Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Processing technology
in olive oil and table olive
Index
1.- OLIVE OIL ....................................4
1.2.- EXTRACTION PROCESSES .......................5
1.2.1.- Traditional process ...........................5
1.2.2.- Three phase process ....................7
1.2.3.- Two phase process ........................10
1.3.- STORAGE OF OLIVE OIL .................12
2.- TABLE OLIVE ............................13
2.1.- TRADE PREPARATIONS ................13
2.2.- ELABORATION PROCESS OF THE MAIN TABLE OLIVES PREPARATIONS .........14
2.2.1.- Treated green table olives in brine ........16
2.2.2.- Natural black olives in brine ........19
2.2.3.- Black (Ripe) olives in brine .........21
3.- REFERENCES ................24
4.-LINKS..............25
This booklet has been written to help the non-producing / consumers of olive oil and table olives all around the world
about the composition of these products with special emphasis on their nutritional characteristics.
The olive encyclopaedia is a collection of 12 publications part of the project TDC-OLIVE which aim is to collect the
information related to the olive sector and make it accessible to the interested public.
This publication has been carried out with support from the European Commission, Priority 5 on Food Quality and
Safety (Contract number FOOD-CT-2004-505524 Specific Targeted Project), Setting up a network of Technology
Dissemination Centres to optimise SMEs in the olive and olive oil sector. It does not necessarily reflect its views and in
no way anticipates the Commissions future policy in this area.
This Booklet was designed and developed and translated into English by Antonio Garrido Fernndez, Pedro Garca
Garca, Antonio Lpez Lpez, and Francisco No Arroyo Lpez from Instituto de la Grasa (CSIC) for inclusion in the
TDC Olive Encyclopaedia
The authors, translator and publisher of these booklets have composed the work with care; however, no responsibility is taken for the
correctness of this information. All sources of information used for this booklet are referenced however, some protected brands or
trademarks are not especially marked in this publication. The lack of such advice cannot consider that the used synonym is not used as a
free brand or trademark. It is not allowed without the permission of the author to publish or duplicate the booklet or parts of it to use it
commercially. All rights reserved.
Foreword
TDC-OLIVE project is an initiative included in the Sixth Framework Programme of the European Union, aimed to table
olive and olive oil SMEs. Its main target is the creation of a physical and virtual network of Technology Dissemination
Centres (TDC) as means of support to enterprises of this sector, as well as a bridge between them and Research and
Development institutions. We pretend to:
Achieve a modern SME, with qualified staff, that employs new technologies in order to access information and,
in general, to implement technological innovation systems
Achieve an SME committed to the optimisation of the product quality and to the treatment, recycling and reuse
of all the wastes generated in its activity
Since Mediterranean olive oil and table olive producers (particularly SMEs ones) need to modernize and to increase
their competitiveness, TDCs aim to accelerate the necessary technology innovation process of SMEs by establishing a
training program and by providing updated information in those topics of interest for SMEs. Simultaneously, TDCs will
carry out a series of actions and promotion activities in order to achieve a certain change of mentality in central and
northern European consumers, thus an increase in the consumption of olive oil and table olives
Centro de Informacin y
Documentacin Cientfica
Instituto de la Grasa
Instituto Madrileo de
Investigacin Agraria y Alimentaria
Bundesforschungsanstalt Fr
Ernhrung und Lebensmittel BFEL
Unilever
Sabina-Agrcola
Improtechnology Limited
Biozoon GmbH
PARTNERS
OLIVE
WASHING
MILLING
MALAXATION
PRESSING
Pomace
DECANTATION
Olive
OIL
WATER
PASTE CENTRIFUGATION
OIL +
aqueous phase
CENTRIFUGATION
Pomace
AQUEOUS
PHASE + oil
TRADITIONAL
PROCESS
MALAXATION
PASTE
CENTRIFUGATION
CENTRIFUGATION
OLIVE
OIL
Vegetable
water
OLIVE OIL
CRUSHING
GRINDING
Vegetation &
Process Water
Pomace &
Vegetation
Water
(Alperujo)
TWO PHASE
PROCESS
Figure 1.- Flow scheme of the three main olive oil extraction processes.
After the wash, the olives are weighed to know the quantity of clean olives that each farmer introduces.
Malaxation
After olives have been crushed, the obtained olive paste has to be mixed, a process that entails stirring the paste
slowly and continuously in semi cylindrical or semi spherical mixers. They are also fitted with a heating system by
circulating hot water; their inner walls are made of stainless steel to avoid possible metal contamination (Figure 4).
The temperature used in this step is around 30-35C.
