Introduction to Aerospace Vehicles

by
Prof. S.P. Govinda Raju

Topics:
Types of aircraft and their flight performance Video presentation.
1.

Historical introduction.

2.

Atmosphere, its properties and its influence on aircraft operations

3.

Basics of airplane flight lift and drag, equilibrium, stability and controllability,
airplane types and missions.

4.

Fluid flow fundamentals, streamlines, Bernoullis Law, viscosity, laminar and

turbulent flow, boundary layer, transition, flow separation.

5.

Basic aerodynamics Drag of some simple bodies, effect of Reynolds

number, airfoils and their characteristics, control surfaces, flaps and
spoilers, swept-back wings.

6.

Wings effect of aspect ratio, compressibility effects, compressible flow,

supersonic flow, Mach number.

7.

Estimation of aerodynamic characteristics, analytical tools, aerodynamic

measurements, wind tunnels and instrumentation, measurement of velocity,
pressure and forces.

8.

Safety in aviation the BCAR, one engine failure on take off; design loads.

9.

Aircraft propulsion principles, propeller + piston engine, turbojet, turbofan

and turboprop engines.

10.

Airplane performance, estimation based on drag polar and power plant

characteristics.

11.

Airplane stability and control, concepts of longitudinal and lateral stability,

handling qualities, fly by wire control systems.

1.

Historical Introduction

Ancient Indian literature contains references to flight vehicles. Valmiki Ramayana

mentions Pushpaka Vimana with a brief description: A large hall with many side
chambers, well decorated and provided with dining facilities. The vehicle could be
flown by voice command. A somewhat later work Kathasaritasagara includes a
section called Vetala Panchavimshati which is a collection of twenty five stories. In
one of them there is description of an aerial combat using a chariot equipped with
missiles. The flying chariot was used as a platform for shooting arrows at the enemy.
However there is no material evidence of any flight vehicles of ancient times.
Manned flight was attempted in some European countries in the 18th century. Hot air
balloon flights are recorded in Portugal in 1709. Montgolfier brothers (France) flew in
a hot air balloon in 1783. Following these flights, airships developed rapidly and
were fairly successful. An airship flew over the North Pole in 1926. Airships are still
used for special purposes and there are some renewed efforts to develop the as
heavy transports.
Heavier than air flying machines were attempted by Cayley(1843), Lillenthal (1896),
Prof. Langely (1903) before the Wright brothers succeeded in late 1903
(actually
th
17 Dec. 1903). The military potential of the airplane was quickly recognized and
airplanes were used for surveillance very early. Airplanes equipped with machine
guns fought each other and evolved into modern fighters. Larger airplanes to carry
bombs and troops rapidly developed and are the fore runners of the bombers and
military transport of the current time. After World War II, the pure fighter was
replaced by a multi-role combat aircraft combining some features of fighters and
bombers. Civil transports also developed during the time and a large variety of civil
aircraft operate at current time. They cover a wide range starting with two seaters
weighing less than a ton to large airplanes going up to 600 tons for the A380.

2.

Atmosphere and its properties

Air is a thin layer of a compressible fluid (primarily a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen
with a small amount of water vapour especially at low altitudes) which covers the
surface of the earth (a sphere of about 8000 miles diameter) to an effective depth of
about 20 miles. Airplanes fly only in this layer and typical flights are at an altitude of
about 35,000 feet. Properties of atmosphere of interest to flight vehicles are primarily
the density, pressure and temperature of air and their variation with altitude.
Typically, the atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1013 mb. Temperature of air at
sea level varies depending on place and season. On a global average basis, the
mean temperature at sea level is around 15oC. The temperature decreases with
altitude at about 2oC for every 1000 feet. Atmosphere over India is about 15oC hotter
than over temperate regions and it is normal to take ISA + 15o C as typical of India.
(ISA: International Standard Atmosphere)
Hydrostatic equilibrium demands
dp
= g
dh
Where
P = pressure of atmosphere at height h above sea level
= air density at the height h
g = acceleration due to gravity
One may define a pressure altitude Z as the height in a standard atmosphere
where P corresponds to the pressure in the atmosphere, i.e.
dp
= z g
dz
Tables are available for calculating other air properties as a function of Z. it is
noted that P(Z) falls off rapidly with Z and P( Z= 8000 m) = 0.373*( P at sea
level). The following table is indicative of air properties over India.
Z (m)
0
5000
10,000
15,000

H (m)
-20
5250
10,580
15,650

P/po
1.0022
0.6343
0.2615
0.1191

/o
1.002
0.5907
0.3313
0.1754

a(m/s)
347
330
308
286

It may be noted that at the typical flight altitude of Jet transports (around 10
km) the atmospheric pressure is around a quarter of the sea level value. Passenger
aircraft are pressurized to an internal pressure of about 0.75 of sea level pressure.
Thus there is a pressure difference of about half atmosphere during cruise (relative
to sea level). The structure of the fuselage is designed to withstand repeated
pressurization to this level as, each time the airplane files, the passenger cabin is
pumped up to the pressure which is released during landing.

