THE

NEXT NEWTON
TWO THINGS ARE INFINTE: THE UNIVERSE AND HUMAN
STUPIDITY AND IAM NOT SURE ABOUT UNIVERSE.
-Albert Einstein.

By- Daggupati Kalyan

2015

Foreword
Dear readers, it is an effort to instill the basics of the physics in an easiest
possible way to learn and remember for longer with some day-to-day
activities with colourful pictures of our life.
The author is a student of 10th standard in Nalanda Vidya Niketan, Vijayawada,
has passion for physics and book writing in the interest of fellow students &
physics lovers. The dream of writing a book evolved with the burning desire and
passion for physics concepts.

The motto is to help 9th and 10th standard students to get their dream
marks in physics. All the chapters in this book are well covered with all
formulae and explained in scientific way which is vital to lay a strong
foundation of basics before going for further studies in the field of
physics.
I would like to thank all my school mentors to educate me in right way.
Let us start the journey through this book into the wonderful world of`
physics.

Daggupati Kalyan

DaggupatiKalyan

INDEX:

1.Motion
2.Force and laws of motion
3.Gravitation
4.Work and energy
5.Sound
6.Electricity
7.Magnetic effect of electric
current
8.Reflection of light
9.Refraction of light

MOTION

We observe everyday activities associated with motion dont we?

Motion as we know is the movement of an object which changes its position with
respect to the reference point.
A reference point is needed to describe whether an object is in motion or not.
That reference point is called origin.
A body is said to be in rest when it is observed that it does not change its position
with respect to a reference point.

Motion can be perceivable in two types:

The motion of a car is directly perceivable motion whereas motion by air is
indirectly perceivable motion because the movement of air can be noticed only
by observing the movement of trees, leaves.

TYPES OF MOTION:

Translatory motion: It is of three types:

Curvilinear motion: An object moving in a curved path is called curvilinear
motion. Example: A stone thrown into the air at an angle.

Linear motion: Linear motion (also called rectilinear motion) is a motion

along a straight line, and can therefore be described mathematically using only
one spatial dimension.

Circular motion: circular motion is a movement of an object along the

circumference of a circle or rotation along a circular path.

Rotatory motion: When a body rotates about a fixed point or axis , it has
rotatory motion.

The difference between circular and rotatory motion:

Circular motion is associated with a centripetal force. Rotational motion is
associated with torque. Rotation is always when a body moves on its own axis.
Circular when the body moves around some other body.

Vibratory or oscillatory motion:

Vibratory motion occurs at a fixed point as an object moves back and forth. That
fixed point is called mean position.
Well we will understand these types of motion more easily by looking at the
given examples.

Ignore reciprocating motion. In the next picture you can see a pendulum swing.

Well let us see some examples based on reference points:

So when observed here there are two cases:(1) When trees are taken as a reference point then train is said to be in motion
whereas the trees are in rest.
(2) When train is taken as a reference point then trees are said to be in motion.

So we have come to know that to describe the motion we have to take a reference
point which is at rest.
We will be learning the simplest type of motion that is motion along a straight
line which is also known as linear motion. It is also called as rectilinear motion.
It is one dimensional motion.
Motion is described in terms of displacement (or distance), time, velocity (or
speed), and acceleration.
Distance is the total path covered by an object when it is in motion.
Distance is represented by letters and its S.I unit is meter (m).
Displacement is the shortest distance between its initial and final positions.
Displacement is represented by s with an arrow over it, like the one shown
here:-

Well let us look at differences between displacement and distance.

Before we look into that let us know what does vector and scalar quantity mean?
Scalar quantities are those which have only magnitude but do not specify the
direction. Vector quantities are those which have magnitude and also specify the
direction.

Differences between Distance and Displacement:

S.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.

DISTANCE
It is defined as the actual
path traversed a body.
It is a scalar quantity.
It can never be a negative
or zero.
Distance can be equal to or
greater than displacement.
Distance travelled is not a
unique path between two
points.
The distance between two
points gives full
information of the types of
path followed by the body.

DISPLACEMENT
It is the shortest distance between
two points by between which the
body moves.
It is a vector quantity.
It can be negative, zero or positive.
Displacement can be equal to or
less than distance.
Displacement is a unique path
between two points.
Displacement between two points
does not give full information of
the types of path followed by the
body.

7.
8.

Distance never decreases

with time. For a moving
body, it is never zero.
Distance in SI is measured
in meter.

Displacement can decrease with

time. For a moving body, it can be
zero.
Displacement in SI is measured in
meter.

Cases in which displacement is zero or negative are:

(1) When an object travels and finally returns to its original position.

(2)When an object travels in opposite direction then it has negative

displacement.

