of the total no. of commercial vehicles in both the directions

Dual carriageway roads:

75% of the no. of commercial vehicles in each direction
RECOMMENDED DESIGNS FOR TRAFFIC RANGE 1-10 msa
CBR 5%

Cumulative

Total pavement

traffic (msa)

thickness (mm)

PAVEMENT COMPOSITION
Bituminous
Granular
Granular
surfacing
Wearing Binder
course

course

base (mm)

sub base
(mm)

(mm)
1

430

20PC

490

20PC

530

5
10

(mm)
225

205

50BM

225

215

20PC

50BM

250

230

580

25SDBC

55DBM

250

250

660

40BC

70DBM

250

300

RECOMMENDED DESIGNS FOR TRAFFIC RANGE 10-150msa

Cumulative

Total Pavement

traffic

Thickness(mm

(msa)

CBR 5%
Pavement Composition
Bituminous Surfacing
BC (mm)

DBM (mm)

Granular base
&

sub-base

(mm)
10
20
30
50
100

660
690
710
730
750

40
40
40
40
50

70
100
120
140
150

Base= 250

150

770

50

170

Subbase=300