The variation of p with altitude is useful in constructing an altimeter (which is called

pressure altimeter). The principle is to use an evacuated elastic pressure sensor
(bellows) whose displacement when subjected to varying pressure (due to change of
z) is indicated on a dial directly calibrated in terms of altitude (the pressure altitude).
It is to be noted that the true altitude can be some what different from the value
indicated on a pressure altimeter. A schematic sketch of the pressure altimeter is
shown below:

If not compensated, the fall of temperature and pressure will cause discomfort to the
passengers in any jet transport. Therefore it is normal to condition the air (heating,
dehumidification, pressurization) so that satisfactory comfort is maintained for the
passengers.
Aerodynamic properties of lifting surfaces (wings) and power of engines of all types
are dependent on the density of air and hence decrease with altitude, other things
being the same. Thus every aircraft has a ceiling beyond which it can not climb for
want of lift or engine power. The altitude record for airplane flight is around 1,00,000
feet , but most aircraft can only reach half this altitude. Cruise altitude for jet
transports is in the 35,000 to 40,000 feet range. The supersonic transport, the
Concorde, flies at up to 60,000 feet.

2.1

Atmospheric water vapour

Air can hold water vapour to an extent depending on the temperature and pressure.
Typically at sea level, the water content of air at 40oC is less than 5% at a relative
humidity of 100%. Humid air is lighter than dry air, but the difference is not important
from the point of view of flight dynamics. However, many atmospheric phenomenon
like fog, rain, snow and icing, vertical atmospheric motion including cloud formation
are a result of the atmospheric water vapour.
Up and down motion of air leads to gusts which are important from the point of loads
acting on the wings (gust loads). Condensation of water in the form of ice on
aerodynamic surfaces of propellers and wings can cause loss of performance and
need to be considered. The phenomenon is important in an altitude range of 500015000 feet with in which only ice formation is possible. Air is too dry at higher
altitudes to cause condensation.
4

Protection to icing is provided in aircraft (turboprops) operating for extended periods

at the critical altitudes. Piston engine aircraft are provided with heating for the
carburetors to prevent icing inside it. Lightning, related to atmospheric static
electricity needs to be considered specially in the case aircraft made of composites
(which are poor conductors). Suitable conducting paths have to be provided to avoid
the structural damage by lightning.

2.2

Winds

Horizontal motion of air (wind) can affect the flight of aircraft as the performance of
wing is related to relative motion with respect to air. Tail wind (in the direction of
aircraft flight) can increase ground speed (desirable) and landing distance
(undesirable). Head wind is favorable to landing but reduces cruise speed relative to
ground. Cross wind leads to landing problems and need to be considered carefully
from the point of view of aircraft control.

3.

Basics of Airplane Flight

Airplane flight is fundamentally based on the aerodynamics of wings. By definition, a

wing is any surface that produces a large force at right angles to the direction of
motion (Lift) while suffering a small resistance (Drag) in the direction of motion.

Illustrations:

Typical wings have a large Lift to Drag ratio in the region 10 to 40. The following is
illustrative of airplanes.

Surface
Smooth airfoil
Well built gliders
Low speed airplanes
Combat aircraft

(L/D)max
Up to 250
Up to 40
10 20
69

In level flight, lift of the airplane overcomes its weight while the thrust of the engine
overcomes drag. The importance of high L/D is obvious.
In general an airplane is a body with six degrees of freedom corresponding to linear
and angular motions about the three axes of the airplane conveniently chosen along
its longitudinal axis and two others at right angles to it (as in figure). For the purpose
of analysis, the coordinate axes are chosen as in figure.

ox, oy, oz are Cartesian axes centered at aircraft center of gravity. Airplane axes
and velocity vector are defined in figure.
u, v, w : Components of velocity of the airplane along ox, oy, oz respectively.
v, ,
,

:
:
:
:

polar components of V:
incidence angle
sideslip angle
flight velocity (magnitude)

Common notation (body fixed axes)

ox: roll axis
oy: pitch axis
oz: yaw axis
In general the velocity vector V has all three components u, v, w. However u is
much larger than v, w. Most of the time v = 0 corresponds to = 0 i.e. the airplane
flies with the velocity vector in its plane of symmetry. varies depending on flight
condition, but generally is only a few degrees in level flight.
Requirements of controlled flight may be stated as following:
1.
2.
3.

Equilibrium
Stability
Controllability

Equilibrium implies balance of forces and moments i.e. the algebraic sum of all
forces / moments acting along / about the three axes must be zero. For level flight
without sideslip, this implies lift = weight, thrust = drag and pitching moment about
C.G is zero (ensured by suitably operating the elevator).
7

Stability implies return to original equilibrium condition after a reasonable time

following a disturbance.
Controllability implies that the pilot will be able to alter the flight path of the airplane
by moving some control surfaces such that the movement of the airplane is in
accordance with his requirements.
A simple example is that of a pendulum: which has only one degree of freedom, but
otherwise illustrates the principles involved.
Equilibrium:
Tension T = weight of bob, W
T

Weight, W
Stability:

Disturbed
position

Time

decays with time until (t ) = 0 inverted pendulum is unstable.

Time

Controllability:
T

W
W
Apply F, then can be held at any non zero value i.e. F = W tan.
In applying these principles to airplanes the following points are to be noted.
1.

An airplane has 6 degrees of freedom against one of the pendulum.

2.

Stability is to be ensured by suitably configuring the airplane lifting

surfaces, (wings, horizontal and vertical tail surfaces), Shapes, sizes,
positions and orientations are important. Airplane C.G plays an
important role in this.

3.

Control surfaces are to be provided to create moments about the three

axes on demand. Typically elevator, aileron, and rudder are used. A
typical aircraft plan form is as below:

The configuration is dictated by performance as well as by stability and control

requirements. It may be noted that the airplane has many modes of instability
(typically 4 major ones) and keeping them in control is possible by suitable choice of
C.G location, horizontal and vertical fin sizes & wing dihedral (the angle by which a
9

wing is tilted upwards). Sometimes, deliberately mild instability is desired in the

case of combat aircraft. These will be considered later.

