Block 1 ES 331 Unit 1

UNIT 1 DEFINING CURRICULUM
Structure
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Introduction
Objectives
Cumculum : The Concept
Bases of Curriculum
The Curriculum Process and Its Stages
1.5.1
1.5.2
1.5.3
1.5.4
1S.5
1.6
Selection of Aims, Goals and Objectives

Selection of Learning Experiences
Selection of Content
Organisation and Integration of Learning Experiences and Content
Evaluation
Major Approaches to Curriculum

1.6.1
1.6.2
1.6.3
Process Approach
Shucture Approach
HumanisticApproach
1.7
Role of Curriculum in Effective Teaching and Laming
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
Let Us Sum Up
Unit-end Exercises
Answers to Check Your Progress
Suggested Readings
1.1
INTRODUCTION
This unit is the first unit of Block 1 of Course ES-33 1: Curriculum and Instruction. In this
unit, you will study about the concept and various interpretations of curriculum. When people
talk about curriculum, they use various phrases like bases of curriculum, approaches to
curriculum, aims, goals, objectives and various types of curriculum. All these have been
discussed in this unit. Besides, you will also study about othi5r~relat@issues regarding
curriculum. This unit provides an introduction to this entire Block. Therefore a fuller
understanding of this unit should help you understand the later three units of this Block
better.
Curriculum can be called the pivot around which various classroom activities and the entire
school programmes are developed. Think of various activities that you carry out with your
students and ask yourself why you carry them out with them (students). Also think of the
variety in these activities and how these are linked with each other. You may also think of the
various activities that other teachers in your school carry out with their students while teaching
languages, sciences, mathematics and social sciences. These educational activities are
intimately connected with curriculum studies. Thus this unit will help you understand why
teachers do whatever they do in classrooms and how education can be made more purposeful
and better related to life. Besides, your understanding of the concept of curriculum will help
you achieve the intended goals/objectives of education better.
1.2
OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to :
define and explain the concept of curriculum;

cite various interpretations of curriculum;
explain the cumculum process and its various stages;
describe various approaches to curriculum and differentiate between process, structure
and humanistic approaches;
a
illuslrate and explain the role of cumculum in effective teaching and learning.
Curriculum Planning
CURRICULUM :THE CONCEPT

The curriculum is the heart of schooling, the education process. All resources available at
school e.g. the school building, equipment, various varieties of instructional materials
including W k s in the library exist for just one purpose - for supporting effective
implementation of the curriculum. The entire set of classroom activities, the co-curricular
programme irs well as the entire evaluation schedule flow from the school curriculum.
Every civilized society hies to socialize its younger generation through its programme of
educational prescriptions. These prescriptions are acted upon by schools. However there is a lot
of disagreement about what should be included in these prescriptions and how these should be
transformed into educational practices and activities. Long ago. Aristotle remarked "As things
are....mankind is by no means agreed about the things to be taught....Again about the means.
there is no agreement". This disagreement about what should be included in the curriculum,
how it should be organised, sequenced and taught has always been with us. Even today, these
disagreements remain and they have influenced our conception of curriculum and how we
should develop i t
The word 'cllrriculum' has been used in many ways. It usually stands for :
a school's wriuen courses of study and other curriculum materials;
a
the subject content taught to the students;

the courses offered in a school; and
the totality of planned learning experiences offered to students in a school.
It is quite easy to establish that all the above interpretations are included in curriculum and yet
curriculum is more than what is implied by each of these. It is often remarked that definitions
often hinder our understanding of such key concepts in education. There have been such wide
changes in our thinking about the role of school in socialisation of the individual, the nature of
the student and his development. and the nature of knowledge that definitions of curriculum
have become almost irrelevant. Take for example some of the famous definitions of curriculum:
a
A curriqulum is a structured series of intended learning outcomes (Johnson. 1967). This

explanation emphasises that learning outcomes and not learning experiences constitute
the curriculum. These outcomes are linked with objectives.
A curriculum is an attempt to communicate the essential principles and features of an
educational concept in such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective uarlslation into practice (Lawarence Stenhouse. 1975). Here, curriculum has been
viewed as an attempt. an activity aimed at communication.
A curriculum is the formulation and implementation of an educational proposal, to be
taught avd learnt within schools or other institutions and for which that instilution accepts
responsibility at three levels : its rationale, its actual implementation and its effects (Jenkin and 6hipman.1975).
A curriculum is an organised set of formal educational and/or training intentions (David
hatt, 1980).
A curriclulum is all of the experiences that individual learners have in a programme of

education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specificobjectives, which
is plannttd in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present professional
practice (Glen Hass, 1987). The curriculum is thus a list of planned learning experiences
offered to the students under the direction of the school, in other words, curriculum is a
blueprint of experiences that have been planned for the students.
We have presented different view points on the concept of curriculum. Surely these definitions
need quite a bit of explanation or commentary in order to be understood by every teacher. And
the chances are that even after a lengthy explanation, the confusion might remain. These
definitions seem to take us in different directions. While the first definition is quite compact
and concise, all later definitions are lengthy and try to describe almost everything that should
matter in a curriculum. And yet, even these lengthy definitions do not appear to succeed in their
Purpose.
Therefore, it is far more important for us to study and to understand the important
aspects/featudes of the concept of curriculum than to get trapped in difficult-to-understand
definitions. There are six important aspects of a curriculum that we should bear in mind and
these are as follows:

A curriculum is always preplanned; it is not a set of activities developed on the spot or
spontaneously.
m
Any curriculum has four bases viz; social forces, knowledge of human development as
provided by the accepted theoryltheories, the nature of learning, and the nature of knowledge and cognition. Thus a curriculum is meant for education in a particular society and
for children of a particular age group. A curriculum that has been developed for girl students of grade VIII may be quite irrelevant for boys of grade VIII preparing for a particular vocational stream.
The goals/purposes of a curriculum are reflected in the set of educational objectives that
accompany it. These objectives are the end and the given curriculum is a means to achieve
them.
A curriculum facilitates planning of instruction by teachers. You are expected to under-
stand the social forces that operate in society, various stages of human development and
their peculiar characteristics. You should also understand the factors that influence the
process of learning and the nature of knowledge and cognition. Because of their intimate
knowledge of children, and also how various educational objectives can be attained by
children, teachers can plan a set of learning experiences that flow from a given cumculum. The quality and relevance of learning experiences determines the effectiveness of
curriculum implementation.
m
The teacher plans the same set of learning experiences for all students of his class. However they differ in terms of the learning experiences, and their level and quality of participation. Their individual differences and variation in their social backgrounds are
responsible for these results. Because of these, every learner has an actual curriculum
which is different Iiom the actual curricula of other learners in the same class,
Because of the gap between the intended curriculum and the transacted curriculum as
reflected by the individual learner's actual curriculum, the teacher's role assumes critical
importance. A teacher should not only provide flexible arrangements but also meaningful
alternatives in learning. These demand professional decisions from teachers in terms of
the objectives, bases and criteria of the given curriculum.
Check Your Progress 1

Notes : a) Write your answers in the space given below.
Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
i) What do you understand by the term 'curriculum'?
b)
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ii) Which definition of the cumculum do you prerer most? why?
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1.4
BASES OF CURRICULUM
We have already lcarnt that the four bases of any curriculum are social forces, human
development, the nature of learning and the nature of knowledge and cognition. All
societies want to survive and progress. For this, they try to induct the young into their culture
and values. Schools are very powerful agencies for this induction.
xrrieulum Planning
Human Development
Learning
Nature
Of
Social Forces
Nature of Knowledge
and Cognition
Flg. 1.1 : Bases of Curriculum
Social forces: The social forces in a society influence the functioning of schools duectly as
well as indirectly. These social forces are reflected in social goals, cultural uniformity and
diversity, social pressures, social change, future planning and concepts of cultwe. In a country
like ours which is multicultural and which has a long recorded history, the social forces
represent a bewildering variety as well as complexity, These social forces determine the social
agenda of education. The curriculum reflects contemporary social forces and helps shape the
society. National Policy on Education (1986, modified in 1992) is very specific on this aspect:
.."the National System of Education will be based on a national cumcular framework
which contains a common core alongwith other componenls that are flexible. The
common core w~ilinclude the history of India's freedom movement, the constitutional
obligations and other content essential to nutwe national identity. These elements will
cut across subject areas and will be designed to promote values such as India's common
culturd heritage, egalitarianism, democracy and secularism, equality of sexes, protection
of the environment, removal of social barriers, observance of the small family norm, and
inculcation of the scientific temper. All educational programmes will be canied on in
strict conformity with secular values." (NPE 1986,3 - 4).
Human development:Vmous aspects of human growth and development are accomplished
partly by the structured curriculum in use in the school and partly by the society. The area of
human development has been researched and studied in &tail for more than eighty years. These
studies have made us think afresh about children, their developmental stages, how they think,
their needs and interests. Children are not small adults. They differ from adults in many
important ways. Differences across various developmental stages before adulthood are not
merely quantitative, they are essentially qualitative. These differences have been admirably
described by various child psychologists, chief among these being Jean Piaget. Knowledge
about human development can help the teacher develop a cuniculum. The cumculum thus
developed provides for various aspects of a development stage not only in terms of age cohorts
but also differences among children from the same age cohon You will study human
development in detail in course ES-332.
Nature of 1earning:Knowledge about how human beings leam has been accumulating since
the turn of the twentieth 6entury. Human learning has fascinated many a researcher. Various
aspects of the learning process have been well researched though we have not been able to
reveal the entire process. This has given rise to a number of learning theories chief among lhese
being the behaviouristic theories and the cognitive theories. These learning theories
recommend different approaches to the task of curriculum planning. Curriculum specialists
cannot ignore the role of these theories because most of these are scientific in their orientation.
Nature of knowledge and cognition:The nature of knowledge and cognition is yet another
basis of cumculum. What distinguishes knowledge from information? How do children
transform information into knowledge? Whatknowledge is most worthwhile? What is the
nature of thought processes? How are various thought processes and congitive process skills
related to each other? These questions have interested teachers, psychologists, researchers as
well as philosophers. Answers to these questions can help educationists organise knowledge in
the curriculum. It has been established now that learners have their own preferred leaming
styles and strategies. A good curriculum should therefore provide alternative paths for learning
according to different learning styles of students.
Thus these are the four bases of any good curriculum. The emphasis on these bases will differ
from one cuniculum to another. These differences are partly due to the historical developments
and partly due to the personal philosophy of the teacher who develops the cuniculum.
1.5
THE CURRICULUM PROCESS AND ITS STAGES
The entire curriculum process has been treated at length in Unit 3 of this Block. You will study
it in detail there, especially under Section 3.4. In this section you will just get a brief overview
of the curriculum process which can be divided into five stages. These stages have been
described below:
Selection of Learning
k p e r i e n c e d
Fig. 1.2 :The Curriculum Process
1.5.1 Selection of Aims, Goals and Objectives

A curriculum is essentially a planned educational programme. It has definite objectives and it
facilitates their attainment. When we talk of educational objectives, we should remember that
these objectives are derived from goals. These goals are again conceived at three levels viz;
ultimate (or long term) goals, mediate (or short term) goals and proximate (or immediate)
goals.
Mediate Goal
Rorimarc Goal
1
-
Fig.13 :Levels of Objectives
In India we have the 10+2 year pattern of schooling. These twelve years of schooling fall into
four clear stages, viz; the primary, the middle, the secondary and the senior secondary. The
ultimate aims could deal with the outcomes of 12 years of schooling or they could be about
Dehlng Currlar~um
CurricuIum Planning
any of the above mentioned five stages. In other words, these ultimate aims describe the
end-products of education spread over a period of time. They are usually expressed in terms of
statements of desirable knowledge. attitudes, feelings and actions, integrated in terms of
personality pattern in appropriate situations of life.
Mediate aims may refer to a stage of education or a particular content area, e.g., languages,
sciences, etc. The mediate aims are derived from ultimate aims and they promote them.
Mediate aims are usually expressed in terms of intended behaviours in a class of situations at
given stages of education. These stages of education usually mean various grades e.g. Grade
VII, Grade IX,etc.
The proximate aims are also called specific objectives. These deal with classroom level
behaviour. These may be expressed as what the teacher wants to attain through teaching a
lesson or a unit or what the students will be able to do after learning a lesson or a unit. In the
first case, they arc called instructional objectives; in the second. they are called behavioural
objectives or learning oulomes.
1.5.2 Selection of Learning Experiences
'
Learning experiences facilitate change in behaviow and, as a result of this, attainment of aims
and objectives. Various learning experiaices deal with the human being's functioning in
particular situations, their interests or problem solving. These leaning experiences provide
physical, mental or emotional experiences or their mix. The role of learning experiences is
reflected in the following proposition. If X is the intended objective, then A, B and C are the
necessary learning experiences to be provided for it. Teaching various subjects, various
activities in a laboratory, on the phyfield or through projects, discussion, group work, etc., are
examples of educational learning experiences. Care has to be exercised in order to ensure that
the selected learning experiences indeed hclp in the attainment of a specific educational
aim/objective.
The selected learning experiences should be relevant to learners in terms of their maturity level.
Since there docs not exist any sure way of delermining whether the selected learning
experiences indeed match the learners' maturity level, there is always an element of
tentativeness about them. The teacher, if she is involved in selecting learning experiences, will
invariably be guided by her own experiences of dealing with and observing children. She may
also depend upon her recollections of how she behaved when she was of the age of the leaners
for whom the curriculum is being developed.
Yet another criterion to observe is the extenl to which the ordinary teacher can lranslate these
learning experiences into classroom activities. The greater the possibility, the more fruitful the
Icarning experience.
1.5.3 Seleclion of Content