The object of this stage is to increase the size of oil drops to facilitate their
separation and to break up the oil/ water emulsion.
In the case of the pressure system, the duration of the mixing step is limited
to 10-20 minutes.
Figure 4.- Cylindrical malaxers
Pressing
Pressure is the oldest method used for extracting olive
oil. It is based on the principle that when olive paste is
pressed it releases the liquid phase (oil and vegetation
water) which separates from the solid phase.
Figure 5.- Trolley with capacho Figure 6.- Presses and trolleys
Decantation
Upon pressing the olives paste, a liquid is obtained that contains olive oil, vegetation water and a small quantity of
solids that escape in the press. The first operation to accomplish is to withdraw these solids, for this a vibratory sieve
is employed which retains the solids that the liquid phase carries (Figure 8) (Martinez et al. 1974).
The separation of the two phases in the liquid mixture is
accomplished by decantation. The oil is less dense
(approximately 0.91) than the vegetation water
(approximately 1.01). Here, where the liquid is permitted
to stay for a time the oil rises to the surface. This is a
procedure that has been used since ancient times.
HAMMER CRUSHER
MALAXER
CENTRIFUGES
DECANTER
The different phases that comprise this process are commented below.
Crushing and Grinding
In continuous centrifugation plants metal crushers (hammer, toothet, disc, cylindrical or roller) are generally used to
grind olives. The most commonly used is the hammer crusher.
With metal crushers it is possible to verify the size of the
stone fragments because they are fitted with a special
device (grating) that enables the most suitable stone
particle size to be chosen in connection to the extraction
system (Figure 11).
Malaxation
The use of the hammer crusher for olive grinding may give rise to the formation
of emulsions between the oil and the water. This is why mixing is necessary to
increase the oil droplet size. It has to be done at above room temperatures, and
must last no less than an hour.
These plants must be equipped with two or three mixing units, consisting of semicylindrical, large capacity vats fitted with an outer chamber through which heated
water circulates (Figure 12). Within malaxer, the olive paste is maintained in
movement by means of a device (spades or other system) that turns around a
shaft (Figure 13).
Figure 12.- Malaxer
Paste Centrifugation
In this process the liquid phases are separated from the solid phase by applying centrifugal force, which increases the
difference between the specific density of the oil, the vegetation water and the solid matter.
WATER
AQUEOUS
PHASE + oil
SOLIDS OUTLET
The amount of water added to the paste can affect extraction yields. It depends on the type of plant and on the
rheological characteristics of the olives: too much water cuts extraction yields, as does too little. The optimal
paste/water ratio, which may vary from 1:0.7 to 1:1.2 is determined empirically by observing the characteristics of the
oil and the water as they flow out the decanter.
Depending basically on their size, these machines have an hourly capacity ranging from 0.5 to 4.0 tons.
The employment of the decanter has many advantages such as: (i) it is a compact machinery and needs less surface;
(ii), it is a semi-continuous and automated process (iii) better quality oil is obtained than in the press system and (iiii)
with limited labour.
The disadvantages of this process with respect to extraction with presses are: (i) it is expensive; (ii) It requires more
technical labour; (iii) it needs more energy consumption and more consumption of hot water and (iiii) a greater amount
of water must be disposed of.
Centrifugation of the liquids
Natural decantation requires a great amount of space and a large number of deposits. Because of this, the centrifugal
separation has been applied since the 1970s to separate the oil from the liquid phases.
Then, liquids are submitted to a centrifugation in two centrifuges on plates (Figure 16). In this manner, the oil fraction
that accompanies the aqueous phase is recovered and through the addition of a certain amount of water, the oils are
cleaned and the moisture withdrawn (Figure 17).
The greater problem of the three phase process to obtain olive oil is the high
volume of generated wastewater (alpechn) (1.2-1.3 litres /kg of processed
olives). In effect, the water addition to the paste before centrifugation increases
the volume of wastewater produced by this type of processing plant.
This liquid has a high pollution (chemistry oxygen demand about 60-80 g O2/l)
and a high polyphenol concentration. This circumstance does not make possible
its purification by conventional means. Because of this, the only adopted solution
has been to dispose of it in evaporation ponds (Figure 18) with the consequent
increase in costs, health problems and visual impact.
10
As the oily phase that leaves the decanter can have solid particles, it is
passed through a vibratory sieve to separate the small flesh or bone
chunks (Figure 20).
OILY PHASE
OUTLET
VIBRATORY
SIEVE
Liquid centrifugation
Then the oily phase is submitted to centrifugation in a centrifugal of plates (Figure 20).