3.1 Airplane Types and Missions

Airplanes come in a great variety depending on their application. One may broadly
consider than under military and civil categories, Military aircraft can be classified
under trainers, multi role combat aircraft and transport. Multi role combat aircraft are
used for various missions like interception, close air support, interdiction and deep
penetration. Missions are defined in terms of weapons carried (canon, missiles,
bombs) and range and nature of airspace (friendly or hostile). Deep penetration
demands the maximum in terms of weapons, range and capacity for autonomous
navigation. Interceptors are light and powerful. Deep penetration aircraft are heavy,
have large range and good navigation capability.
Typical aircraft operating in India are as below:
Trainers

HJT 16 (Kiran), HJT 36

Interceptor

MIG 21

MRCA with deep penetration capability :

Mirage 2000, Jaguar

Transports

HS 748, IL 76

Civil aircraft come in various seating capacities (from 10 to 700) and range (a few
hundred km to several thousand). Speed of flight is normally around 250 knots for
short range aircraft to about 500 knots for large range aircraft (knot is a unit of speed
and corresponds to 1.15 miles per hour).
Other flight vehicles of interest are general aviation aircraft (of up to 10 seats) rotary
wing aircraft, airships, paraplanes etc. Unmanned aircraft are also being used for
surveillance purposes.

10

4. Fluid Flow Fundamentals

Some basic concepts indicated below are very useful in understanding and
interpreting fluid flows.
A streamline is a curve whose direction at each point coincides with the direction of
the velocity of the fluid at that point. All streamlines passing through a small closed
curve form a stream tube. The concept is particularly useful in steady flows in which
case the stream tubes behave like solid tubes through which the fluid passes.
From the law of conservation of matter, it follows that the amount of fluid flowing
through each section of the stream tube per unit time must be a constant. Referring
to the figure, it , w, A are respectively the fluid density, the velocity and the crosssection area of stream tube, it follows that:
Aw = constant.

Stream Tube

For an ideal fluid (fluid of constant density and no viscosity) there are no shear
stresses in the fluid and the forces on fluid elements are entirely due to inertia and
fluid pressure (neglecting body force due to gravity). In this case we can derive an
important relation between velocity and pressure (the Bernoulli law) as below:

Forces on an element of ideal fluid

Momentum flux increase over the element is

11

s
s

(Mass flux x change of velocity)

This is balanced by the pressure force increase in s direction which is

A
Thus we have

p
s
s

i.e.

p
+
= 0
s s

2
(
+ p) = 0
s
2

2
= a constant along a steam line. This is the Bernoulli law which relates
2
the changes of pressure to changes of velocity along a streamline. Thus, along a
stream line, if velocity increases, the pressure decreases. Thus regions of high
velocity correspond to regions of low pressure.

or

p+

Real fluids have viscosity, a fluid property which implies friction forces between
layers of fluid. Referring to a fluid between two parallel plates, one of which is sliding
relative to the other, there is a shear stress - given by

du
dy

Flow between a fixed and a sliding plate

= coefficient of viscosity and is a property of the fluid. It generally depends on
temperature. For liquids it falls with increase of temperature. For air, it increases with
increase of temperature. One may define (/) as , the kinematic viscosity of the
fluid. The value of for air is very small and 1/ is around 70,000 at sea level in
metric units.
Similarity considerations indicate that a dimensionless parameter, the Reynolds
number ( D / where D is a typical body dimension) which is a measure of the
12

relative magnitude of the inertia forces in relation to viscous forces, is very important.
The number typically is over a million for air flow over practical bodies like airplanes.
Reynolds number plays a very important role in fluid flows. At low Reynolds numbers
(R) the flow is laminar in the sense that fluid particles move in smooth curves. For
flow in a pipe, laminar flow implies that fluid particles move in layers parallel to the
wall. This happens at R < 1000. For higher Reynolds numbers, the flow becomes
turbulent in the sense that fluid particles move chaotically and the flow is only steady
when averaged over time. Turbulent flow results in a higher level of skin friction as
compared to laminar flow.
For flow past bodies in a fluid of low viscosity (like air), the effect of viscosity is only
felt in a thin layer of fluid near the surface of the body (called the boundary layer).
The boundary layer is laminar at low Reynolds numbers but becomes turbulent at
high Reynolds numbers, through a process of transition which is a complex
phenomenon involving the stability of the boundary layer. However, in the absence
of any pressure gradient (like in a flat plate) the boundary layer is close to the body
all along its length. As bodies do induce a pressure gradient on the boundary layer,
the flow can reverse direction close to the surface leading to separation of low as
indicated in the figure. The phenomenon of laminar flow, transition, turbulent flow
and flow separation in the boundary layers are very important in understanding and
interpreting the flow over practical bodies like airfoils.

13

5. Basic Aerodynamics
It is convenient to define a force coefficient as;
CF v2 * (Area)

F=
Where

=
=

force acting on a body

fluid density far from the body (constant for
Incompressible fluids)

fluid velocity far from the body

(Area) =

i.e.

a characteristic reference area of the body.