The content is usually considered to be the most important component of developing
curriculum. However this exclusive importance given to content is educationally misplaced
and indefensible. To put content at the ccntre of the curriculum is to put the cart before the
horse. The overall approach to the curriculum shall delermine our approach to the task of
Level
Selection of Basic ThemesIConcepts

.
Ill
Specific
Fig. 1.4 :T h m Levels of Sdectlon of Content
selection of content. For example, in a process-based approach, only such content will be
selected which supports the chosen process(es). Even in a subject-based curriculum, one has to
be clear about knowledge. principle, generalisations. theories, techniques and procedures that
can be developed through the chosen content. The content is thus a powerful means to attain the
aims of teaching a particular content.
The process of selection of content can be viewed at three levels. The first level deals with
selection and clarification of the conceptual framework related to the content area. The so
called modern mathematics of the 1960s and the conventional mathematics provide a good
example of this.
The second level is concerned with selection of basic themes or key concepts which alongwith
other basic themes or concepts constitute the framework of knowledge in a given subject. Basic
operations, the number system, the set theory are some of its examples. These themesbey
concepts have a hierarchical relationship with each other. Some of these have broad
connotation (e.g. the number system) while others have limited connotation (e.g. prime
numbers). The third level is the most specific. At this level the content items are matched with
the basic themdconcept they belong to and also with the objectives of the curriculum.
1.5.4 Organisation and Integration of Learning Experiences and Content

I
The essential task at this stage is to develop sequences of educational activities based on
selected experiences and content. This fusion of selected experiences and content has a definite
purpose which is derived from educational obje,ctives.Hence it is called a sequence of learning
experiences. The organising principles for this integration and sequence should ideally be
derived from the learning situations available in schools and classrooms, inputs needed for
effective classroom interaction, the developmental levels of learners, and principles of learning
by children for whom the curriculum is meant.
Bruner talks of three modes of learning viz; enactive, iconic and symbolic.
Enactive mode of learning is activity based, the learner acts and learns as a result of
action process. 'Learning by doing' is a very familiar example of the enactive mode.
Iconic mode of learning is based on the use of images and diagrams. It is often said that
an image or a picture is more effective than a thousand words. Images help the teacher
illustrate and young learners find these graphic illustrations a powerful means of learning.
Symbolic mode of learning is based on the use of a symbol system. Language is a very
powerful set of symbols. One can express almost everything through language. Symbolic
mode of learning is largely verbal in nature. In addition to language, the mathematical
symbols also mark as language. All learning beyond a particular age, say 10 years, becomes more and more language-mediated and therefore symbolic. Each of these modes of
learning has certain distinguishing characteristics which are determined by developmental stages of children of a particular age-group.
Organisation & Integration of

Learning Experiences & Content
Interaction
Fig. 1.5 :Principles 05 Organising and Integration Content and Learning Experiences
It must be remembered that there are alternative ways of sequencing and integrating content
and learning experiences. You will learn about these in detail later on under Section 3.3 of
Unit 3. Besides, a particular approach to sequencing and integration of content shall have
DeBnhg Curriculum
certain implications for classroom methodology and administration of school. A change in

and integration of content and learning experiences is bound to affect classroom
logies or school administration or both. It must be understood that the most effective
and integration of learning experiences and content depends upon certain and
knowledge about how knowledge is acquired and how it accumulates over time and
knowledge can be best organised for easy recall and use later on.
Unfobunately, we do not have dependable answers to these questions. Yet the t a l c of
sequ ncing and integration of content and learning experiences must somehow be
acco plished as best as it can be.
and integration is determined by the size and scope of units

among units. If modular units are to be developed, the
wbuld be more specific and overlap with the preceding or the following unit would
if not absent. Sometimes the entire curriculum has a built-in overlap and
even though at surface level it may be divided in chunks of units, lessons,
1.5.5
Evaluation
This stage is the last one in the curriculum process. Evaluation is a process of judgement based
upon relevant evidence. This evidence may be quantitative (e-g. marks awarded in various
tests) andlor qualitative (e.g. observation-based information). Evaluation may be based on
aims, goals or objectives of the curriculum. Objectives-based evaluation is more specific and
usually more useful for teachers. Surely evaluation should be treated as a micrelevel concept
as well as macro-level concept. At micro-level, evaluation deals with intended objectives.
actually attained objectives and an analysis of the gap between these two and how it can be
reduced. Such analysis is usually based on measureable objectives. But there are, what Eisner
(1979) describes, expressive objectives which can not be measured but which are otherwise
quite as important.

Notes t a)
Write your answers in the space given below.

b)
i) List four important bases of an effective curriculum.
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ii) What are three levels of selection of content ?
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iii) Briefly recapitulate the stages of curriculum development.
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1.6
Defining Cuni;i!-zi
MAJOR APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM
When developing a curriculum, one has to be clear about the following six aspects. In fact,
these aspects determine one's emphasis as one approaches the task of developing a curriculum.
These aspects have been described in brief here.
Society
Learner
Subject
Matter
Learning
Theory
School
Organisation
Criteria
of
Construction
Flg. 1.6 : Aspects of Curriculum
The society: The social framework :its aims and purposes; social objectives of education; and
how these can be achieved.
The learner: The learner's characteristics; the cultural roles that await himher; aspects of
culture that are changeable in view of the individual learner's needs and aspirations; individual
objectives of education.
The subject matter: The role of various content areas in realizing the objectives of education;
structure of knowledge in various content areas and how it can be acquired; learning activities
suitable for acquiring structure of knowledge; providing for advancement in learning in various
content arcas.
The learning theory: The principles of teaching-learning supported by a learning theory,
factors affecting school-based learning; validating a curriculum and the accompanying
instructional materials, how to evaluate individual leaner's progress..
The school organisation: The type of school orgm-isation needled for achieving the objectives
of a caaniculum through its effective Lrmsztion; inputs necessary for effective curriculum
implementation; school climate, provisions for various learning experiences; teachers'
competencies.
The criteria of construction: Various approaches to curriculum construction : their relative
strengths and weaknesses; analysis of the structure of each subject and matching it with
developmental characteristics of learners : their experiences and levels of their linguistic
perfoimance.
While all these aspects are important in their own right, the sixth aspect viz; the criteria of
construction constitutes the heart of the curriculum. Historically there have been three
approaches to the structure of knowledge in a subject area and how it should be deployed in
developing the curriculum. These are discussed in the following sub-sections.
1.6.1 The Process Approach

The process approach focusses on the processes which are essential to help the learners
discover the structure of a subject for themselves. This approach assumes that knowledge in
any subject area cab be logically conceived and organised. The learner can therefore be
expected to discover this knowledge structure if she uses the discovery/iiquiry mode of
investigation. Each process has therefore an instrumental value. The processes are the means to
knowledge and also the end-objectivesof a cuniculum.
The process approach in science is an excellent example here. The underlying assumption in
this approach concerns the very concept of science. The process approach defines scienceas the
Curriculum Planning
set of activities that scientists do. It de-emphasizes the 'content' aspect of science and
highlights the processes in generating and validating scientific knowledge. These processes are
broadly concerned with the ways of collecting and using information.
The following processes admirably illustrate the process approach.
observing
classifying
using space-time relationships

predicting
using numbers
measuring
infemng
defining operationally
interpreting
experimenting
formulating hypotheses
controlling variables
One can easily notice that these processes are common to all branches of science and do not
change with time.
1.6.2 The Structure Approach

The structure approach assumes that every discipline has a basic structure, this structure is
reflected by the organisation of its content and the interrelationships among its various
components. If students master this structure, they can easily understand the contents and their
interrelationship. The curriculum should therefore reflect the structure of the discipline. This
will enable the students to develop new insights and express these in their own language.
The structure approach implies what are called the minimum essentials. These are derived
from the structure of the discipline itself and these include concepts, skills, rules as well as
principles. Secondly, the structure being all important, the curricula in a particular subject can
be formulated in advance for various grades. Mastery knowledge of subject is all important.
Knowledge about learners is of limited significance. Thirdly, changes occur in the
structure-based curriculum only when the subject matter changes and the content is
re-organised. Fourthly, in such curricula, the content and the learning outcomes determine the
methods of teaching; the psychological principles of learning do no1 matter much. Lastly, the
organisation of the content is determined by the logic of the structure of the discipline and not
by other considerations. The teacher's main function is to emphasize this structure and its logic.
Both teaching as well as learning tend to become fonnal and abstract in this approach.
The structure approach helps us answer the questions "What aspects of a subject matter are
more emphasised; in which sequence should these be taught, and how should the content be
presented." Since, language, mathematics, science and social studies are essential subjects in
general education at all grades and further specializations emerge from these, the structure
approach can be used to great advantage for teaching these subjects. Most school curricula
during the 1%0-80 were based on the structure approach. In India this approach continues to
be used even today. Whether the essential purpose of the structure approach is being realized
today is however a different question.
1.6.3 The Humanistic Approach

The humanistic approach is essentially geared to application of learnt structure, content,
concepts and principles in any sub~ectarea It assumes that the chief purpose of learning and
teaching is to enable students to apply their knowledge in new situations. Transfer from the
krrown context to an unknown one is, therefore, the prixd function of education. Since
transfer implies skills and processes, therefore the humanistic approach seeks to utilise learner
motivation as the chief prop for acquiring knowledge and applying it. Acquisition of
knowledge thus precedes its application.
16
Bruner in his famous treatise The Process of Education (1960) strongly recommends this
approach. Bruner believes that tapping the learner's interest is the key to greater and better
motivation for learning. Later on, learning becomes its own reward. This approach is called
'humanistic' because it emphasises the human aspects of learning (viz; the learner's interest,
needs. motivation. sustained effort, etc.) without belittling the importance of the structure of
the discipline, the principles and the interrelationship among various content areas. It enables
the learners to know their interest areas, to develop these and to make wise choices for electives
and higher studies. The structure of the discipline and the student's well-articulated interests
and needs determine the content he would pursue. It is not within the scope of this course to
discuss the humanistic approach in detail.
1.7
DeAnlng Currleulum
ROLE OF CURRICULUM IN EFFECTIVE TEACHING

AND LEARNING
The process of teaching and learning can be made more effective if the teacher is made a
partner in curriculum development. This involvement shall help the teacher understand the
essence of curriculum and the objectives whose attainment is all important. Surely a teacher
who knows a curriculum beyond its surface level, a teacher who knows the criteria according
to which the content was selected and sequenced would be able to transact it more effectively
than a teacher who is less informedabout these aspects of the curriculum. Since it is impossible
to involve all or even many teachers in the task of curriculum construction, it is essential that
they should be made familiar with lhese aspects of the curriculum.
Any curriculum, even when addressed directly to students, has to be mediated by the teachers.
The students' level of development and their interests are better known to the teachers than to
curriculum framers. The team that develops a curriculum for a particular subject and a
particular grade pitches it n the level of the average learner. But the student who faces the
teacher need not necessarily be an average learner. Besides, all learners differ from each other
and all good teaching has to be individualised. This individualisation of teaching and leaming
is the responsibility of the teacher because (s)he is the primary agent to ensure its proper
transaction.
It is common knowledge that every child has certain age-specific interests. But the interests of
a precotious child need not be the same as those of a dyslexic child. The teacher suppk that
such students need has to be different in both cases. Therefore, the teacher's competencies
have to be utilised in a manner that does justice to each individual learner.
Besides, a teacher's conception of schooling and teaching largely determines the form that his
teaching takes and his view of how learning should take place at the learners' end. The teacher's
involvement and familiarisation with curriculum construction can make the teaching-leaming
process more authentic as well as relevant. Once the basis, the instrumental role, of curriculum
is understood, the teacher can think in terms of alternatives. The evaluation mode and
techniques shall as a result be more in agreement with the aims and objectives of the
curriculum. A teacher of English or mathematics shall not limit his vision to mere teaching of
the subject. He shall try to give the subject its proper place in the broader framework of a
particular level of schooling. If the aim of teaching and learning is to construct meaningful
patterns out of experience, then the teacher who believes in it shall help his students evolve a
more dependable conception of reality. The teacher's is the central role in excellence in
education and his involvement in and clarity about curriculum construction shall stimulate his
ingenuity rather than further his indifference.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
i) List three approaches to the development of a curriculum.
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ii) What are the aspects of a curriculum ?
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17
iii) What is the main purpose of the humanistic approach to curriculum development ?
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iv) Why should a teacher study the issues related to curriculum planning and development ?
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1.8
LET US SUM UP
In this unit you have studied about the concept of curriculum. By examining various widely
accepted definitions, you have tried to understand that the scope of cuniculum is so pervasive
in the educational process that interpretationsof curriculum are bound to differ from each other.
Later on, you learnt about the four bases of curriculum viz; social forces, human development,
the nature of learning and the nature of knowledge and cognition.
In Section 1.4 you studied about the curriculum process and its five stages. These stages are
concerned with (a) selection of objectives, (b) selection of learning experiences, (c) selection of
content. (d) organisation and integration of learning experiences and content, and (e)
evaluation.
After this, you studied about three major approaches to curriculum viz; process approach,
structure approach and humanistic approach. In the end you studied about the role of
curriculum in effective teaching and learning. Thus through your study of this unit you have
learnt about the basic concepts, considerations in and approaches to curriculum. You can now
easily understand why curriculum is said to be the pivot of schooling.
1.9
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
18
UNIT-END EXERCISES
Describe 'curriculum' and its major characteristics. (in about 300 words).
Which values should school curricula promote according to the National Policy of
Education (1986)?
Why is it necessary to revise curricula because of changes in the socio-political context?
Describe the nature of the curriculum process in brief.
Establish the importance of objectives of curriculum.
Briefly describe the three levels of selection of content with the help of examples.
Write a note on 'process curriculum'.
What are the major features of humanistic curriculum?
How can knowledge about the process of curriculum construction enable the teacher to
improve the teaching-learning process?
1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.
2.
Your answer might have included the following points :