Through the addition of a certain quantity of water, the oils are cleaned and withdrawn
from the moisture (Figure 17).
This water is the only liquid residue that is generated in this process of oil extraction.
Figure 20.- Centrifugal
11
12
2. TABLE OLIVES
Table olives are the sound fruit of specific varieties of the cultivated olive tree (Olea europaea sativa) harvested at the
proper stage of ripeness and whose quality is such that, when they are suitably processed as specified in this
standard, they produce an edible product and ensure its preservation as a marketable good. Such processing may
include the addition of various products or spices of good table quality (IOOC, 1991).
In general, any processing method aims to remove the natural bitterness of this fruit, caused by the glucoside
oleuropein.
2.1.- TRADE PREPARATIONS
A complete definition of all of them can be found in the Trade Standard Applying to Table Olive in International Trade
(IOOC, 2004). Generally, the complete name includes information on:
(i) The type of raw material. There are four green, turning colour, ripe olives (blackened by oxidation) and natural black
olives.
(ii) The procedure used for eliminating the bitterness. The aim of different process methods is mainly focused on
decreasing or completely removing the natural bitterness of the olive. The word treated is included in the
denomination of the commercial preparation when the olives are immersed in an aqueous solution of sodium
hydroxide; in this case the olives become absolutely sweet. On the contrary, oleuropein may be slowly and partially
eliminated by dilution in the aqueous solution; in these cases the word untreated is included in the denomination.
(iii) The method of preserving the product. The most generally used is brine (NaCl solution), then the expression in
brine must be included in the commercial denomination. There are other systems such in dry salt, etc.
The main commercial preparations are described below:
Treated green table olives in brine. These are defined as olives treated in alkaline lye and then placed in brine in which
they undergo a lactic fermentation. If the fermentation is complete, the olives need only appropriate physico-chemical
conditions to ensure their preservation. Partially fermented olives must be preserved by sterilization, pasteurization,
addition of preservatives, refrigeration or by inert gas (without brine). This preparation is generally know as green
olives (in brine).
Untreated natural black olives. These olives are placed directly in brine and usually retain a slightly bitter taste. They
are preserved by natural fermentation in brine alone, by sterilization, pasteurization or addition of preservatives. They
are usually known as natural black olives (in brine).
Black (ripe) olives in brine. These are obtained from fruits which, when not fully ripe, have been darkened by oxidation
in alkaline lye. The bitterness has been completely removed. They must be preserved by heat sterilization when
packed under anaerobic conditions. These are known as ripe olives.
There are other trade preparations such as: untreated black olives in dry salt, untreated naturally shrivelled black
olives, dehydrated black olives, etc.
According to the IOOC Standards (IOOC, 2004) olives may be presented in one of the following styles: whole, pitted,
stuffed, halved, quartered, divided, sliced, chopped or minced, broken, olive paste, salad, as mixture of olives and
capers, etc. Products for stuffing olives are also diverse: peppers, pepper paste, anchovies, almonds, etc.
13
Figure 23.- Facilities of underground fermenters Figure 24.- Warehouse of air fermenters
Figure 25.-Fermenters in a
cover warehouse.
The schemes for processing the three main olive preparations are shown in Figure 28.
The principal difference between the three main commercial table olive preparations is the degree of ripeness of the
raw material. For the green type, the optimum stage for picking is when fruits must have reached a green-straw yellow
colour. Natural black olives are picked when fruits are completely ripe (superficially black) and the red purple colour
extends at least halfway between the skin and stone. Ripe olives are harvested at the same time as green olives.
14
OLIVE
HARVESTING
TRANSPORTATION
WASHING &
SIZE GRADING
PRESERVATION
(in brine or acid solution)
LYE TREATMENT
WASHING
BRINING & LACTIC
FERMENTATION
STORAGE
SORTING &
SIZE GRADING
(PITTING&STUFFING)
PACKING
BRINING
SORTING &
SIZE GRADING
FERMENTATION
SORTING &
SIZE GRADING
DARKENING
PACKING
D
A
R
K
E
N
I
N
G
LYE TREATMENT
&AIR OXIDATION
WASHING
(neutralization)
COLOUR FIXATION
(PITTING,
SLICING, ETC)
CANING &
STERILIZATION
UNTREATED
TREATED GREEN
OLIVES IN BRINE NATURAL BLACK
OLIVES IN BRINE
TREATED BLACK
OLIVES IN BRINE
(RIPE OLIVES)
Figure 28.- Flow scheme of the three main trade table olive preparations.
15
16
17
Packing
18
19
To avoid the appearance of spoilage (fish eye), fermentation under aerobic conditions is carried out. The fermenter
should be modified by introducing a central column (Figures 41 and 42) through which air is bubbled (Garca et al.