Fx =

CFX ( v2 ) A (Drag)

Fy =

CFY ( v2) A

(Lift)

The coefficients CFX, CFY depend on the orientation of the body relative to the
stream, flow Reynolds number R and flow Mach number M defined as below:
Reynolds number R = V d/
Mach number M = V/ a
Where d = a characteristic length of body
= Kinematic viscosity of the fluid (1 / 70,000 in SI units for air)
a = velocity of sound ( 300 350 m /s for air)

14

A simple calculation show that R for airplanes is in the range of 106 to 108 while civil
aircraft fly at M < 0.85. We shall primarily consider bodies in this range of R & M.

Typical ranges or R are shown in the figure:

The force coefficients for typical bodies are illustrated below:

5.1 A circular disc placed normal to stream

The CD is practically constant for all R more than 103 (CD nearly 1)

Flow corresponding to disc

Note: (1) separation at sharp edge
15

(2) Large wake

(3) CD nearly constant ~ 1.

5.2 Flat plate along flow direction

Note: 1.
2.
3.
4.

no separation
thin boundary layers
small CD ( < 0.01 )
CD decreases with increase of R

5.3 Sphere

0.4
0.1

R
Note:

1.
2.
3.

105

106

CD is moderately high.
CD drops suddenly from 0.4 to 0.1 at R 2 x 105
The transition is sharp

Flow undergoes sudden change as below:

16

5.4

Airfoils

Note: 1.
2.

sudden improvement in L / D around R = 105

importance of smooth surface at R > 105

Tests should be conducted at higher than critical R so that the results are useful
for actual flight conditions (there is a need for large wind tunnels)

17

6. Basic Aerodynamics
6.1 Wing sections: Properties of wing sections (also called airfoils) depend on
their profile and incidence. Wings have finite span and an airfoil is the limit of a wing
with span tending to infinity. Properties of airfoils are useful in designing wings.
Typical geometric properties of airfoils are as follows:

tmax / c

: 12 to 18%

max camber :

2 to 4%

location of tmax : 30 60 % of chord

Typical aerodynamic properties of airfoils are as below:
Cl max 1.4 to 1.6 at 15o, Aerodynamic center at 1/4th chord.
Cdmin

.004

dCl / d ~ 0.1 per degree

Cm = 0 to 0.1 about aerodynamic center. Aerodynamic center is a point on the
airfoil such that Cm is independent of Ct for all Cl in the linear range (some what
below stall). Various airfoils and their properties are given in the following book:
Ira. H. Abbot and Albert E. Von Doenhoff theory of Wing Sections Dover
Publications, New York 1959.
For a specific airplane, the wing profile is chosen depending on speed of flight (flight
Mach number) and type of airplane. The final choice of wing profile involves
complex considerations including structural strength, sensitivity to profile errors,
location and type of control surfaces (flaps, slats), flight Mach number (low mach no.
or mach no. close to 1.0 say 0.8 to 0.85).

18

6.2 Flaps and Spoilers

Flaps are a means of changing the lift coefficient of the airfoil at the same incidence.
A simple flap consists of hinging a part of the airfoil near the rear and rotating the
same.

Flaps are used for the control surface to create moments about the three axes of the
airplane (ox, oy, oz) for flight control. Flaps are also used for enhancing the lifting
capacity of a wing during take off and landing of any airplane. Clmax for an airfoil
(around 1.6 without flaps) can be increased to about 2.4 with simple flaps and to
about 3.0 with a combination of slat and multi-slotted Fowler type flaps. These are
used on large civil transports.
Spoilers are used for decreasing lift of airfoils and also to create drag. These are
used primarily just after landing for dumping lift as well as air brakes to dissipate the
kinetic energy of the airplane without using mechanical brakes (which are used for
lower speeds only).

Typical flaps / spoilers: Spoiler deflected upwards on landing

Spoilers are also used for control purposes (ex: spoiler aileron).

19

Flaps also cause an increase of drag and they have to be used carefully for take off.
Generally full flap deflection is used for landing, but only partially deflected for take
off.

6.3 Effects of compressibility on properties of wing sections

Large civil aircraft operate at 0.80 to 0.85 Mach number. Effects of compressibility
are important at these speeds and the design of wings for these aircraft is carefully
done to ensure good performance (i.e. low drag) at these speeds.
Unswept airfoils feel the adverse effects of compressibility (increase of CD at
constant CL) at around 0.5 to 0.7 (depending on profile and thickness) and an
effective way of postponing these is to use wing sweep.
For an unswept wing, effect of mach no. on Cl is adequately given by the PrandtlGlauert rule, i.e.
C li
C lc =
1 M 2
where
Clc = lift coefficient accounting for compressibility
Cli = lift coefficient in incompressible flows
M = free stream Mach number
The above holds good below the critical mach no. Mcr (defined as the Mach number
at which local sonic flow is produced.)
Sweep on an airfoil affects the lift as the free stream velocity is effectively the
component normal to airfoil span
direction as in figure.

V = free stream velocity

Vs = lateral component
VN = normal component

Note: = angle of attack along stream direction.

N = angle of attach with respect to airfoil chord
= / cos
= sweep angle.

20

It can be shown that in this case.

C lc =

2 . cos

1 (M cos )
The lift coefficient is reduced due to sweep effect, but the effective Mach number is
also less (M Cos). Compressibility effect is thus delayed considerably. A sweep
angle of 30 35o degrees is used on large civil transports.