i)
Schools written courses
Formal educational intentiondproposal
Subject content taught
Totality of planned learning experience offered to the students, etc.
ii)
Discuss each definition carefully.
Give your views explaining and supporting each view.
Sum up.
i) Recall the aspects you have learnt and innumerate. You might have included the
following bases in your answer, social forces, human development, nature of
learning, knowledge and cognition.
ii)
3.
The levels are:

a) conceptual framework for content area
b) selection of basic themeslconcepts
c) selection of specific content items
Selection of aims, goals and objectives
iii)
Selection of learning experiences
Selection of content
Organisation and integration of learning experience and content
Evaluation
i) The approaches to the development of a curriculum are :
Process approach
Structure approach
Humanistic approach
ii) The aspects of a curriculum are: society, learner, subject mauer, learning theory,
subject content organisation and criteria of curriculum construction.
iii) The main purpose of the humanistic approach to curriculum development is to
enable the student to apply his knowledge in real life situations. Thus educational
experiences gained in the school environment make him an effective human-being.
iv) The study of the curriculum process helps the teacher
have an understanding of the underlying concept of the curriculum
achieve the intended objectives of the curriculum
plan teaching-learning activities in more+effectiveways
make his teaching more authentic and relevent
1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bruner, J.S. (196011977) : The Process ofEducarion. Harvard University Press.
Eisner, E.W. (1979) : The Educarional Imagination. New York :Macmillan.
Sharpes, D.K..(1988) : Curriculum Traditions and Practices. London :Routeledge.
Stenhouse, L. (1975) :An Introduction ro Curriculum Research and Development. London :
Heinemann.
Wheeler, D. K. (1967) : Curriculum Process. University of London Press.
UNIT 3 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Structure
3.1
3.2
Introduction
Objectives
3.3
Apptoaches to Curriculum Development

3.3.1 Major Categories of Curriculum Approach
3.3.2 Issues Related to Curriculum Approaches
3.3.3 Models of Curriculum Development
3.4
Process of Curriculum Development

3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.4.4
3.4.5
3.4.6
3.4.7
3.5
3.6
Role of Teachers in Curriculum Development

Some Issues in Curriculum Development
3.6.1
3.6.2
3.7
3.8
3.9
Assessment oE Educational Needs

Formulating Educational Objectives
Criteria for Content Selection
Organising the Content
Selecting Learning Experiences
Evaluating the Curriculum
Development Try-out
Irrelevant Curriculum
Emerging Curriculum
Let Us Sum Up
Unit-end Exercises
3.10 Suggested Readings
INTRODUCTION
In Unit 1 of this Block, you have studied the meaning, bases of and major approaches to curriculum.
You have also studied the role of curriculum in effective teaching and learning. In Unit 2 you have
studied various factors that need to be considered while planning a curriculum for a particular target
group. You (now) have a fair idea of the recent trends in cuniculum planning.
In this unit we shall discuss the process of curriculum development in detail. However, you
have already studied the stages involved in the process of c ~ c u l u mplanning and
development. You will recall that we presented a brief o v e ~ i e wof curriculum process and its
stages in Unit 1. The purpose of the discussion in Unit 1 was to clarify the concept of
curriculum. In this Unit we shall discuss the entire process of curriculum development in detail.
Prior to the process of curriculum development, we present a discussion on the approaches to
curriculum planning and development.
Curriculum development is a specialised area of work which expects a teacher to have a deep
understanding of the underlying concept of curriculum and also the skill to systematically
design learning experiences to achieve the socially desired goals set by the society we live in.
Curriculum development involves various stages/steps to be followed by those engaged in
designing and developing curriculum. As a teacher you are an important agent involved in the
transaction of learning experiences to students. You should have a thorough knowledge of the
process of curriculum development. With this understanding you will be able to transact the
curriculum more intelligently, with full knowledge of its theoretical background. Moreover,
who knows one day you may be one of the team members involved in reviewing, updating and
redesighing the curriculum of your school or the State. We hope that because of these reasons
you will find the discussion in this unit interesting and useful.
3.2
OBJECTIVES
The discussion in this unit in particular and in this Block in general is aimed at developing
34
necessary competence and skills in you, as a teacher, so that you can take well thoughtout
decisions and make suitable suggestions regarding curriculum development. After going
through the unit. you should be able to :
r
r
explain various approaches to curriculum development;

discuss the models of curriculum planning and categorise them into technical and nontechnical models;
identify the constraints related to curriculum development;
elucidate the criteria for selection of aims, objectives and learning experiences;
state the criteria for selection, organisation and integration of content;
discuss the importance of evaluation in the process of curriculum development; and
identify major issues and trends in curriculum.

-
3.3
>
..
APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
In the preceding units, you have studied the factors and form that should be considered in
curriculum planning. You should now be ready to utilise these factors and forces in actually
planning and developing the curriculum.
You will agree that the school activities should be planned and organised on the basis of some
principles and norms set by society. There are some planned procedures for meeting the
educational goals through teaching and learning activities. It is essential that these activities
(i.e. learning experiences) be selected, planned and executed carefully so that these learning
experiences contribute to the welfare of the people. Similarly we follow a systematic approach
in curriculum development. The approach is known as the cumculum approach.
We can define the curriculum approach as a design or pattern of organisation used in making
decisions about the various aspects of curriculum development and transaction. The curriculum
approach is thus a plan that the teachers follow in providing learning activities (or experiences)
to the students in school. The pattern or design of the curriculum. to a large extent. determines
the nature of the outcomes that will be achieved after transacting the curriculum.
3.3.1 Major Categories of Curriculum Approach

There are several approaches through which curriculum can be designed and organised. 'These
approaches are generally grouped into the following four categories:
Subject-centredapproach
r
Broadfields approach
Social problems approach
Learner-centred approach
The choice of a particular approach to the curriculum design indicates

r
A
r
r
the bases of decisions about the types of experiences to be included in the educational
programme.
the role of teachers. students and other agencies in the process of curriculum planning.
the choice of method for determining the selection and organisation of learning experiences provided by the school.
the factors influencing the selection of objectives.
the use of subject matter or content.
Let us now discuss each of the approaches to cumculum development in the order given above.
i) Subject-centred approach: The subjectcentredapproach is one of the most widely used
methods for organising educational experiences. In this approach the subject matter
becomes the basis around which learning experiences are organised and the mastery of
subject matter becomes the basis for attainment of educational objectives.
In subject-centred curriculum, the chief responsibility of the curriculum planners is to
determine the subjects to be offered by the school and the body of knowledge to be
covered within each subject. For example, the subjects or the programme of studies may
be divided into areas like English, Hindi, Science, Social Studies, Mathematics and so on.
Curriculum Development
Curriculum Planning
Another concern of curriculum planners engaged in this activity is to devise ways of

evaluating a student's mastery over the subject matter through formal tests,
problem-solving situations, etc.
ii)
Broadfields approach: A modification of the traditional subject-design, the broadfield

approach seeks to bring together into a broad organisation of the subject matter, the
knowledge and understandings pertinent to a whole area of study. Under broadfields
approach efforts are made to integrate the subject matter of closely related disciplines.For
example, a course developed in Biology represents an effort to bring together into one
instructional unit, the knowledge, concepts and principles from the disciplines of
Zoology, Botany, Physiology, Anatomy, Bacteriology and similar closely related fields of
study.
The broadfields approach, in the strict sense of the term, is a subject approach, but one in
which the basis of selecting and organising subject matter is different from that in the
traditional subjects. Attempts are made here to correlate and integrate various areas of
knowledge.
iii) Social problems approach: The advocates of this approach believe that the learning
experiences should be organised in terms of the major activities of the human being as
hdshe lives in his/her culture. This inculcates in the pupil, an awareness of the current
social issues and problems and enables himher to effectively resolve social problems.
Through social-problems approach, courses may be developed in areas such as
environmental problems, racism, population, communications, technology and so on.
In this approach to curriculum planning/development, leaning objectives are framed after
the social problem or issue has been analysed; the subject matter is drawn from any source
pertinent to the problem.
iv) Learner-centred approach: Learning is what we build into behaviour from experience.
We learn best from those situations that help us solve our problem, satisfy our desire,
fulfil our interest or meet our needs. This approach to curriculum development seeks to
present through school experiences the methods which an effective citizen uses in solving
problems, pursuing his interest or meeting his needs. The curriculum plan will thus focus
on the emerging needs of the students in their present lives.
This approach prepares the student to face the present rather Lhan the future. A student
confronted with a problem utilises his intelligence and experiences based on hisher past
knowledge to reach an intelligent decision. For this, the appropriate learning experiences
need to be planned, which are psychologically most sound and purposeful to the student.
The curriculum would consist of topics such as, an understanding of changes during
puberty, peer-group interaction, developing personal values, etc. In other words, the
issues should relate to the developmental stages of the student.
3.3.2 Issues Related to Curriculum Approaches

We have looked into the four major approaches to curriculum with examples. Now we shall
look into some of the issues related to these approaches. We shall categorise the issues into the
following groups :
i)
Curriculum approach and instructional methods: Curriculum planners deal with

knowledge and content first and then with the teaching and learning experiences.
Irrespective of their philosophical postures, they should not ignore these two elements of
the cumculum. Many educators tend to strongly demarcate the traditional and progressive
approaches. The traditionalists are in favour of the lecture method and advocate the
subject approach. The progressives, who are the advocates of social problems or
emerging-needs approach are proponents of methods like group discussions, etc.
However, instead of adopting one stand rigidly, educators could choose an eclectic
approach. For example, while lecturing on a short story, the teacher could at some stage
initiate a group discussion on the characters of the story.
ii)
Curriculum approach and various instructional organisations: General education and

the ioterdisciplinary approach are the two concepts gaining currency in the field of
curriculum. The former is considered central to an educational programme and, therefore,
is required to be opted by the students. The latter is formed by an inteption of various
subject areas like Maths, Science, Social Studies and so on. Unfortunately both groups
have adhered strictly to their narrow definitions. The term general education should not
prevent the teacher from developing skills related to social problems and needs. The
interdisciplinary approach need not always fuse various subject-areas into a social
problems approach.
iii) Choice of curricular approach: Each of the four curricular approaches (refer to
Sub-section 3.2.1) serves a different and important purpose in any educational
programme. Educators will rate one curricular approach better than the other. The real
issue in considering curricular approaches is not which one is better but how it can be
optimally used for designing a balanced curriculum.
Before we study some models of curriculum development, you should check your progress so
far.
i) What do you mean by the learnercentred approach to curriculum development?
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ii) Briefly describe the basic principle of subject-centred approach in curriculum development.
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3.3.3 Models of Curriculum Development
Throughout our discussion so far, we have highlighted that a sound curriculum plan is crucial
for the attainment of educational gciais. The need to pian eifective curricula is obvious; the
difficulty, however, is that there are various ways of defining curriculum. However, we cannot
construct a curriculum without deciding its goals, content, learning experiencesand evaluation.
The point of emphasis here is that there is more than one model to be followed in curriculum
development.
Most models can be classified as either technicavscientificor non-technicavnon-scientific,
We should clarify at this juncture that classifying an approach as non-technical or non-scientific
does not mean that it is in any way inferior or sub-standard. Rather it is a way of constrasting
the two concepts. The educators who believe in subject mattcr design usually advocate for the
technicaVscientific approach to curriculum development. Those who favour a learner-centred
design frequently advocate for the non-technicavnon-scientificapproach. Let us elaborate each
type of these models in detail.
i)
Technical/scientific models: The technicallscientific model enables us to understand

curriculum from a macro or broad view and to see it as a complex unity of parts organised
to serve a common function viz; the education of individuals. Technicallscientific models
require he educators to use an intellectual and rational approach to accomplish their
tasks. Advocates of technicallscientificmodels believe that it is possible to systematically
outline the procedures that will facilitate the creation of curricula.
We have listcd below a few models that follow the technicallscientificapproach.