1985).
The air removes the CO2 produced by fruit
respiration and microbial metabolism. The
rate of air injection depends on the
technical design of the factory and the
column, but may range between 0.1-0.3
volumes per fermenter volume per hour.
Air
bubbling
maintains
a
certain
percentage of dissolved oxygen in the
brine that induces the growth of facultative
instead of fermentative microorganisms.
The species of Gram-negative bacteria found are the same family (Enterobacteriaceae) as those found in the
traditional process. Yeasts are present during the whole fermentation process with a higher population than under
anaerobic conditions. The most representative species identified with facultative metabolism have been: Torulopsis
candida, Debaryomices hansenii, Hansenula anomala and Candida diddensii; with oxidative metabolism: Pichia
membranaefaciens, Hansenula mrakii and Candida bodinii. Lactic acid bacteria grow only when the salt concentration
is low 8 %; at the beginning they are almost exclusively Leuconostoc and Pediococcus, but after 20 days lactobacillus
are predominated.
The main advantages of this process compared with anaerobic fermentation are: (i) a lower incidence of gas-pocket
spoilage; (ii) the elimination of shrivelling of fruits; (iii) a reduction in the length of the process because air bubbling
provokes a continuous brine recirculation that causes a rapid diffusion of sugars and bitter compounds into the liquid,
making the fermentation faster and the organoleptic characteristics (bitterness) of olive are available for consumption
in only 3 months; (iiii) improved colour, flavour and texture.
Fermentation under aerobic or anaerobic conditions is influenced by the initial pH and NaCl concentration. In order to
prevent excessive growth of Gram-negative bacteria, acetic acid must be added to the brining solution to reduce the
pH to below 4.5. If the pH is maintained high, the population of Gram-negative bacteria is excessive and produces a
great volume of CO2, which causes gas-pocket spoilage in the olives (Fernndez et al. 1985).
The NaCl concentration is also fixed according to the type of fermentation required. If only we aim for yeasts, the
percentage of salt must be maintained in higher values than the 8%. The low acidity development (0,2-0.4%, as lactic
acid) and the relatively high pH (4.3-4.5) means that the salt concentration should be 8-10% to ensure an adequate
preservation. If the growth of lactobacillus is preferred the initial NaCl concentration must be 3-6 % and when
fermentation is concluded, salt should be added to reach 6-8% in the equilibrium. The final pH is lower (3.9-4.1) than
with high NaCl percentages and the acid concentration higher than 0.6 % (expressed as lactic acid).
When air is bubbled, the flux is controlled by a flow meter adapted to the air inlet of a fermenter. Usually, the flux is
fixed on the basis of past experience. When the active fermentation process is ended, aeration is only necessary if the
CO2 concentration is increasing.
Operations before packing
Once the fermented fruits under anaerobic conditions are ready to be marketed (without bitter), they are oxidized
(darkened) by exposure to air in boxes of no more than 20 kg; this process improves the skin colour. The maximum
length of treatment should not to surpass 48 hours to avoid wrinkles in the olives. This operation is not necessary to
apply to fermented olives under aerobic conditions.
20
Before packing, the olives are then selected to separate those that do not have good colour or suffer damages and
classified by size.
Packing
Until some years ago, these olives were not packed but were sold in bulk. Glass jars or cans are rarely used for this
product, although nowadays there is an increasing demand for them. Usually, there are two presentation forms:
naturally black olives in brine (Greek style) and Kalamata style. In the first, the most frequent values for commercial
products are: pH about 4.0-4.2 and salt concentration between 6-8%. For Kalamata style, the pH values are lower
because wine vinegar must be added and, furthermore, olive oil.
To assure good conservation of the packed product pasteurization can be employed (in similar conditions to green
olives) or the addition of sodium sorbate to reach a level of 0.05 % (as sorbic acid) in the equilibrium.
Modification to this method was introduced to prevent both types of spoilage. Correcting the initial pH of brines to 3.84.0 while acetic acid can inhibit growth of Gram-negative rod and CO2 accumulation are prevented by aeration in a
similar fashion to naturally black olives. The use of moderately low initial NaCl levels (around 4-6%) assures the
incidence of both shrivelling and gas pocket formation. The salt concentration must be increased to 6-7% to assure the
conservation when temperatures increase (spring, summer).
In the USA a salt-free storage of olives combining acidulated water (lactic and acetic acid) in anaerobic conditions is
used. This method was developed to alleviate the problem of brine disposal and sodium benzoate is also required and
calcium chloride is usually added to the liquid to improve the olive texture.