Speed:It is the rate of distance travelled. That is speed is the unit distance travelled by
body per unit time. It is represented by letter (v). Its S.I unit is m/s.
Speed (v) = Distance/time. It is a scalar quantity. Instantaneous speed is the
motion rate of object at a particular time period or moment. It is observed by
speedometer.
Odometer is the device which measures the distance travelled by an automobile.
Average speed= total distance travelled/ total time taken.

.i. e. v =

d
t

If a particle travels 1st half of distance with speed a and 2nd half of the distance
2 ab .
with speed b then the average speed is
ab

Remember when converting kmph to m/s then 1 kmph =

5 ms-1
18

Velocity:It is the rate of distance in a given direction.

Velocity= Displacement/time
Average velocity=

u v (u=initial velocity, v=final velocity)

2

If a particle travels for a time t1 with velocity v1 and for a time and for a time t2
with velocity v2 in the same direction, then
Average velocity in this case is:

v1t1 v 2t 2 .
t1 t 2

Velocity of a particle is uniform if both it magnitude and direction remains

unchanged.
A body can have constant speed but variable velocity. Ex: A body in uniform
circular motion has constant speed but since the direction changes at every point
it has variable velocity.

No.

Difference between speed and velocity:

SPEED
It is defined as the rate of change of
distance.
It is a scalar quantity.
It can never be negative or zero.
Speed is velocity without direction.

VELOCITY
It is defined as the rate of change of
displacement.
It is a vector quantity.
It can be negative, zero or positive.
Velocity is directed speed.
A body may possess different velocities
Speed may or may not be equal to velocity.
but the same speed.
Speed never decreases with time. For a
Velocity can decrease with time. For a
moving body, it is never zero.
moving body, it can be zero.
-1
Speed in SI is measured in ms
Velocity in SI, is measured in ms-1

Acceleration:It is the rate of change of velocity. It is a vector quantity.

A=

vu
t

The S.I unit is m/s2. When an object travels with uniform velocity it is not
accelerated.

Uniform acceleration:A body is said to be in uniform acceleration when it travels in straight line and its
velocity increases by equal amounts in equal intervals of time.
Ex: - acceleration due to gravity in a freely falling body.
(Non-uniform acceleration is vice versa)
Negative acceleration is called retardation. It is also called as deceleration.

Equations of uniformly accelerated motion:These are applicable when the bodies travel in uniform acceleration.

(1)First equation of motion is:

v= u+at

a= v u i.e. at = v-u i.e. v= u+at

t

(2)Second equation of motion is

(3) Third equation is:

Uniform Circular Motion:When a body moves in a circular path it is said to be in uniform circular
motion.
The speed here will be circumference/time. Here the type of motion is
accelerated motion.
An object moving in a circle is accelerating. Accelerating objects are objects
which are changing their velocity - either the speed (i.e., magnitude of the
velocity vector) or the direction. An object undergoing uniform circular motion is
moving with a constant speed. Nonetheless, it is accelerating due to its change in
direction. The direction of the acceleration is inwards. In uniform circular motion
the acceleration is constant in magnitude but not in direction.

Lets learn a few things about how to interpret data using

graph:
Time is always taken is x-axis. When a graph of one quantity versus another
results in a straight line, then these quantities are directly proportional. A curved
line in the sense it may be non-uniform.
A distance-time graph specifies speed, a velocity time graph specifies
acceleration.
On a displacement-time graph:
Slope equals velocity, when two curves coincide; the two objects have the
same displacement at that time.

On a velocity-time graph.
Slope equals acceleration, when two curves coincide; the two objects have
the same velocity at that time. You can learn it better by the below information.

FORCE AND LAWS OF MOTION

Now we will be learning about force and their applications in everyday life.
First we will learn what is meant by force and other important terms.
In physics, a force is any interaction which tends to change the motion of an
object. In other words, a force can cause an object with mass to change its
velocity (which includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate.
Force can also be described by intuitive concepts such as a push or a pull.
Related concepts to force include: thrust, which increases the velocity of an
object; drag, which decreases the velocity of an object; and torque which
produces changes in rotational speed of an object. In an extended body, each part
usually applies forces on the adjacent parts; the distribution of such forces
through the body is the so-called mechanical stress. Pressure is a simple type of
stress. Stress usually causes deformation of solid materials, or flow in fluids.

The line along which a force acts on an object is called the line of action
of the force. The point where the force acts on an object is called the point
of application of the force.
1N= 100000 dyne. (CGS unit of force is dyne).

Friction is a surface force that opposes relative motion. Friction causes heat and
damages the parts. Friction is mostly observed in machinery parts. Friction can

be reduced using ball bearings and lubricants. The common opposing forces are
air resistance and force of friction.
Impulse (symbolized by J or Imp) is the integral of a force, F, over the time
interval, t, for which it acts. Since force is a vector quantity, impulse is also a
vector in the same direction.
A large amount of force acting on an object for a short interval of time is called
impulse or impulsive force.
Impulse is the product of the net external force acting on a body and the time
for which the force is acted.
If a force F acts on a body for t seconds, then Impulse I = Ft. It is also equal
to change in momentum.