The Tyler Model
The Taba Model
Curriculum Planning
The Saylor and Alexander Model

a
The Goodlad Model

The Hunkins Model
The Miller and Seller Model
Let us discuss each one of them briefly in the given order.

a)
Tyler's Model :You might be familiar with Tyler's four basic components of cturiculum.
A refercncc to these principles is made here. Tyler mentioned that those involved in
curricul~~m
inquiry mu.;t try to define the :
a
a
puq~ose(s)of the school
organisation of lhest. cxperienccs
cval d o n in lcrms of attainment of these purposes
educltional experiences relatcd to these purposes
A look at Figure 3.1 will give you an idea of the Tyler's curriculum development model.
!
Subject
Matter
ces
Objectives
r-
[Evaluation
I-
Selecting
L
Experiences
Fg.3.1 :Qler's Curriculum Development Mcdel
The components of the Tyler's model shown in Figure 3.1 ind cate that in order LO identify the
~~urposcs
we need to gather information from three sources, namely, society. students and
subject matter. As the purposes derived fmrn these. sources will be general in nature, we need to
ans slate them into precise instructional objectives. Once the objectives are identifiedand statcd
ir I precise terms, we takc up the bask of selecting appropriate learning expericnces which suit
the objectives. Tyler's last principle of eval~~ation
gives us feedback about whcthcr or not the
intended goals have been achieved.
b)
Taba's Model : Hilda Taba maintains hat curriculum users should design the curriculum.
According to her, the teachcrs should create teaching learning materials for their studcnts,
by adopting an inductive approach starting with specifics and building up general design,
as opposed to the traditional deductive approach.
Taba listed seven steps in her grassroots model ol' curriculum development in which
tcachcrs have to pymielc major inputs. The steps are:
Diagnogs of needs
a
Formulation of ob.jcctivcs
Organisation of contcnt
Selection of learning experiences

Organisation of learning experiences
Evaluation
Though Taba's model has many merits, some critics maintain that its primary weaknesses are
as follows:
it applies the concept of participatory democracy as a highly technical and specialised
process, and
it assumes that teachers have the expertise and time to engage in such curricular activities.
This model has made it clear that a broad-based involvement of the users of the curriculum is
essential for effective decision making related to cumculum.
Saylor and Alexander's Model : Saylor and Alexander have presented a systematic
approach to curriculum development. The model is illustrated in Figure 3.2.
c)
The components of the model are suggestive of the stages involved in curriculum
planning. The figure is self-explanatory.
P
Goals, Objectives
and Domains
Each major goal
depicts a
curriculum
domain
--
Curriculum
Implementation
Curriculum Design
Decisions made
by curriculum
, planners about
a good
curriculum, its
content organisation
and appropriate
learning experiences
Decisions regarding instruction

by teachers.
Various experiences are included
in the curriculum
plan so that
teachers have
options
Curriculum
Evaluation
Decisions
assessing the
effectivenessof
the curriculum
and the teachers
Feedback and adjustment
Fig. 3.2 : Saylor and Alexander Model
d)
Goodlad's Model :In this model the educational aims are drawn fkom the analysis of the
values of the existing culture. The educational aims are then translated into educational
objectives stated in behavioural terms. These objectives suggest the learning
opportunities, which could involve study of particular courses or readings. From these
general objectives and learning opportunities, educational planners deduce specific
educational objectives, which in turn help in organising specific learning opportunities for
identifiable students or for a student.
e)
Hunkins' Model : The Hunkins' model allows those working with the modei to
continually adjust their decision-making about curricular actions. depending on the
:urricuIu m Planning
curriculum planning activities. The curriculum maintenance stage includes various means
of managing curriculum systems that are necessary for the continuation of the
programme.
f)
Millel' and Seller's Model :This model is a generalised one. It emphasizes that all the
models of curriculum development exhibit atleast the following three orientations
towards the purpose of curriculum:
Ranmission position :Curriculum should transmit skills, facts and values to the students.
Ransaction position :Transaction of curriculum can be viewed as a dialogic process
(pedagogic interaction) between the students and the teacher.
Ransformation position : Personal changes and social attitudes can be influenced
through curriculum.
Diagrammatically the model can be represented as shown in Figure 3.3.
1
I
Plan
F
i
g
.3 3 :Miller and
Teaching
Models
Seller's Model
Having discussed the technical models in brief we now move to the non-technical/
non-scientific models of curriculum development.
ii)
Non-technicavnon-scientificmodel : The proponents of this model of curriculum

development stress on the students' perceptions of their needs and preferences. This is in
contrbt to the technical approach which relies more heavily on the view of experts and
demands of subject matter for determining student's needs.
Let us discuss briefly the three important models under this category.
a) The Open classroom model : The open classroom model is based on the activity
curriculum in which the activities are often treated as ends in themselves. This model
suggests that the students learn by doing and by actively participating in learning
activities and not by passively listening to the teachers. This model places great faith in
students and encourages student autonomy. In this model, as you have seen, the students
take up the major responsibility for their learning. The curriculum according to this model
should be based on the students' interests, needs and aptitudes. The learning experiences
should facilitate student autonomy and freedom.
b)
Wiemstien and Fantini's model :According to this model. the teachers can generate new
content and techniques to assess the relevance of the existing curriculum, content and
techniques. Thus the teachers can give new shape to the curriculum. The existing
curriculum is reviewed to suit the requirements of the students. Thus the student is at the
centre of the process of curriculum development.
The first step in the curriculum development activity is to identify the target group. The
student concerns determine the contents, its organisation and teaching procedures to be
employed.
Content could be gathered from various sources, such as
40
Experiences of a growing person.
Student's feelings about his or her own experiences - one's feelings about one's
friends, sports, etc.
Student's knowledge of hisher own social environment.
I
I
c)
,
The content determines the skills to be instilled in the students. After the content has been
selected, the teaching procedures are identified. The teaching procedures should
essentially be related to the learning styles of the students.
Rogers' Model of interpersonal relations : Though not a curriculum specialist, Carl
Rogers has developed a model for changing human behaviow which can be used for
curriculum development. Rogers emphasizes human experiences rather than content or
learning activities.
Rogers' model is used for exploring group experiences, whereby people examine
themselves and others in a group. The participants of the group communicate honestly
with each other and explore each other's feelings. Hence this model is called the
interpersonal relations model.

Notes : a)
Write your answer in the space provided below.

b) Check your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
What do the &rms technical and non-technical mean in the context of curriculum
development?
Having discussed the approaches to and models of curriculum development. We shall now take
up the major dimensions of cumculum and their corresponding components in order to identify
some criteria that should guide any exercise in curriculum planning.
3.4
i;
1%
I
I
I1
PROCESS OF CURRICUL,UMDEVELOPMENT
In Unit 1 of this Block you have been introduced to the process and stages of curriculum
planning and development. Those aspects shall be extended in this section to enable you to
understand the procedural steps involved in curriculum development. This discussion will help
you develop the necessary skills to actually review, assess, update andfor develop a curriculum
for your school.
Cumculum development is a specialised task which requires systematic thinking about the
objectives to be achieved, learning experiences to be provided, evaluation of changes brought
out by the curricular activities and so on. We need to follow the order in which decisions related
to curriculum development are made and we have to make sure that all the relevant
considerations are taken into account before taking any decision. To arrive at a thoughtfully
planned and dynamically concieved cumculum we should follow the steps as follows:
Assessment of educational needs
Formulation of objectives
Selection and organisation of content
Selection and organisation of learning experiencw
Evaluation
I
I
Now we discuss each step in the following sub-sections.
Currlculum Development
Curriculum Planning
3.4.1 Assessment of Educational Needs

Curricula are framed to enable students to learn socially desired behaviours. Because the
background of students differ, it is essential to diagnose the gaps, deficiencies and variations in
these backgrounds. Need assessment is an important fist step in determining what the
curriculum should be for a given population during a particular period of time. We should,
therefore, identify the target students and prepare their profile.
There are two means of needs assessment.First, we assess educational n& through specially
mounted surveys. We go to the field (the target group) and study the areas where educational
inputs are required. Besides educational needs. we also collect background information about
the target group. The needs assessed through field studies are known as felt needs. The second
means of needs assessment is the analysis of existing data, such as education commissions'
reports, government policies (e.g. National Policy on Education, 1986), etc. The policy documents
can provide useful guidelines for framing cuniculum. Similarly,every institution has its objectives
to be achieved. The priority areas can be identified from the secondary sources. The needs assessed
through the secondary sources are known as observed needs. Considering the potential and
limitationsof the education system (i.e. what the education system can do to achievdmeet the needs
of the target group), you can prepare a list of priority areas, known as real needs, after thorough
analysis of the felt and observed needs. (See Figure 3.4.)
Felt Needs
I
1
Observed Needs
Real Needs
1
Fig. 3.4 :Needs Assessment
3.4.2 Formulating Educational Objectives

By now you have a comprehensive list of objectives, in the form of real educational needs, for
developiw the curriculum. You also have the background information on your target group.
Now you have to transform the needs into aims and objectives. You are familiar with the terms
'goal', 'aim' and 'objective' (refer to Sub-sec. 1.4.1 of Unit 1 of Block 1). Instructional
objectives will also be discussed in Unit 6, Block 2 of this course. The purpose of discussing
objectives here is to highlight their role in curriculum development.
Since objectives specify expected outcomes, we need to give serious thought to the following
points while formulating them:
a)
Matching: The objectives should be related to the broad goals of education from which
they are derived. For example, the objective of understanding of certain scientific facts,
should enable the student to apply the knowledge gained in practical problems. The point
of emphasis here is that the attainment of the objectives should lead the students to attain
the overall goal of education.
b)
Worth: Worth relates to whether attaining an objecrive has value in the life of the student
in the present or future. Since our knowledge base is continually changing, the objective
needs to be updated, modified or eliminated to improve the quality of education and of
human life. The objectives should be useful, meaningful and relevant to the need of the
students.
c)
Wording: The statements of the objectives should be worded properly, so that students
can easily understand the intended outcomes.
d)
Appropriateness: All objectives should be derived from and cater to the needs and
interests of the students. Any ambiguity in the statement of an objective may create
confusion in the mind of both the teacher and the students. In such a case the process of
education will lose direction.
e)
Logical grouping: Some times the objectives lack proper organisational coherence,
especially when the learning experiencesand their evaluation procedures are decided. The
objectives should be grouped according to some common idea or in terms of domains cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Proper grouping of the objectives will help plan
and develop a more meaningful curriculum in terms of its content and evaluation.
f)
Revision: The objectives require periodic revision because students' needs, realm of
knowledge, instructional strategies, etc.. change at a very fast pace these days. Revision
of objectives will have a recurring impact on the curriculum and make it an on-going
process. The cwriculum should have the flexibility to accommodate changes in the
society.

Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Check your answers with the one given at the end of the unit.
Suppose you are assigned the task of formulating objectives in your subject for the students
of tenth grade. State the criteria you would follow.
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3.4.3
Criteria for Content Selection
In the previous sub-section we discussed that content and objectives are interdependent and
constitute a major dimension of curriculum development. Generally content refers to subject
matter or the compendium of facts, concepts, generalisations, principles and theories. By
content we imply learning experiences, besides subject matter. The curriculwn content should
enable students to gain and apply knowledge in day-to-clay life. The content selected should
contribute to the students' knowledge or understanding of the reality of human life. The
following diagram make this discussion clear.
I
I
I
CONTENT
(Selection from
knowledge for
educational
purposes)
of information)
I
I
KNOWLEDGE
(Understanding
the content
and putting it
to various
uses)
r.
Fig. 3.5 :Content Selection
I
I
Let us talk about the criteria of content selection in detail. At the macro level the criteria for the
selection of content should be based on the socio-political and educational philosophy of the
society or the nation. At the micro level the criteria should suit the specific objectives set for
meeting the student's needs. Some of the criteria for content selection are discussed as follows:
i)
Self-sufficiency: This criteria helps the students to attain maximum self-sufficiency and
that too in the most economical manner i.e., economy of teaching efforts, students' efforts
43
Curriculum Plannhrg
and extent of generaliability of subject matter. In other words, we can say that the content
should help the student become self-reliant and self-sufficient.
ii)
Significance: The content to be learned should be significant in terms of its contributions

to the basic ideas, concepts, etc., in particular learning abilities.
iii) Validity: Validity relates to the authenticity of the content selected. The content selected
should be valid to the extent that it flows from and supports the goals and objectives of the
curriculum. The content should be usable in day-to-day life.
iv) Interest: Another deciding factor for content selection is that the content should suit the
personality (e.g. attitude, interest, etc.) and intellectual capabilities (e.g. mental level,
aptitude, etc.) of the students. It is likely that the students, interest are transitory. The
criterion should be weighed and adjusted to provide for student's maturity, prior
knowledge, experience, etc.
v)
Utility: The utility criterion is concemed with the usefulness of the content. The
usefulness can be interpreted in different ways. For example, the content learned by the
student should be useful in hisher job situations.
vi) Learnability: This criterion relates the optimal placement and appropriate organisation
and sequencing of content. The selected content should not be out of the range of student's
experiences, intellectual abilities, etc. In other words, the content should be such that it
can be percieved, understood and assimilated by the learners for whom it is intended.
vii) Feasibility: Feasibility as a criterion of content selection compels cuniculum planners to
analyse and examine the content in the light of the time and resources available to the
student, costs involved, contemporary socio-political climate, etc. Despite the fact that
there are several options available, the students do have limitations as far as the pace of
their learning is concerned.
3.4.4 Organising the Content