6.4

Benefit of a swept wing

Let us compare the weight of two wings designed with the same span and area. If
the wing has no sweep, for a critical mach number of 0.8, its thickness will be 9%. If
we consider a profile of double the thickness (18%), then Mer = 0.7. But if we sweep
the profile of 18% thickness by an angle of 290 ( cos = 0.875 ), the same Mer is
maintained. However, the wing length is increased to 1/0.875 or 1.14 of the original
value. The chord wise thickness of the wing is increased by 2 x 0.875 or 1.75. The
sheet cross-section area for resisting bending is decreased to 1.14/1.75 or 0.65.
Thus the wing weight decreases by 1.14 x 0.65 = 0.74. This is a significant benefit. If
the wing weight is held constant a large increase in Mer is obtained. The above
analysis is due to George Schairer (May 5, 1945) and led to use of swept wing on
Boeing B-47 bomber.

21

7.

Performance of wings

Wings are lifting surfaces of finite size. Typical wing planforms are shown in figure.

7.1 Wings in incompressible flow

Theory of wings is well developed. Prandtls lifting line theory adequately explains
many properties of wings. A simple version of Max Munks analysis is given below
to explain the effect of aspect ratio on drag.
A finite wing deflects fluid in a region roughly corresponding to the area with the wing
span as the diameter. The flow in this region has a downward component as shown
in figure below. It is called the downwash.

Distribution of downwash
In longitudinal direction

Distribution over the area

Momentum balance indicates:

Lift = flux of normal momentum
22

 b2

L = v
4

%"
"$""
#
mass

or

w = 4L / b

w
!
velocity component

flux

Due to downwash, the lift vector tilts backwards by an angle w/2Vas in figure

Di = induced drag = Lift * w/2V

This results in an induced drag,

Di = L. w/v = 2L2 / v2 b2

Note that the induced drag depends only on span loading of the wing L/b and flight
dynamic pressure ( v2). Wings of small span loading (large span) have a small
induced drag. The above equation could be written in dimensionless form as
CDi = (CL2/ () x Aspect Ratio)
Wings of small aspect ratio have to operate at smaller values of CL to avoid
excessive induced drag and hence maximum CL is seldom an important parameter
for such wings. Further, wings of small aspect ratio have a small dCL/d and stall
at higher angles of attack.

7.2 Supersonic flow

Flow properties at M > 1 are radically different from flow at subsonic mach numbers.
Density changes which are small in subsonic flow play a dominant role.
A small disturbance in a compressible medium travels at the speed of sound. Thus
at M < 1, the whole fluid is covered by the disturbance generated at any point.
However in supersonic flow, disturbances and their effects are confined as indicated
in figure

= sin-1(1/M)
23

Disturbances in stagnant fluid (above), Disturbances due to moving source, v> a

(below))
Typical flows at supersonic speeds are indicated below

Pressure distribution
Note that there is drag (component along flow) due to the N- shaped pressure
distribution. This is called the wave drag. This is in addition to friction on the walls
which exists in all domains of flow.
Flow past a wedge in shown in figure:

p
=
q

Pressure on the wedge surface is given by

2
M 2 1

24

Using the previous result one can show

CL =

M 2 1
Note that there is wave drag equal to L.

, CD = CL .

In subsonic flow (inviscid)

CL =

2
1 M 2

, CD = 0

This clearly shows that there is an additional drag due to lift. Lift Drag ratio in
supersonic flow is generally much lower than in subsonic flow. Airplanes operate at
supersonic speeds only at high altitudes. Supersonic speeds are avoided at lower
altitudes due to the enormous dynamic pressure that would be produced at these
altitudes. These large dynamic pressures would induce large loads on the wings due
to even small gusts and thus overload the structure.

25

8. Aerodynamic Measurements
Aerodynamic characteristics of an airplane configuration are required for estimating
the performance and stability of the airplane and also for designing simulators used
for training pilots. These are generally obtained by testing suitable models in wind
tunnels as the calculations based on theoretical methods are not sufficiently
accurate. The tests are conducted in suitable wind tunnels capable of simulating the
flight of the airplane in terms of Reynolds number and Mach number as closely as
possible. Wind tunnels have to be quite large to achieve a reasonably high Reynolds
number for tests.

8.1

Types of Wind Tunnels

Low speed wind tunnels typically running at less than 100 m/s are suitable for
studying the aerodynamic characteristics of aircraft in their take off and landing
configurations. As the Mach number of these tests is low (around 0.2) the results
are not applicable to flight at higher Mach numbers (typically 0.8 for civil aircraft).
Additional tests of these configurations may be required in transonic and supersonic
wind tunnels. Low speed wind tunnels can generally run continuously while most of
high speed wind tunnels are of the intermittent type due to the enormous power
required to operate them. We shall only consider low speed wind tunnels here.
To achieve high Reynolds numbers, some large wind tunnels use pressurization
(ambient pressure of 4 5 atmospheres). A few are cooled to cryogenic
temperatures to reduce the kinematic viscosity. But a large bulk of low speed wind
tunnels run at atmospheric pressure.

8.2

Typical Wind Tunnel

The goal of the wind tunnel designer is to have uniform velocity in the whole test
section. However, variations of the order of +/- 0.25% in the velocity and turbulent
fluctuations of the order of 0.1% are tolerable. The honeycomb, screens and
26

contraction are designed to ensure the above quality flow in the test section.
Diffuser helps in recovering the kinetic energy of the stream by converting it into
pressure rise. Motor power depends on wind tunnel size and speed. A typical; wind
tunnel of 10 sq.m test section area running at 80 m/s absorbs about a MW.
Models to be tested are placed in the test section. Permissible model size is only a
small fraction of the area of the test section due to the blockage error. Typical wing
area of an aircraft model is only about 5% of the test section area.