21
In Spain, acid conservation is accomplished initially adding an acetic acid concentration between 1.5-3.0 %. In some
instances, CaCl2 (0.1-0.3 %, w/v) is added to prevent deterioration of the texture and the brine is aired to avoid the
appearance of wrinkled and/or gas-pocket.
Facilities for the darkening
After each NaOH treatment, water was added to complete a 24 hours cycle. To reduce wastewater it is possible to
reuse the storage liquid dilute with tap water.
Washing (neutralization)
After the last lye treatment, olives are washed several times with water to remove most of the NaOH and lower the pH
in the flesh to around 8. It is possible to diminish the number of washes by means of added food-grade HCl to the
liquid or by injecting CO2 into the containers.
22
Colour fixation
The black surface colour obtained is not stable and fades progressively after oxidation and during the shelf life of the
packed product. To prevent this deterioration, only the use of ferrous gluconate and ferrous lactate is legally permitted
for ripe olive processing. Usually, the ferrous salts were added at a concentration of 100 ppm (parts per million) of iron
in the liquid. Iron diffusion into the flesh is completed in about 10 hours, but normally, this phase is prolonged to about
24 hours.
Canning and sterilization
The black (ripe) olives (whole, pitted, slices, quarters or paste) are
packed in cans varnished on the inside with a liquid that contains 2-4
% of NaCl. Nowadays, glass containers are being used.
Whatever the employed container, once closed it should be
sterilized in a retort (Figure 48). To assure proper conservation it
should reach a minimal value of lethality accrued of 15 F0. Generally,
the thermal treatment is accomplished at 121-126C.
Figure 48.- Retorts to sterilize black (ripe) olives
23
3.- REFERENCES
Fernndez, M., Castro, A., Garrido, A., Gozlez, F. Nosti, M. Heredia, A., Minus, M.I., Rejano, L., Snchez, F.,
Garca, P., Castro, A. (1985). Biotecnologa de la Aceituna de Mesa. Servicio de Publicaciones del CSIC. MadridSevilla.
Garca, P., Durn, M.C., Garrido, A. (1985) Fermentacin aerbica de aceitunas maduras en salmuera. Grasas y
Aceites 36, 1, 14-20.
Garrido, A., Garca, P., Brenes, M. (1995) Olive fermentations (Cap. 16). Biotechnology. A multi-volume
Comprehesive Treatise. ED: H.J.Reed & T.W. Nagodawitana. VCH Inc. 593-625.
Giovacchio L., (1996) Olive harvesting and olive oil extraction (Chapter 2) Olive Oil. Chemistry and Technology Ed:
Boscou, D., AOCS Press.
Gonzlez, F., Rejano, L., Durn, M.C., Snchez, F., Castro, A., Garca, P., Garrido, A. (1984). Elaboracin de
aceitunas verdes, estilo sevillano, sin lavados. Solucin a los problemas de adicin de HCL y efecto de los
tratamientos con lejas bajas. Grasas y Aceites 35 , 3, 155-159.
Gonzlez, F. and Rejano, L., La pasteurizacin de aceitunas estilo sevillano Grasas y Aceites 35, 4, 235-239.
IOOC (Internacional Olive Oil Council) (2004). Trade Standard Applying to Table Olives. Madrid: IOOC.
Kiritsakis, A.K. (1991). Olive oil. AOCS (Champaing, Illinois. USA).
Martinez, J.M., Gmez, C., Alba, J., Petruccioli, G., Muoz, E., Cucaracha, A., Gutierrez, R., Carola, C., Fernndez, P.
(1974) Manual de Elaiotecnia. Editorial Agrcola Espaola, S.A.
24
4.- LINKS
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS:
International Olive Oil Council (IOOC)
http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
http://www.fao.org/
Codex Alimentarius
http://www.codexalimentarius.net/
COMMODITY BODIES :
Asociacin Espaola de la Industria y el Comercio del Aceite de Oliva
http://www.asoliva.com
Asociacin Espaola de Exportadores de Aceitunas de Mesa (ASEMESA)
http://www.asemesa.es
Federacin Espaola de Industrias de la Alimentacin y Bebidas (FIAB)
http://www.fiab.es
North American Olive Oil Association (NAOOA)
http://www.afrus.org/public/naooa/
Associazione Italiana dellIndustria Olearia (ASSITOL)
http://www.federalimentare.it/docassitol.html
Australian Olive Oil Association
http://www.aooa.com.au
Greek Association of Industries and Processors of Olive Oil (SEVITEL)
http://www.oliveoil.gr
25