Once the content is identified it needs to be appropriately organised. If the curriculum is a plan
for learning as indeed it is, its content should be logically organised so that it facilitates the
attainment of educational objectives. One of the most potent factors that determines the way
learning takes place is the organisation of the curriculum. If a curriculum has not been
systematically organised, it shall lack direction and it shall not help attain the objectives on
which it was supposeily based.
Curriculum organisation is both a difficult and a complex task. It demands a thorough
understanding of the teaching-learning process. The main problems of curriculum are lack of
sequence, continuity and integration of the content included in curriculum.
Let us examine each of these above mentioned aspects briefly.
i)
Sequencing : Establishing a sequence in curriculum means putting the content and

materials into some sort of order of succession. There are some general principles used in
arranging the content in the most appropriate sequence. For this you have to follow
certain teaching norms, such as moving from known to unknown, from simple to
complex, from concrete to abstract, etc. The content can be arranged according to the
period or historical development, such as the ancient period, the mediavel period, the
modem period (that too pre-independence and post-independence), etc. Besides these
norms or principles, it is the resource fulness of the curriculum planners to arrange the
content in such a way that it facilitates students' learning.
ii)
Continuity : The curriculum should provide for a progressively more demanding

performance. more complex materials to deal with, a greater depth and breadth of ideas to
understand, to relate, to apply and so on. Such cumulative learning can apply to thinking,
attitudes and skills.
The students should be provided with experiences step by step, leading to the examination
of more complex forms of criticism and analysis of ideas. For example, a student of grade
I1 may learn the concept of interdependence among family members. He may encounter
the same concept in a higher grade but with reference to interdependence of nations,
political decisions, etc.
44
The content of curriculum should provide for continuity in learning and prevent loss
through forgetting. You know that disjointed content does not lead the student to the
destination i.e. the attainment of the objectives.
iii) Integration : It is recognised that learning is more effective when facts and principles
from one field can be related to another, especially when applying knowledge.
Curriculum planners should attempt to integrate the curriculum by simultaneously
establishing relationships between various subjects taught to the target learners. One
method can combine related areas into one broad field; for example, combining
geography and history into social studies. Correlating two subjects such as Maths and
Science is another attempt to integrate content.
It should be clear from the preceding discussion that curriculum organisation should
protect and preserve both the logic of the subject matter and the psychological sequence
of the learning experiences. In the logical organisation, the planners organise content
according to certain rules, to make it more manageable.
In Economics, for example, the concepts of supply and demand are central to the content.
Without these, the concepts of capital, labour and market cannot be grouped.
The psychological organisation of the content helps one understand how an individual
might actually learn it (i.e. content). Content should be organised in such a way so that the
concrete content is experienced before the abstract content.
3.4.5
Selecting Learning Experiences
We shall begin this sub-section by clarifying the tern learning experiences. However, this
term has been used quite frequently in this and other units of this course. The term connotes
learning activities which shape the learner's orientation to the content and ultimately their
understanding of it. In essence, it refers to the teaching-learning process, the methods followed
and the activities planned to facilitate the teaching-learning process. Various teaching methods
are used by teachers such as, lecture, discussion. project, demonstration, etc. Similarly there are
various learning activities, such as viewing films, conducting experiments, undertaking
fieldtrips, taking notes, working on assignments,participating in discussions, etc. The teaching
methods generate learning activities. Teaching methods and learning activities are two sides of
the same coin. Some curriculum planners differentiate content from experience. They should
remember that content and experiences do not exist independent of one another. On the
contrary, both the content and learning experiences comprise the overall curriculum.
There are a few questions which should be addressed before we select learning experiences.
They are listed below:
Do the learning experiences function the way we wish them to in the light of the overall
aims and the specific objectives of the curriculum?
6
Will the student be able to apply the knowledge gained to practical situations?
1%it feasible in terms of time, staff expertise, resources, etc., to learn the content of the
cuniculum in the specified time.
Do the learning experiences enable students to develop thinking skills and rational powers?
Do the learning experiences stimulate in students a greater understanding of their own
existence as individuals and as members of a group/society?
Do the learning experiences foster in students an openness to new experiences and a tolerance for diversity?
Do the learning experiences allow students to address their needs and interests?
Do the learning experiences cater to total development of students in cognitive, affective
and psychomotor domains?
Tkye questions will help you select appropriate learning experiences for a given set of
objectives. Besides, we should be able to create proper environment: physical and
psychological, for optimal learning. The experiencing of content cannot be divorced from the
envkonment in which the experiences occur. Students who work in a creative environment are
more likely to be stimulated and excited about their learning.
The educational environment should address social needs as well as development of
awareness, appreciation'and empathy for others. It should stimulate purposeful student activity
and allow for a range of activities that facilitate learning.
Let us now move on to another stage of curriculum development, i.e. evaluation
Cu rricuiu m Planning
3.4.6 Evaluating the Curriculum

Evaluation is meant to gauge the extent to which the objectives of the curriculum are achieved
through implementation of curriculum. We can see the relationship between evaluation and
objectives in Figure 3.6.
Objectives
+
Activities
+
Evaluation
Flg. 3.6 : Relationship of Objectives with Evaluation
Fig. 3.6 suggests that as soon as the objectives of a curriculum are stated, the ways of evaluating
the attainment of h e objectives should be decided. The content and learning experiences are
there in order to achieve the objectives and also with reference to the possible means of
evaluation.
The effectiveness of any educational programme is judged by its potential to realise its goals
and objectives. The extent to which the objectives are achieved can be assessed through
appropriate evaluation procedures. The evaluation of any purposeful activity should have
certain characteristics. The important characteristics are as follows:
Consistency with the objectives of the curriculum
Sufficient diagnostic value
Comprehensiveness
Validity
Continuity
The aim of evaluation is to produce empirical evidence about the nature, direction and extent of
behavioural changes which arise from educational endeavours. This evidence can then be used
as a guide to modify any phase of the curriculum process. Evaluation is both qualitative and
quantitative, i.e. it may be 'formative' (with the objective improving the process of
development) and 'surnmative' (at the end of the total programme or each phase thereof to
judge the effectiveness of the instructional design). Educational evaluation serves the dual
function of guidance and assessment.
We need to employ a variety of appropriate techniques and tools to collect all kinds of evidence
required at different stages of curriculum development and implementation. The techniques
and tools to be used should be selected in relation to the nature of the objectives or the learning
outcomes and the kinds of performance to be assessed or evidence to be collected. The evidence
to ascertain the success or the failure of an educational programme can be collected through
systematic feedback from the makers and users of cuniculum.
From the discussion presented in this sub-section, you can infer that there are two types of
evaluation; viz;
Cupiculum evaluation
i)
Student evaluation : Student evaluation aims at assessing the changes in the student's
behaviour. These changes in behaviour can be assessed through:
oral, written or practical tests.
responses during interactive teaching-learning sessions, discussions in different
kinds of situations, etc.
written.products of different kinds,e.g. assignment ~esponses,term papers, project
report, etc.
Evaluation of the students requires sufficient experience and expertise to frame good
questions for higher level objectives.
We can prepare observation schedules to validate student performance. These can be
applicable to many tasks of the same kind or in the same area. Qualitative criteria can be
assigned, so that judgements in 'the form of rating points (5,4,3,2,1 or corresponding
A,B.C,D,E) can be made. The marks or grades awarded for total performance can be
explained with a brief descriptive statement.
ii)
Curriculum evaluation: Student performance is a part of curriculum evaluation. This,

however, does not imply that evaluation in education should cover only evaluation of
learning, development or achievement of students. In fact evaluation comprises
assessment of different aspects of the curriculum as planned, developed and implemented.
We shall touch upon curriculum evaluation briefly here as it has been discussed at length
in Unit 4.
Curriculum evaluation refers to the evaluation of different components of curriculum:
objectives, content, methods and evaluation procedures for student assessment to
determine whether the curriculum caters to the needs and the educational purposes of the
target group.
Cumculum components can not be scmtinised in isolation, since each component affects
and influences the rest. Since these components are interdependent, each has to be
evaluated in conjunction with the others. The overall cuniculum evaluation is shown in
Figure 3.7.
Content
A
Methods
Fig. 3.7 :Interdependence of Curriculum Components
The purpose of curriculum evaluation is to collect and use feedback for improving the
curriculum. None of us would dispute the importance of curriculum evaluation, yet we
carry it out very rarely. There are two major reasons for this indifference:
Evaluation results are frequently ignored, and
Resistance to accept a new pattern despite its potential continues to exist.
Since evaluation data are crucial for the improvement of curriculum, it is essential that we
should come to grips with the issues underlying it. These issues have been described in
detail in Unit 4 of this Block.
3.4.7 Development Try-out

We have mentioned in the preceding subsection that evaluation can be camed out during the
process of curriculum development. This kind of evaluation is called 'formative' evaluation.
Curriculum evaluation can be done at the end of development and implementation; this is
called 'summative' evaluation.
Development try-out is a formative evaluation which is carried out at every stage of curriculum
development. It aims at improving every component of the curriculum during its planning and
development. Emperical data are collected so that decisions can be made to revise the
cumculum while it is being developed. During the developmental stages of the curriculum,
evaluation effort provides frequent, specific and detailed information to guide the persons who
are working at the cumculum to take decisions at every stage. It can take place at a number of
specified points during the curriculum development process. For example, during a
curriculum's creation, the curriculum planners can check whether a particular content is
CurrMum ~lpanlng
appropriate for the students to learn. Depending on the results, the content can either be
modified, replaced or even dropped.
Formative evaluation uses the process of feedback and adjustments and thus keeps the
curriculum development process on-going.
Notes : a)
i) What is the purpose of curriculum evaluation? Write in brief.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
ii) List two major reasons for the indiffetence of educators towards curriculum evaluation.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
3.5
ROLE OF TEACHERS IN CURRICULUM

DEVELOPMENT
The teacher is such a part of the curriculum that s h e cannot be denied participation in the
process of changing or diveloping curriculum. A teacher should be directly involved with
the curriculum planning and dcvclopment because it is the teacher who iqplements it and
translates instructional plans into action. Teaching is an act of implementing or transacting
the curriculum. Teachers should be part of the overall development activity. This implies
that
teachers should ideally be involved at every stage of curriculum planning and develop
ment i.e. from the formation of aims to the evaluation and maintenance of the curriculum.
their help should be sought for developing curriculum packages and conceptualizing resource designs.
)
they can assist in designing supportive educational environment.

they can communicate with the general public on new curricular projects and thereby
make them more receptive to curriculum change.
3.6
SOME ISSUES IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Various trends and events have influenced the task of curriculum planning in recent years and
these are likely to continue their influence in the near future. There are some issues that often
engage the attention of curriculum planners and teachers. In this section we shall briefly discuss
two such issues. They are:
Irrelevant cumculum
Emerging curriculum
3.6.1 Itrelevant Curriculum

48
Very often we hear people criticising the school and its curriculum. When people say that the
curriculum is irrelevant, they generally mean that it does not meet the needs of the society and
the student. As you have studied. curriculum planners should take the social and student-related
factors into consideration while designing curriculum for a specific target group.
The educators consider the cuniculum irrelevant if it is fued or trivial. Let us examine what a
fixed or trivial curriculum is.
Fixed curriculum: A relationship exists between changes in society and changes in
curriculum. The scheme of a curriculum must take into account the intention of improving the
life of the people so that the future could be better than the present and the past.
This idea suggests that cumulative knowledge and the total culture of society must be reflected
in the cumculum. If schools are to maintain their health and vitality. the curriculum cannot
remain fixed in a world full of change. The curriculum should have adequate flexibility to
reflect and respond to social changes and developments.
lkivial curriculum: This implies that facts and figures in a curriculum are out-dated,
meaningless and non-essential to students. Such a curriculum takes students no where as far as
their growth and development is concerned. Implementation of a trivial curriculum will waste
the academic time and energy of the students. For desired fruits the curriculum should include
updated, relevant and meaningful facts and figures.
>
3.6.2 Emerging Curriculum

An emerging curriculum is one that constitutes new curriculum content and areas of study. It
includes those aspects which are relevant for the emerging society. These innovative areas of
study emerged from traditional subject matter and reflect sociepolitical changes in the society.
Such a curriculum is both learner-oriented as well as value-oriented.
Several curriculum trends are emerging today which could be incorporated to constitute a
balanced curriculum for secondary school education. Some of the emerging areas that can be
included in the emerging curriculum are:
Special education
Multicultural education
Sex education
Drug abuse
Population education
Interculturd relations
Pollution
Vocational education
Community health education
These are some of the numerous emerging areas of study that demand attention today and will
continue to do so in the future as well.
LET US SUM UP
We shall now help you recapitulate what you have studied in this unit. We started our
discussion with the definition of curriculum approach which is a plan to make decisions about
teachingjeaming situations. We discussed the major approaches to curriculum development.
issues relating to the approaches and the models of curriculum planning and categorised them
as technical and non-technical models.
We also discussed major dimensions of cumculum development, i.e. aims, objectives,

materials, methods and evaluation. These are essential components of curriculum
development.
In this unit an extended treatment was given to the process of cuniculum development.
We concluded the unit with a note on contempora'y issues that influence need-based
curriculum. Under this we discussed in brief, irrelevant and emerging curriculum.
Curhiculum Development
Curriculum Planning
UNIT-END EXERCISES
3.8
1.
Identify some emerging areas that could be included in school curriculum. Justify the
rationale for their inclusion in school level education.
2.
Usually school teachers are not involved in designing school curriculum. If this is the
case, why should they study the concept and process of curriculum development? Give
convincing arguments to support your point of view.
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
3.9
1.
i)
The learner-centred approach to curriculum development focuses on the emerging

needs of the learners. It prepares the learners to face the present rather than the future
problems in the society. The learning experiences provided through learner-centred
curriculum are planned to help the teachers understand the issues relating to the
growth and development of the students.
ii)
In the subject-centred approach, the content/subject becomes the more important

criteria of curriculum development. Learning experiences are organised around the
content selected. In this approach, appropriate mechanism to assess the
gainlacquisition of subject matter is devised by the curriculum planners.
2.
In the context of curriculum development the term 'technical' connotes that the aims and
objectives of curriculum that emerge out of the aim and objectives of education, can be
stated objectively. The term 'non-technical' stresses that individual's needs dictate the
aims and objectives of education and thus influence the decisions on cumculum
development.
3.
Since objectives are related to the outcomes, you should consider the following points
while formulating them:
Matching
Worth
e
Wording
Appropriateness
Logical grouping
Revision
4.
i)
The purpose of curr~culurnevduat~on1s M get feedback on various attributes of

curriculum and to use the feedhck to i ~ y r oe: &z c"'~"iciP1~?~1?.
ii)
Though evalaaafion is rery inrnporwkt in the process of curriculum development, it is

not executed because of
a)
b)
non-utilisation of evaluation results

resistance to accept innovative patterns.
3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