8.3

Model Mounting and Instrumentation

Typically, an aircraft model is mounted on a sting which carries a balance at the

model end and attaches to a pitch and yaw mechanism at the other. The pitch and
yaw mechanism permits orienting the model at any desired incidence and sideslip in
the test section. Typical range of incidence is 5o to +30o and sideslip is 10 deg.
However, combat aircraft models are tested even at high incidence values as there
is a recent trend towards maneuvers at very high angles of attack.
Measurements in wind tunnels relate to velocities (magnitude and direction)
pressures (distribution on various surfaces like wings etc.) and forces (on overall
aircraft configurations as well as on parts like stores, armament and rotodomes etc.)
Velocity at a point can be measured using a pitot-static tube. A typical design is
shown below.

The design has negligible error in the range of of 20o.

calculated from:
Pt - Ps = v2

The velocity V is

Where = density of air (assumed constant and Independent of pressure. This

relation is good only up to Mach 0.5).
The speed in the test section is measured by measuring the pressure drop across
the contraction and calibrating it against the wind tunnel speed in the test section
without any body in it (empty tunnel). The pressure drop is measured using a
manometer or a pressure transducer.

27

The Pitot - static tube can also be used for measuring the flight speed of an aircraft.
In this case the air density is function of altitude and temperature. However, the
dynamic pressure v2, is directly measured and one can define an equivalent air
speed Ve (EAS) as:
Ve2 = Pt - Ps
where, o = sea level standard density
As the airplanes lifting characteristics depend only on dynamic pressure, it is
enough to indicate Ve on the pilots instruments. The true air speed V can be
calculated if altitude and temperature are also measured. On modern aircraft
different sensors are used for measuring these and a computer calculates all the
desired quantities like equivalent air speed, true airspeed, Mach number etc.
Measurement of force in wind tunnels is generally done using a strain gauge based
six-component balance. The principle used here is to measure strains at suitable
locations on an elastic body and calculate the forces using the measured strains.
A schematic of a strain gauge balance is shown in figure:

Sections A & B are moment measuring stations. C consists of thin parallel bending
strips sensitive to axial force.
Six strain gauge bridges produce six outputs (R1..R6) related to the six applied
forces / moments (Normal force, side force, axial force pitching moment, yawing
moment and rolling moment). The relation is linear and is written as
C11 ..........
R1

& =

R6

C 66

F1
&

F6

C11C66 are established by calibration. Once this is done one can use the
balance to measure forces using the inverse relation

28

U 11 ..........
F1

& =

F6

U 66

R1
&

R6

where [U] is the user matrix and is the inverse of the calibration matrix [C]
Qualitative studies of flow can be done using flow visualization by tufts or by using
smoke. The second method generally needs a separate wind tunnel specially
designed for the purpose. Careful introduction of smoke and appropriate lighting to
illuminate the smoke and not the tunnel walls are essential for good visualization of
the streamline pattern in a complex flow.

29

9. Safety in Aviation
The level of safety expected in civil aviation is extremely high. Safety is defined as
freedom from accident and is a statistical concept. The British Civil Aviation
Regulations (BCAR) expects aircraft to be designed for a level of safety of about 1
accident or less in 107 flights. (This corresponds to roughly 10,000 years of average
use on a civil airplane). Actual level of safety in commercial operation is about a
tenth of this value.
BCAR defines various types of events having a bearing on safety. Ex: engine shut
down in flight, hard landing, fire warning in flight etc. These are more frequent them
the level quoted above. Major accidents involving fatalities are expected to reach the
BCAR level of safety. Design for safety therefore involves statistical calculations and
book keeping of various events having a bearing on safety.

9.1 An illustration:
Consider the take off of a twin engine airplane from a runway of well defined length.
It is assumed that there are obstacles of various sorts (buildings, towers, power lines
etc) outside the airport, but these are below a certain surface (called the take off
surface) generally defined as having a slope of 1.6%.
Normal take off using both engines provides adequate performance for the airplane
to clear the take off surface by a wide margin. But if an engine fails during take off,
there is a possibility of the airplane falling below the take off surface and thus
creating an accident by hitting an obstacle. BCAR demands that the possibility of
this event should be less than once in 107 flights. The airplane designer
/ manufacturer/ operator together must make sure that this level of safety is assured
to the satisfaction of the certifying authority.
It implies that take off conditions of the airplane (all up weight, engine power, flap
setting) for the airfield conditions (length of runway, altitude of airport, air
temperature at airport etc) are such that, if an engine fails during any point of take off
run, the airplane can either safely stop within the available runway length or continue
further, take off clear the obstacles and climb to 1500 ft go round and come back
and land safely. The problem is complex, but safety is ensured by defining clearly
all the parameters at take off and laying down an operating procedure which ensures
safely. BCAR demands clear definition of maximum permissible weight at take off
for any given airfield (altitude, temperature) conditions, rotation speed, decision
speed, take off speed and enroute climb speed etc., relevant to the flight of the
aircraft on one engine and the minimum performance in terms of climb gradient in
the various take off segments. (2.4% in third segment, 0.8% enroute)
Being based on statistical reasoning these numbers have to be interpreted in a
statistical sense and words like gross and net have only a statistical meaning.
Typical extracts of the relevant performance capability of a typical airplane designed
as per BCAR is enclosed as an illustration.

30

A second problem of interest from safety point of view is the possibility of engine
failures in cruise. In the event of one engine failure, the airplane can look for a
landing airfield so that the possibility of the second engine failing before landing is
minimized. In the case of long range flights over an ocean, there is a real possibility
of second engine failure before finding a landing strip and the probability of this
happening should be calculated and demonstrated to be better in 10-7. If this cannot
be satisfactorily proved, aircraft with three or more engines will have to be flown on
such routes. Indeed, long range flights are performed with 3 or 4 engined aircraft for
this reason.

9.2

Structural safety

The concept of safety as defined by BCAR can be extended to cover structural

strength. Interpreted this way probability of structural failure of an airplane in flight
should be less than BCAR design level (10-7)
In this context one may define design loads on structural members. Maximum
applied load for a component (the limit load) with a suitable margin for uncertainty is
defined as the design load for the component.
The strength of a component is defined in terms of the proof load and the ultimate
load. The proof load is the load at which there is barely noticeable permanent
deformation of the structure. The structure is still airworthy.
The ultimate load is the load at which the component fails completely or collapses,
this load is roughly around 1.5 times the proof load for aluminum structures.
The designer has to ensure that the proof load for a structural element is not
exceeded by design load in flight to a probability of 10-7.
It is also insisted upon (for aluminium structures) that 1.5 times the design limit load
does not exceed the ultimate load for the element.
The above statements are on a statistical basis and to apply them, information is
required about statistics of applied loads and variability of structural strength. These
31

are established based on actual test data. If test results are insufficient to
conclusively establish these, margins may be required for allowing for them.
BCAR provides guide lines for determining applied loads on structural elements in
the form V-n diagrams for maneuver loads and gust loads.
Calculations and Structural tests on components and / or complete structures are
required for establishing proof and ultimate loads of structural elements.
The above design philosophy is inadequate to meet the needs of fatigue failure of
components. Safety in fatigue is ensured by the concept of safe life within which
structural failure is unlikely (to a probability of 1 in 107). Inspections of structures are
carried out at intervals so that the smallest detectable crack, if present during one
inspection, will not grow to catastrophic proportions before the next inspection. Thus
fatigue life calculations and tests and crack propagation tests are required for
certifying a structure for fatigue life.

32

10. Aircraft propulsion

Aircraft propulsion is based on production of thrust by imparting additional
momentum to air entering the propulsion unit. Propulsive efficiency is the efficiency
with which mechanical energy of the power plant is converted into propulsive work
and is derived from momentum and energy considerations as below:

vo

vw

vo = in coming stream velocity ( flight speed )

vw = wake velocity ( relative to propulsion unit )

m = air mass flow rate into the unit

then,

thrust = m ( vw vo)

Thrust work = m ( vw vo) vo

Mechanical energy input = m ( vw vo)2

propulsive efficiency = useful work / energy input

= m ( vw vo) vo / m ( v2w v2w)

= 2 vo / (vw + vo)
1.0

0.5

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Vw / Vo
Note that for high propulsive efficiency, vw should not be much larger than vo. Thus,
turbojet engines with vw > 500 m/s would be quite inefficient at low speeds (say 50
m/s).

33

10.1 Propellers
A propeller basically consists of blades in the form of rotating wings driven by an
engine. The component of lift on the rotating wing produces thrust. Propeller theory
is based on blade element properties and momentum considerations.

Axial flow velocity = (vo + vw)/ 2

The figure above indicates the general flow near a propeller. Note that the flow at
the propeller disc is (vo + vw)/ 2
Propeller characteristics are defined by the following parameters
J =

V / nD

or

=V/nD

(J = )

CT = T / n2 D4
CP = P / n3 D5,

= propeller efficiency

Here V = flight speed

n = engine RPS
T = Thrust
P = power absorbed
D = Prop. Diameter
= air density
The above dimensionless characteristics for a typical propeller are indicated in figure

CT

(
)

(
)
max ~ 70% to 80%
34

Propellers with variable pitch (the blades are rotatable about radial axes so that the
incidence of the blades i.e. pitch can be adjusted) running at constant speed have
superior characteristics and are generally used on large aircraft. (Fine pitch is good
for low speed take off and climb while coarse pitch is more suitable for cruise.)

10.2 Power Plants for Driving Propellers

Piston engines using aviation gasoline (100 octane) are generally used to power
small airplanes. To improve their altitude performance, supercharging is used.
Exhaust driven turbo superchargers are common. A few aviation diesel engines
exist and they are primarily for large range applications. There seems to be some
current interest in developing them for general aviation applications.
More commonly turbo-shaft engines are coupled to propellers using large ratio gear
boxes ( to match the typical rotation speed of prop (1000 to 2000 rpm) to turbine
engine speeds (10000 20000 rpm or even higher ). Propellers are suitable for
flight mach numbers of 0.6 or less. At higher speeds the propellers tips have to run
at supersonic speeds and the efficiency is very much reduced and noise level
increases.

10.3 Propulsion using the Gas Turbine Engine

The first turbine based propulsion unit to displace the piston engine + propeller was
the turbojet, the principle is given below.