CronbaA, J. Lee (1964) :Evaluation for Course Improvement in New Curricula, New York :
Harper & Row.
IGNOU (1992) : Curriculum Development for Distance Education, (ES-316), Blocks 1 and 2,
New Ddhi.
J. Dewey (1966) : The Child & the Curriculum -The School & Society, Phoenix, USA.
Ornstein, C. & Hunkins P. (1988) : Curriculum, Foundations, Principles and Issues, New
Jersey, U.K.
D. Wanvick (1975) : Curriculum Structure & Design, University of London Press.
UNIT 2 CONSIDERATIONS FOR

CURRICULUM PLANNING
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Nature of Discipline and Curriculum Planning
Basic Considerations in Curriculum Planning
2.4.1 Developmental Considerations
2.4.2 Social Considerations
2.4.3 Economic Considerations
2.4.4 Environmental Considerations
2.4.5 InstitutionalConsiderations
2.4.6 Teacher-related Considerations
Trends in Curriculum
2.5.1 Curricula in the Twentieth Century
2.5.2 Possible Future Trends
Let Us Sum Up
Unit-end Exercises
Suggested Readings
2.1
INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you have already studied the concept of curriculum and its related issues.
You have studied the basis of curriculum: social forces, human development, nature of
learning, and nature of knowledge and cognition. You have also studied, in brief, the curriculum
process and its stages. The discussion of this unit is based on the content/issues discussed in
Unit 1.You will study various considerationsfor curriculum planning in this unit. As you know,
curriculum can not be constructed/developed in isolation. Issues related to socioeconomic
conditions, environmental factors, etc.. help plan meaningful curriculum. In this unit we shall
present an overview of all the possible considerationsyou should keep in mind while planning
curriculum for your students.
You know that the school system aims at preserving and transmitting the culture of the society.
For achieving this goal the school uses curriculum. Curriculum consists of those selected and
reorganised portions ofothe culture, knowledge and experiences of the society which are
considered essential for the preservation and development of the society. Curriculum planning
involves the exercise of deciding what information and experiences of the society are to be
selected for their systematic transmission to students. In fact, the cuniculum planners, while
planning the curriculum, answer two basic questions. What knowledge is most worthwhile to
be presened and transmitted? And, how can it be acquired or transmitted? The task of
answering these questions has to be invariably considered by every curriculum planner. These
considerations lead to the development of a curriculum which can help the school in achieving
its aims effectively. In this unit we will discuss these important considerations that should be
kept in mind while planning a cuniculum.
2.2
OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:

a
describe the nature of the discipline as a consideration for curriculum planning.
explain learner-related factors which influence curriculum planning,

describe institutional and teacher-related factors which influence curriculum planning,
discuss the relative influence of various factors on curriculum planning,
20
describe trends in curriculum as witnessed in the twentieth century and visualised for the
futllre.
2.3
NATURE OF DISCIPLINE AND CURRICULUM

PLANNING
-
- -
p
p
The first thing that you have to keep in mind while planning a curriculum is the nature of the
discipline. A discipline refers to a broad, logically organised body of subject matter which is
distinguished by its scholarly substance and is characterised by its own structure. Physics,
Chemistry, History, Mathematics, etc.. are examples of distinct disciplines. Every discipline
has an area or a field of activity, study oc phenomenon which it deals with. Secondly, every
discipline has its own method and mode of inquiry through which knowledge is created and
validated. For example, the experiment is the method used for generating and validating
knowledge in sciences; in social sciences, qualitative study and analysis in an uncontrolled
environment is the preferred method. Thirdly, a discipline has a tradition or a history of its
domain and rules. The structure of a discipline is highly suggestive of the way in which it is
studied and learned. It is the structure of the discipline which decides the approach to be
followed in the treatment of its subject matter; how the information and experiences related to
it are to be sequenced; and what methods and devices are to be followed for its effective
instruction. Thus the knowledge of the structure of a discipline helps in understanding its
essential nature. So the structure of the discipline has to be the fust consideration in planning
the curriculum. For example, Physics and History are two different disciplines; each of these
has an altogether different domain of knowledge. The methods of inquiry in both the disciplines
are different and cannot be interchanged. Physics curriculum has to incorporate experiments
and laboratory sessions. History curriculum, on the other hand, emphasises an authentic and
chronological presentation of facts and logical discussion based on them. Both the disciplines
are different in nature. Therefore they have to be dealt with differently and their curricula are
bound to differ. These curricula have to suggest specific modes of learning experiences to be
provided to the students. These learning experiences depend upon the nature of the concerned
discipline. Thus, the nature of the discipline involves the knowledge and its structure, methods
and mode by which knowledge is created and validated. This is the fust factor that essentially
influences the process of curriculum planning and so has to be considered by the curriculum
planner.
Notes : a)

i) What is a discipline?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
ii) What is the structure of a discipline?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
iii) How does the nature of a discipline effect its curriculum planning?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
2.4
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN CURRICULUM

PLANNING
As a curriculum planner, you need to keep various considerations in view during the task of
curriculum planning and development. These considerations collectively influence every
Considerations for
Curriculum Planning
curriculum Planning
decision regarding planning and development of a need-based curriculum. Important

considerations discussed in th'e rest of the unit have been shown in Figure 2.1.
Fig. 2.1 :Considerations for Curriculum Development
Figure 2.1 depicts how acurriculum is influenced by various factors ranging from the structure
of the subject matter through learner, society, environment, economy, institution and teacher
related factors. The Fig. 2.1 also shows that each factor exerts its own pressure on the
curriculum planner. Besides, all these factors influence each other as well. Due importance
should be given to each factor in order to plan a meaningful curriculum to achieve the intended
educational goals. Let us discuss each of these factors or considerations in detail. While going
through the unit you should keep in mind your school curriculum and try to examine how these
considerations/factors have been taken care of by the curriculum planners. You can share your
views with your fellow-teachers and also with your counsellor at the Study Centre.
2.4.1 Developmental Considerations
When we sit to decide what experiences should be included in various curricula meant for
different levels of education, we always keep in view the factors related to growth and
development of children at these stages; from their infancy to adolescence. Psychological needs
of the children, their interests and their problems guide us,on planning a suitable curriculum for
them. Growth and development considerations include the following areas of development of
a learner: (a) physical development. (b) emotional development, (c) social development, and
(d) intellectual or cognitive development.
In physical development we consider body development,developmentof motor skills, physical
abnormality and health status of the students for whom we want to frame curriculum.
Similarly, in emotional development we should keep in view the womes, fears and anxieties of
the students of a given age level. Any emotional maladjustment that is associated with this stage
of development should be taken into consideration. Social development characteristics such as,
interpersonal relationships, family relationships, heterogeneous relationships, social
maladjustments, etc., also influence the decisions on curriculum planning. Under intellectual
development we consider the stage of language development, readiness for various types of
learning, ability to reason and think abstractly, and the capacity to learn. It is important to note
that these four areas of development are interrelated and these interrelationships form different
Conslderatiom for
Curriculum Planning
patterns at different stages of growth of a learner. The interrelationship of these areas of

development has been shown in Figure 2.2.
EMOTIONAL
SOCIAL
5-
INTELLECTUAL
Flg. 2.2 :Areas of Development and thelr Interrelationships
The growth and development from infancy to adolescence is a gradual, continuous and
sequential process. The sequential development has given rise to the concept of readiness for
learning and the pace in providing learning experiences. The readiness principle suggests that
for learning a particular task or unit the student has to achieve a minimum level of maturity.
Similarly, the pace of learning also depends on the level of the child's maturity. In other words.
learning should not be too early, too much or too fast. However, we should clearly understand
that readiness to learn does not depend solely and strictly on the age and maturity of the child.
Patterns of interrelationship among the areas of development presented in Fig. 2.2 show that
environment around the learner, manipulation of learning experiences to enhance
capacitylability to learn, etc.. are other factors which influence the child's readiness to learn.
And so, what the curriculum has to offer and to whom should be decided by taking into account
all these factors and their influence on one another.
Notes : a)

i) Enumerate the areas of development of a learner.
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
ii) Describe the characteristics that you would look for in physical development.
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
iii) What is readiness to learn?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
iv) Describe pacing in teaching.
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
23
Curriculum Planning
2.4.2 Social considerations

Education of the child is a social undertaking and it is always carried out in a social situation.
The social forces in a society at any point of time determine the objectives of education. The
curriculum is designed to achieve those objectives. It is, therefore, necessary that while
planning the curriculum, you must have a thorough knowledge of those social forces that have
a bearing on the educational system of the society.
The basic aim of education is to preserve and transmit the culture, values, beliefs, ideals,
traditions, aspirations and acceptable modes of behaviour in a society. A good curriculum
ensures that the unique character and integrity of the society is preserved and the quality of life
of social groups is also improved. The social forces influence the decisions regarding what is to
be taught, and how it is to be taught. What is to be added to or deleted from the existing
curriculum to accommodate the change(s) in society is also decided by social forces.
Social forces exert their influence on curriculum through different organisations and groups of
people operating at regional, national and local/community levels. These forces may be
discussed under four categories: governmental forces, quasi-legal forces, professional
organisations, and special interest groups operating in a community. Please refer to Figure 2.3.
I Social Forces /
Organisation
Groups in the
Community
Curriculum for Elementary, Secondary, Higher Levels
Fig. 2 3 :Social Forces Exerting Influence on Curriculum
Governmental forces: The government makes policies on education and its curriculum. Diect
governmental controls are based on constitutional and statute laws. For example, in our country
the Directive Principles of the State Policy under Article 45 direct the Government of India to
make arrangements for universal elementary education. The government, thus, has to make
provisions for universal elementary education which includes provision for physical facilities
and engagement of teachers. It develops curriculum and textbooks for the children. Similarly
through Acts of Parliament in 1969 and 1986, the Government approved some new education
policies which included components of vocational education, moral education, and extended
general education upto class X. All these and several similar policy decisions affect curriculum
planning. These decisions have led to reformulation of objectives of education and
reconstruction of curriculum at different levels of education: primary, secondary and higher
education. The constitution of India enshrines the principles of democracy and secularism
which are reflected in the school curriculum and the textbooks based on them.
Another means through which the government influences the school curriculum and in fact,
most parts of the school education is the financial support extended by the Central, State and
Local govt?rnments to educational ente~prisein the country. Thus the government is in a
position to enforce its rules, regulations and policies regarding curricular activities and
experiences to be provided to the students.
Quasi-legal forces: These forces are not necessarily created by law. These may be created by
voluntary organisations, professional bodies and autonomous institutions. These may include
universities and colleges, parent-teacher associations (PTAs), textbook writers, publishers,
philanthropic organisations, mass media, etc. For example, universities and colleges not only
influence the curriculum through teacher education, but also play a significant role in
determining the school curriculum. PTAs are the pressure groups through which community
views on curriculum and textbooks are. channelled to school, its board and curriculum planners.
Big publishers greatly influence the type of content to be included in the textbooks and the
cuniculum. Textbooks with sound psychological organisation, stimulating format, appropriate
learning activities and relevant and powerful illustrations determine the content and the
teaching procedures to be followed in schools. Cumculum makers sometimes pattern the
course of study in particular fields according to these well organised textbooks.
Considerations for
Curriculum Planning
Professional organisations: The professional organisations which influence the curriculum to

a great extent include teachers' and teacher educators' associations. For example, National
Council of Teacher Education (NCTE) is empowered by the Government of India to design
curriculum for teacher education. The teachers organisations not only work for improving the
welfare and working conditions of the teachers but also disseminate information about the
profession, give suggestions for improving instruction and support research in education and
in-service training of the teachers. All these activities affect school curricula. While planning
the curriculum, the curriculum planner has to consider the views and suggestionsof educational
organisations and their well-informed members. Besides teachers' professional organisations.
the curriculum planner considers the suggestions and concerns of other related professions. For
example, for planning a good curriculum on commerce and accounting the opinions of the
associations of professional accountants. -ompany secretaries, exporters, etc., should be taken
into account. Similarly views, research findings and experiences of subject societies should
also be considered while planning the curriculum.
Special interest groups in the community: In every society there are groups or organisations
which promote a particular school of thought or areas of special interest. These organisations
may include pauiotic groups, cultural and religious organisations, civic groups and others
representing various interests in the community. The curriculum planner should be interested in
having an insight into the beliefs, aspirations and expectationsof various groups in the society.
The local education committee which represents the community, governs the schools and caters
to the educational interest of the community, usually approves the course proposals and
authorises the development of curriculum materials. Through these committees the aspirations,
expectations and values of the interested groups are reflected in the curriculum, of course,
within the broad frame of state and central education policy. These groups attempt to impress
upon the curriculum planner.

i) Enumerate social forces that influence the curriculum development.
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
ii) How do the governmental forces affect the process of curriculum development?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
iii) Give five examples of quasi-legal forces.
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
iv) In what way do professional organisations coombute to cuniculum devel.~pment?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
25
Curriculum Planning
v) How does a community around the school exert its influence on the curriculum for its
schools?
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
2.4.3 Economic Considerations
Economic considerations basically relate to the practicality of a cuniculum. The
implementation of a cuniculum entails several actions including provision of physical
facilities, development of learning materials and recruitment of uained teachers. All these
provisions involve recurring costs. These costs are borne by the government, and also by the
community and other institutions. The planners always weigh the cost of providing certain
learning Opportunities. The alternative modes of providing educational opportunity have
varying cost A curriculum planner has to ascertain whether the community around the school
will be able to bear the expenses of proposed curriculum. Inspite of the state's support at all the
levels of education, the community too has to bear certain expenses of education. It is the
community which will send its children to the school. If the financial condition of the society
is not sound enough to share the cost of education. it will not be in a position to serve its people.
The curriculum planner has to keep four kinds of costs in mind while proposing a curriculum.
These include initial cost, maintenance cost, supplementary cost and personnel cost. For
example, if a vocational course in typing is being proposed, it will involve the initial cost of
purchasing typing machines, the cost of maintaining the machines in working order, the cost of
supplementary materials like paper, carbon ribbons, etc., and the cost of acquiring a mined
teacher well versed in typing.
2.4.4 Environmental Considerations

The environment includes the physical and social conditions around an individual, an
institution or a community. The environment is both natural as well as manmade. Human
beings' survival and sustained development depends on the sensible and planned development
and use of the natural resources and environment. Advancements in science and technology
have helped us gain control over the environment and reach unprecedented levels of
development. Industrialisation, automation, communication revolution, urbanisation, etc., have
posed innumerable challenges for human beings. The revolution in communication technology
has transformed the world community into a global village. Science and technology have made
a tremendous impact on health and hygiene conditions and have been helpful in controlling
many dreaded diseases. However, the advancements in science and technology and
consequently their impact on society have also caused serious environmental degradation,
depletion of natural resources, expansion of slums. outbreak of new diseases, misuse of new
technologies by nations in armed conflicts, etc. The education system through its curriculum
should incrmluce the student with the achievements of human beings.
But at the same time the learner must also be made fully aware of the challenges one has to face
due to fast-paced development. The curriculum planners should consider ways and means to
equip the student with appropriate knowledge and skills to harness the environment of
resources. This wills enable the learner to carve out a place for himself in the world of the
future.
The most important function of the curriculunlin this context is to develop a concern for the
environment, human welfare and personal morality that will enable the student to use the
resources available for the benefit of mankind. The curriculum of sciences, social sciences and
languages can effectively inculcate an attitude of concern towards the environment and
mankind, and peaceful co-existence of nations, communities and individuals. The cwriculum
planner should keep these emerging nePdsin view while developing a cwriculum.
2.4.5 Institutional Considerations

Institutional considemtions are es-ly
taken into account when the curriculum planner is
given the responsibility to develop c@iculum for an institution. As you know, an institution is
a unique ~ub-systemof a society for amevlng special institutional. objectives. The cumculum
planner must keep in mind the nature of the institution, particularly its manifest purposes. The
institutional purposes will be helpful in the selection of an appropriate procedure for
formulation of course objectives and organisation of content, etc. For example, vocational and
technical schools are expected to train students for specific jobs. Hence, for formulating the
objectives of a vocational programme the technique of job analysis will be used and these will
be helpful in selecting appropriate instructional materials. However, the job analysis technique
will not work for an institution with humanistic goals. For formulating objectives for such
institutions, another technique which is more consistent with the process of self-actualisation
for individuals i.e. l m e r s will have to be used; and curricular materials based on it will be
developed. Similarly, while planning a course for a specific institution one has to know the
attitude of the school authorities, particularly of those who are involved in planning and
management, towards a discipline e.g. attitude towards CommercelBusiness education as a
whole and towards certain business subjects in particular. Availability of necessary facilities,
such as library, equipment, staff, space, etc., in the institution should also be considered while
taking decisions on curriculum planning in a particular area or discipline.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit
i) What economic considerations should be kept in mind while planning a curriculum?
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
ii) Describe the environmental considerations for curriculum planning.
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
iii) Why are institutional considerations so important in curriculum planning?
...........................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
2.4.6 Teacher-related Considerations
The process of teaching is performed by the teacher who transacts a specific curriculum. She)
is an integral part of the teaching-learning system. Hisher functions include interpretation,
explanation. demonstration and guidance in various activities and experiences incorporated in
the curriculum. Therefore, while planning a curriculum the planner should consider the
teacher-related factors as well. Every curriculum will require a certain group of teachers
equipped with appropriate education, training and experience to successfully transact the
cuniculum and to help the students in achieving its (curriculum) objectives. The type and the
level of content and activities included in the curriculum will determine the type of teachers,
their level of education, and the kinds of teaching behaviour expected of them. Similarly,
whether the type of teachers we need are readily available or they have to be prepared or they
have to be provided in-service training necessary for working teachers for implementing the
cuniculum, etc., should be the basis of decisions on curriculum planning. Besides, we have to
Corrslderatlomfor
Curriculum mpnnlly
CurricuIum PIanning
consider whether pre-service training of the teachers is necessary and what type of training
should be provided in order to enable them to transact the curriculum and also how long it will
take to develop them. Provision of qualified and competent teachers, thus, is a basic factor to
be considered in curriculum planning. Hence the teacher-related factors must be given due
consideration by the curriculum planner.
Check Ybur Progress 5
Notes : a)
Write 'T'if the statement is correct and 'F' if it is false.

b)
i) Using the medium of curriculum the teacher determines the process of
teaching.
ii) In modem times the process of teaching is independent of a curriculum.
iii) Qualifications and training requirements of teachers are determined by the
curriculum.
iv) A curriculum planner has just to plan the curriculum. He is not supposed to
think about the availability of teachers.
v) Teacher-related factors for curriculum planning include type of teachers, their
qualifications, type and duration of training, specific experience, etc., required
for the new curriculum.
2.5
0
0
0
0
0
TRENDS IN CURRICULUM
As you know, curriculum is not a static phenomenon. For being effective, it should be a
dynamic instrument of the school which keeps changing in response to various changes in the
society. Twentieth century is marked with varied socio-economic and technological changes in
almost all the societies of the world. These changes should be reflected, in varying &gms, in the
activities and learning experiences being provided by the schools to its future citizens. A good
curriculum plannea is one who is not only aware of the current changes and developments in the
society but is also conscious of the future needs. S/He should also know prospective developments
that are likely to take place or should take place within and outside the society due to both the
internal and external factors. A curriculum would be termed as relevant and effective if current and
prospective trends in the society have been reflected in it from time to time. Following are some
examples of how various trends in the society affect the curriculum for the twentieth century and in
what ways future developments are likely to affect the school curriculum.
2.5.1 Curricula in the Twentieth Century

In the present century several changes have taken place in the curricula across the world. Some
of the crucial ones are being described here.
28
i)
Liberal education: Liberal education is the successor of the previously held old concept
of authoritarian education wherein the teacher was considered as the sole authority in
teaching a subject. S h e was empowered to enforce stringent reward and punishment
methods to get a subject learnt by students without individual firedom. Education was
confined to a selected few. As against this, liberal view of education begins to be accepted
by people as more appropriate for spreading education. Liberals believe that education is
to liberate the mind of the learner and that it has to be provided to the masses without any
discrimination. As against the classic curriculum which was the focus of attention during
authoritarian education, the curricula now emphasises natural and modem sciences and
modem languages. Emphasis also shifted from crarning the text to an understanding and
appreciation of the text and self expression by the learners. It is liberal education that
leads the school curricula to secularisation.
ii)
Global education: Global interdependence has become a necessary and rather an

ineqitable phenomenon for every society today. The network of links, interactions and
relationships among nations encircle the globe like a spider's web and to touch any part
of the spider's web is to trigger vibrations in many-sometimes all-other parts. Take any
aspect of human life and that will be found globally interdependent. Be it clean drinking
watcr, clothing, transport, tax policy, inflation, employment, contents of newspapers and
books, cost and supply of fuel, terrorism or peace, etc. All these have global inter.
dependence and implications.
Global education is a response to the need of the contemporary world to understand the
emergent global systems. Students may accept the ramifications of global
interdependence as unremarkable features in their daily life. They have to attain a
profound understanding of the world of which they are a part. For this development of the
curriculum has to be such that it develops an awareness among students about the world.
They should be able to understand the degree and pace of changes in the world.
Preparations for the change necessitates the development and practice of action-oriented
skills such as decision making, problem solving, creative thinking and future projection
as well as those which facilitate participation in group processes.
The curriculum of global education has to provide .a global perspective to its learners.
Five aims of global education viz., development of systems consciousness, perspective
consciousness, health of planet awareness, involvement consciousness and preparedness
and process-mindedness will help to provide the global perspective to students and will
prepare them for contemporary reality.
iii)
Interdisciplinary content: Some of the present curricula have deviated themselves from
the traditional water-tight division of knowledge into autonomous disciplines and
subjects. From various social and natural sciences, various disciplines such as social
studies, environmental studies, biochemistry, business studies, business mathematics,
etc., have emerged. The interdisciplinary approach in curriculum helps students in
understanding the fields of different subjects/disciplines in a better and more realistic
manner. It also helps in solving various problems of the human society more effectively.
It is argued that the young adults need to become aware of key concepts and general ideas
that have emerged in different disciplines. In later life when they start solving the
fundamental problems the barriers between subjects seem less relevant and the wolk
necessarily becomes interdisciplinary.
iv)
Secularism and education: Almost all the societies today have people of many faiths and
religions. The democratic societies have a strong faith in the principle of secularism by
which people enjoy an unfettered freedom of worship according to their beliefs. The state
avoids interfering in their religious professions and practices. This may be observed in a
single school where there may be students professing different faiths and religions. To
make the schools conform to a particular form of religious instruction may be full of
danger and mischief. Imparting of religious instruction may be a source of discontent and
internal trouble which may mar the instructional tone of the institutions. For these reasons
the state provides training to the students in secular outlook through its formal
curriculum. In the early twentieth century when arguments in favour of universal free
education were forwarded, the process of secularisation of education took a start which
was totally approved by the church and the clergy. Liberals, however, had rightly thought
that secularisation of curriculum was an opportunity to sweep away the imposition
inherent in the religious aspects of the curriculum and wanted to replace it by a scientific
underslanding of the universe and an increased awareness of the political and economic
aspects of the society.
v)
Psychology and curriculum: While planning a curriculum sufficient attention is devoted