Air is first compressed and then heated by burning fuel in it. The hot gas is partially
expanded in a turbine and the work produced is used to drive the compressor. The
extra pressure is converted into kinetic energy of the jet which is used directly for
propulsion.
As materials cannot withstand the adiabatic flame temperature of about 2500oC
(Nickel alloys can stand about 1100oC; other alloys are worse) maximum gas
temperature in the cycle is limited by this and excess air is used in the combustion
chambers. Thus extra oxygen is available in the exhaust and additional power (at
lower thermodynamic efficiency) can be obtained by burning fuel after the turbine but
before the nozzle. This is called after burning or reheat and is used on combat
aircraft for short periods or at high speeds.
35

The propulsive efficiency of a turbojet is enhanced by using a front mounted ducted

fan or bypassing some air to the nozzle after partial compression. These engines
thus have two streams of gas flow relatively cold flow in the bypass stream and the
core flow which is hot. Bypass ratios of 0.5 to 5 (in relation to the core flow are
used). Low bypass engines are used on combat aircraft. High bypass units are used
in civil transports.
Thrust reversers which partially deflect propelling jet into the flight direction to
produce negative thrust are used on civil aircrafts during landing.
Engine noise is an important problem in civil aviation. Noise rises as a high power of
vw (~vw6) and turbojets are the most noisy. Turbofans used in civil aircraft are much
less noisy. Noise absorption devices are used in the intake ducts of these engines to
reduce compressor generated noise.
Combat aircraft use vectoring nozzles to change the thrust direction without moving
the engine. Vectored thrust is useful for producing control moments about pitch and
yaw axes of the airplane, particularly at the low end of the speed envelope when
aerodynamic controls are weak.

36

11. Airplane Performance

Airplane performance can be calculated based on the drag polar of an airplane
which is of the form
CD = A + B CL2
Where A and B constants depending on airplane configuration and flap setting.
As an illustration, rate of climb of an aircraft can be calculated from equilibrium
considerations as below,

= climb angle
Clearly

sin = (T-D) / W

or rate of climb, R/C = V sin = (T-D)V/W

Here D and L are related to aircraft as
D = V2CDS
L = V2CLS = W
CD = A + B CL2

and

Using the above equation one can calculate rate of climb at any flight speed. The
principle is illustrated below.

Range of an aircraft can be calculated using Breguets formula derived as below.

37

R = V t
where R = range
w/t = -T C
where w/t
consumption.
= (-D/L) WC
T= D, W = L

for equilibrium

= rate of

weight change due to fuel

where C = s.f.c.
implies that

R = L/D. V/C. ln (Winitial/ Wfinal)

V = flight speed, L/D = lift to drag ratio in cruise.
The formula is accurate to a few percent typically.

38

12. Airplane Stability in the Longitudinal Plane

We now introduce the concept of static stability. If a small disturbance is given to
incidence , the resulting aerodynamic forces must tend to restore the original .
For small change in , the aerodynamic forces along lift direction act at a point on
the axis of the airplane called the neutral point.

Lw

LT

M
L

Neutral point is property of the aerodynamic configuration of the airplane. For

static stability, the airplane C.G. must be ahead of the neutral point so as to
produce a returning moment (negative pitching moment) after an increase of .
Control of the airplane in pitch (choice of equilibrium ) is possible when the
elevator is deflected to create a pitching moment to overcome the moment due to
static stability. The figure below is illustrative.

e = -ve Max

e = +ve Max

= elevator deflection
Note:

Cm = 0 corresponds to steady flight

= 0 (elevator neutral) leads to steady flight at = 0
= -ve max leads to steady flight at = max etc.
39

Note:
Cm Vs curves need not be linear. Some times Cm - curves have
stable equilibrium at very high as in figure below. This leads to what is called
deep stall.

Stable equilibrium at high

(deep stall)

T Tail configurations are prone to deep stall.

V Tail or twin tail configurations are better

12.1 Lateral Stability and Control

Lateral stability is affected by fin area and location (weathercock stability) as well as
dihedral effect (rolling moment due to side slip). Sweep and dihedral angle affects
this property.
Rudder produces a strong yawing moment (required during an engine failure on twin
engine aircraft).

12.2 Control of Aircraft in Normal Flight

The pilot controls the motion of the aircraft using four primary controls (throttle,
elevator. rudder, and aileron). Manual controls are suitable for small aircraft. Large
aircraft need power assistance. Aircraft operating over a wide flight envelope
(loading, speed, altitude etc.) have poor handling characteristics over part of their
flight envelope. (Poor response to pilot input in terms of frequency content and
damping of the ensuing motion). Stability augmentation systems (e.g. yaw damper)
are used on many civil aircraft. Full fly by wire control systems offer enhanced
maneuverability and superior handling qualities.

40

12.3 Fly by Wire (FBW) Control Systems

These systems use active control technology (ACT). The technology offers the
following benefits.

Improved flying qualities

Improved performance by use of the concept of control configure vehicle.
Unstable configurations can be used
Enhanced safety due to envelope protection.
Enhanced stealth due to smaller control surfaces.
Enhanced maneuver capability. ( using additional control concepts like
thrust vectoring )

The ACT is based on the use of sensors for flight variables and using the sensed
motion for actuating the control surfaces using a computer generated control law. A
typical FBW control system is shown below.

u = k * (y-yc) + uc
: control law
p = pilot command vector
= p(xp, xq, xr)
y = y( p,q,r, , )
: sensed feedback vector
u = u(e, a, r, tv, c ) :
yc = fy.
where tv is thrust vector control and
c is canard control
Sensors include air data variables and inertial rotation rates.

41

The flight control system can include many failure modes as below
Basic mode

Loss of inertial sensors

Inertia measuring
unit disengage
Fixed gain mode

Nose boom and ,

Sensor failure

Typical failure modes

42