to the psychological features that influence the learning of a particular subject Such areas
as human development, concept formation, learning of different types of content,
~notivationalfactors in learning, educational technology and evaluation procedures, etc.,
are kept in mind while framing a curriculum of a particular subject In the organisation of
the subject matter of a discipline both logical and psychological appeals and arrangement
is essentially considered by the cumculum planners. Varying learning needs arising out of
individual differences among learners form the basis of selection and sequencing of
learning experiences to be provided to them. So learning psychology has come to directly
influence the curricular decisions.
i
I
2.5.2
Possible Future Trends
One of the basic functions of curriculum is to prepare young people for the future. Keeping this
function in view the curriculum planner needs to assess the possibilities of cumculum
development for the future. While doing so a number of questions have to be answered:
What is the role of education in our society?
Can the future of our society be influencedby education/curriculum?
How can we effeclively involve others in planning curriculum for the future of our
sociely?
Considerations for
Curriculum Planntng
~ u r r i c u ~ uPlanning
m
The curriculum design for the future has become necessary because of the following reasons:
Demographic changes - sex, age pattern, death rate, etc.
Technological innovations e.g. use of machines and increase in productivity.
Social innovations - new system of education.
Cu1t;ural diffusion - transfer of ideas, acculturation due to mvel, trade, employment, media, etc.
These changes have altered the social fabric of the Indian society. Schools are besieged by
challenges of socio-economic and political factors. Such an experience greatly increased the
concern for the future and stimulated future planning in education. What should schools be like
in future? One of the roles of curriculum should be to determine the purpose(s) of the school as
it relates to changing society. The students must possess a set of basic skills such as, leaming
skills, understanding others, capacity for continuing education, informed participation in
economic world, use of accumulated knowledge and coping with change.
Information explosion and communication technology: Information explosion is already
underway in our country. This demands that the curriculum should on the one hand, be kept
abreast with the up-coming information and, on the other, the learner should also be
equipped with skills and interests necessary for continuously harnessing the flow of
information. Alongside with the inflow of information the communication technology is
also chamging at a fast pace. This is obviously going to change the mosaic of the learning
inputs and will make the cumculum transaction more scientific and efficient over the years
to come. Learning has to be based on a variety of software developed to suit a learner's
needs and conditions.
New jobs :In view of a series of new jobs likely to be created in the market the need for trained
human power in these new jobs will force many changes in the future cumculum. Curriculum
will need to be more career-oriented. Though the idea of career education is not quite old, it
needs fresh thinking because of the great variety of jobs coming up these days. In schools there
is a growing demand to have a separate or parallel curriculum design for vocational or career
education which can help train young adults for the new jobs. In the past one decade the efforts
to design comprehensive vocational or career-based curriculum in the country are underway
because of following reasons:
. Schools are being recognised as an essential componentof the national economic condition as
the schools will turn out a sizeable trained human power for the country's economy.
Career-oriented or vocational education will helplin improving an individual's productivity and employability. Thus career-oriented curriculum can help in eradicating poverty
and backwardness and improving the economic condition and standard of living.
The concept of utilitarian education has increased the awareness and demand for jobbased curriculum.
There is a general feeling that insufficient attention has been paid to this hard social reality that
everyone must eventually seek gainful employment. It is also felt that the current technological
and political conditions demand a change in the basic definition of education.
Bottom-up model: In bottom-up model of cumculum the individual learner is the primary
focus of attention. Over the years curriculum designers have seen a shift in emphasis towards
undersading, compassion, encouragement and trust. The bottom-up model curriculum is so
designed that it allows freedom in the form of student mobility and increased choice of
curriculur activities and encourages learning by doing. In such a curriculum, instruction is
humane, personalised and individualised. Teachers serve as guides rather than as authority
figures or purveyors of knowledge.
The problem solving process of instruction borrows heavily from another humanistic design the core curriculum which emphasises on
continuity in teacher-student relationship
developing courses based on student concerns
relating school activities to community
using a wide variety of sources of information
-
30
emphasising on choice of subjects and responsibility of learning
Bottom-up curriculum designs are characterised by highly flexible instructional areas, a high
degree of student involvement and an emphasis on the process of learning.
Distancelopen education: Increased emphasis on and need for lifelong and continuing
education for all has given impetus to the distance or open mode of education, both as an
alternative to face-to-face mode and also as a necessary supplement to the face-to-face
education. Distance education cumcula are highly need-based, suited to individual learner's
needs and convenience, highly flexible in organisation and are provided at the doorsteps of the
learner. The teacher has to provide indirect influenceon the learner's behaviour through a set of
well prepared learning packages and programmes. Both print and electronic media are used as
the main media of interaction with the learners. In the distance mode the curricula demand a
high degree of learner's motivation for learning through self-study and self-activity. Such
curricula incorporate detailed guidelines for self-learning and self-activities that would
strengthen learning by the distance learner.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit
I i)
Write three important changes that took place in the school curricula during the
twentieth century.
............................................................................................................................................
ii) Why has curriculum design for the future become necessary? Give four reasons.
............................................................................................................................................
iii) Give any three trends in curriculum that are likely to take place in the future.
I
2.6
............................................................................................................................................
LET US SUM UP
Curriculum is a basic means available to the school for achieving the goals of education. The
exercise of cuniculum planning is guided by several considerations. Most important among
these are the nature of the discipline, growth and development of the child. socioeconomic
background of the country, society or the school, environment around institutional and
teacher-related considerations. The curriculum planner first needs to know the structure and
nature of the discipline for which a cuniculum is to be planned and developed. A curriculum is
meant for a particular group of students. So their growth and development characterstics in
terms of physical, emotional, social and intellectual development should be taken into account
by the cumculum planner. S(he) should also be aware of the educational implications (from the
point of view of teaching-learning) of the different stages of growth and development.
Sincc education is a social undertaking, the social forces have a bearing on the planning of the
curriculum. Social pressures may be extxted by governmental and quasi-legal agencies,
Conridsratlom for
Curriculum Planning
Cumculum Planning
professional organisations and special interest groups in the society. You have studied in this
unit that every curriculum entails economic implications for its implementation. It has to be
ascertained whether or not the state, the community and/or the institution is able to bear the
costs implied by the framed or developed curriculum. The curriculum should also help in
developing a favourable attitude of students towards environment and mankind and should
generate a feeling of peaceful co-existence in the family, community, country and the world.
The school curricula have witnessed many changes in the twentieth century. The emphasis has
been shifting from authoritarian education to liberal education, from education for national
understanding to international and global understanding, autonomous disciplines study to
inter-disciplinary education, and from religious education to secular education. In future issues
such as, infomation explosion, communication technology, new jobs, stress on bottom-up
model of education and distance education will have implication for curriculum planning.
UNIT-END EXERCISES
2.7
1.
Discuss the relative influence of various factors related to discipline, learner, teacher and
institution on curriculum planning.
2.
Take the secondary (10 +) level curriculum of your school and try to ascertain the extent
to which it has been planned keeping in view:
a) The nature of different disciplines;
b) Developmental considerations;
c) Social considerations;
d) Institutional considerations; and
e) Teacher-related considerations.
Have a look at both the academic and the vocational streams courses at the secondary
stage (10 +) in your state and find out how far these courses are economically cost
effectivelfeasible from the point of view of both the government and the community.
Discuss with examples.
3.
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
2.8
1.
2.
i)
A discipline refers to a broad but logically organised body of subject matter which is
distinguished by its scholarly prestige and is characterised by its own structure.
ii)
Structure of a discipline includes (i) domain of study, (ii) methods of inquiry, and
(iii) history and iules of discipline.
iii) The structure suggests the ways in which the discipline is learned.
i) Physical, emotional. social, intellectual.
ii) Bodily development, development of motor-skills, physical abnormality, health
status of the student.
iii) Readiness means the attainment of a minimum level of maturity required to learn the
prescribed subject matter.
3.
iv) Pacing means teaching according to the level of maturity i.e. readiness to learn neither too early, nor too much, or too fast.
i) Governmental, quasi-legal, professional organisations, special interest groups.
ii) Through constitutional and statute laws, policy decisions, financial support.
iii) PTA, textbook writers, publishers, universities and colleges, mass media.
iv) By disseminating infomation, suggesting ways to improve instruction, supporting
research in education, supporting in-service training of the teachers.
V) By providing an 4sight into the beliefs, aspirations and expectations of the community
through its patriotic, cultural, religious, civic, business arganisatiom and groups.
4.
32
i)
The financial considerations are the costs of physical facilities, learning materials,
teachers, initial and recurring costs. These costs should be shared by community and
governments.
ii)
Curriculum should develop a concern for the environment. human welfare and
personal morality that will enable the learner to use technical achievements for the
benefit of mankind.
iii) Because in the absence of necessary institutional capacities and resources, the
school may not be able to implement the curriculum in the desired manner.
5.
6.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
i)
ii)
True
False
True
False
True
Globalisation of education, secular education and inter-disciplinary education.
Demographic changes, technological innovations, social innovations and cultural
diffusion.
iii) New jobs and career education, bottom-up model of education, open education, etc.
2.9
SUGGESTED READINGS
Aggarwal, J.C. (1990) : Curriculum Reforms in India, Delhi :Doaba House.

Mamidi, M.R. and Ravishankar. S. (1984) : Curriculum Development and Educational
Technology, New Delhi : Sterling Publishers.
Kelly, A.V. (1989) : The Curriculum : Theory and Practice, London; Paul Chapman
Publishing.
Conslderatlonsfor
Curriculum Planning
UNIT 4 CURRICULUM EVALUATION

Structure
4.1
Introduction
4.2
Objectives
4.3
Cumculum Evaluation: Basics

4.3.1 The Concept of Curriculum Evaluation
4.3.2 Need for Curriculum Evaluation
4.3.3 Importance of Curriculum Evaluation
4.4
4.5
Sources of Cumculum Evaluation

Aspects of Cumculum Evaluation
4.5.1
4.5.2
4.5.3
4.6
Pre-testingpost-testing
Norm-Referenced Testing and Criterion-Referenced Testing
Formative Evaluation
Methods of Curriculum Evaluation

4.6.1
4.6.2
Evaluation during Curriculum Development

Evaluation during Curriculum Implementation
4.7
Restructuring Cumculum
4.8
Let Us Sum Up
Unit-end Exercises
4.9
4.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
4.11 Suggested Readings

Glossary
4.1
INTRODUCTION
This is the last unit of Block 1: Curriculum Planning. The objective of this Block was to make
you aware of various aqpects of curriculum planning and development. We have discussed the
process of curriculum planning and development in the preceeding units. In Unit 1 we
discussed the concept and scope of curriculum at the secondary education level. In Unit 2 we
discussed various factors which needed to be laken into cons~cieration/accountwhile working
on curriculum planning, The role of students, community and environment was highlighted in
the context of curriculum planning. In Unit 3 you have studied the process of cuniculum
developnieneat tkhe scondiiry school !eve%.
You also studied the constrants which influence the
decisions on curriculum development. Thus so far you have studied in detail the concept and
process of curriculum planning and develop~nent.
In Unit 3 you came across the expression 'evaluation'. Evaluation is an essential component of
curriculum planning and the development process. Curriculum evaluation is a process of
delineating, obtaining and providing information useful for making decisions about curriculum
development and implementation. In other words, to develop an effective and need-based
curriculum y2u have to base your decisions on empirical evidence.
In this unit we will discuss the concept and importance of curriculum evaluation in the overall
process of the development and implementation of curriculum. We shall also discuss various
aspects of curriculum evaluation.'You will also study the methods of restructuring curriculum.
The lscussion in this unit will enable you to participate in this regular and meaningful activity.
By doing so you will be able to achieve the prc-specified objectives.
4.2
OBJECTIVES
In this unit we'll i n d u c e you to the need for evaluating a curriculum, the different sources for
evaluation, aspects and methods of curriculum evaluation and, finally, restructuring of curriculum.
After going through this unit you should be able to:
discuss the need for cuniculum evaluation;
Currieulu m Planning
identify different sources for curriculum evaluation;

evaluate a given curriculum or a part of it after considering different aspects;
use different methods to evaluate a curriculum depending on the stage of development of
the curriculum; and
restructure a given curriculum after careful analysis.
4.3
CURRICULUM EVALUATION :BASICS
The pmcm of evaluation is undertaken in order to determine the strengths and weaknesses of an
existing or an under-construction curriculum so that improvements can be made in curriculum
design. Evaluation results are primarily a function of judging the effectivenessof the curriculum.
4.3.1 The Concept of Curriculum Evaluation

In the previous units of this Block, you have studied how a curriculum is planned and
developed. An integral part of such a development process is evaluation and that is what you
will study in this unit. Here, evaluation means both assessment of students to find how much of
the intended curriculum has been transacted and also what actually happens in a classroom as
experienced by the students when they are involved in learning activities. These experiences of
the student$need not be confined to the four walls of a classroom and within the stipulated time
frame of a tigid school schedule. These could also include activities which form part of hidden
curriculum like wearing a school uniform, standing up when the teacher enters the class and
/+( Teachers
I.
Judgement
Summary
Micro
Level
Evaluation
I each subject
I
Subject
of the curriculum
Rewmmen-
/
Observation
I
'
Curriculum
Evaluation
Team
Boards of Secondary Education

Fig. 4.1 :Curriculum Evaluation Process

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UNIT 1 DEFINING CURRICULUM

Selection of Aims, Goals and Objectives

Major Approaches to Curriculum

Role of Curriculum in Effective Teaching and Laming

After going through this unit, you should be able to :

define and explain the concept of curriculum;

CURRICULUM :THE CONCEPT

the subject content taught to the students;

A curriqulum is a structured series of intended learning outcomes (Johnson. 1967). This

A curriclulum is all of the experiences that individual learners have in a programme of

these are as follows:

Check Your Progress 1

Flg. 1.1 : Bases of Curriculum

THE CURRICULUM PROCESS AND ITS STAGES

Fig. 1.2 :The Curriculum Process

1.5.1 Selection of Aims, Goals and Objectives

Fig.13 :Levels of Objectives

1.5.2 Selection of Learning Experiences

1.5.3 Seleclion of Content

Selection of Basic ThemesIConcepts

1.5.4 Organisation and Integration of Learning Experiences and Content

Organisation & Integration of

certain implications for classroom methodology and administration of school. A change in

and integration is determined by the size and scope of units

Check Your Progress 2

Write your answers in the space given below.

MAJOR APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM

Flg. 1.6 : Aspects of Curriculum

1.6.1 The Process Approach

using space-time relationships

1.6.2 The Structure Approach

1.6.3 The Humanistic Approach

ROLE OF CURRICULUM IN EFFECTIVE TEACHING

Check Your Progress 3

1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Your answer might have included the following points :

The levels are:

1.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

UNIT 3 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Apptoaches to Curriculum Development

Process of Curriculum Development

Role of Teachers in Curriculum Development

Assessment oE Educational Needs

3.10 Suggested Readings

explain various approaches to curriculum development;

state the criteria for selection, organisation and integration of content;

discuss the importance of evaluation in the process of curriculum development; and

identify major issues and trends in curriculum.

APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

3.3.1 Major Categories of Curriculum Approach

Social problems approach

The choice of a particular approach to the curriculum design indicates

the use of subject matter or content.

Another concern of curriculum planners engaged in this activity is to devise ways of

Broadfields approach: A modification of the traditional subject-design, the broadfield

3.3.2 Issues Related to Curriculum Approaches

Curriculum approach and instructional methods: Curriculum planners deal with

Curriculum approach and various instructional organisations: General education and

Technical/scientific models: The technicallscientific model enables us to understand

We have listcd below a few models that follow the technicallscientificapproach.

The Saylor and Alexander Model

The Goodlad Model

The Miller and Seller Model