Force is of two types:1. Contact force- This force which results when there is a direct physical
contact between two interacting bodies. Ex:- Friction
2. Non-contact force: - The force which occurs without any physical

contact between two interacting bodies. Ex: - Electric and

Magnetic force.

Effects of force:-

The Effects of Forces: - force acting on an object may cause the object to change
shape, to start moving, to stop moving, to accelerate or decelerate. When two
objects interact with each other they exert a force on each other, the forces are
equal in size but opposite in direction.

Balanced force: - If the resultant of all the forces acting on a body is zero,
the forces are called balanced forces.
In this case object moves in uniform motion or if it is at rest then it appears as if
no force is acting on it. They can change the shape of the object. Ex: - balloon.

Unbalanced forces:If the resultant of all the forces acting on a body is not zero then the forces are
unbalanced.
Then it can move a stationary object or can stop a moving object. The adjacent
figure shows the unbalanced force.

Now we will be learning the three laws given by Newton.

Resultant force i.e. resultant of several forces acting simultaneously on a
body is that single force which produces the same effect on a body as all
these forces together produce.

1.

Newtons First law: - A body at rest will remain at rest and a body
in motion will remain in motion in a straight line with uniform speed
unless it is compelled by external force (unbalanced) to change its state
of rest or of uniform motion.

The tendency of a body to remain at rest or to continue moving in a straight

line is called inertia. Newtons first law of motion gives the qualitative
definition of force.

Inertia is of two types: 1.

Inertia of motion: - Inertia is the resistance of any physical object

to any change in its state of motion, including changes to its speed and
direction. It is the tendency of objects to keep moving in a straight line at
constant velocity.

2.

Inertia of rest: - The tendency of a body at rest to remain at rest or

of a body in straight line motion to stay in motion in a straight line unless
acted on by an outside force.

Inertia of direction: The natural tendency of an object to resist a

change in its direction of motion is called inertia of direction. Ex: When
a lion chases deer the deer continuously changes the direction and makes
it difficult for lion to chase it.

Inertia is directly proportional to mass. More mass then more inertia it

will be having and more force will be needed. So it is directly
proportional.
Newtons First law of motion is sometimes also called as Galileos law
of inertia.
Mass is a measure of inertia of an object.
Inertia of an object is not a physical quantity, and hence, we cant
measure it directly. Therefore, it does not have any unit.

Momentum: Momentum is the product of mass and velocity.

Momentum= massvelocity. Mass is denoted by letter p. Its S.I unit is
kgm/s.
It is a vector quantity. Momentum,p = mv. It gives a measure of
quantity of motion.

Change in momentum: Change in momentum is equal to final momentum - initial momentum. It

is equal to
the change in momentum is: m(v u)

Newtons second law: The rate of change of momentum of body is directly proportional to
applied force and takes place in direction of which force acts.
F Rate of change in momentum i.e. F

m(vu)
t

We can see that shockers and buffers are provided in automobiles and
trains so what they do is they increase the time interval of jerks thus
decrease in rate of change of momentum so a less force acts during the
jerks.

Force is a vector quantity. Its S.I unit is kgm/s2.

Newtons third law: When one body exerts a force on another body, the second body exerts an
equal and opposite force on first body.

Note: - Action and reaction act on different bodies. Observe the above pictures.

Therefore according to Newtons third law

Action = -Reaction.
Conservation of momentum: When two (or more) bodies act upon one another, their total momentum
remains constant (or conserved) provided no external forces are acting.
In simple words, momentum is never created or destroyed. This science
is used in guns.
I.e. Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision.

Mathematically it is

GRAVITATION

Millions say the apple fell but Newton was the only one to ask why.
-Baruch
Welcome to a wonderful world to the most fascinating topic!

The force with which the earth pulls the objects towards it is called the
gravitational force of Earth or gravity.
According to Newton every object in this universe attracts every other object
with a certain force.

Universal Law of Gravitation:

It is also called Newtons law of gravitation.
It states that every body in universe attracts every other body with a force which
is directly proportional to product of their masses and inversely proportional to
square of the distance between them.
F

m1m2.

1
R*R

Therefore

Here r is the distance between their centres.

Here G is called universal gravitational constant. It does not depend on the

medium between two bodies and it does not depend on their masses or the
distance between them.

Value of Gravitational constant is: It is scalar quantity.

It is the gravitational force between Sun and Earth that keeps the Earth in
uniform circular motion around the sun.
The tides in sea are formed by rising and falling of water level in sea is due to
gravitational force of attraction which the moon and the sun exert on the water
surface in the sea.

Centripetal force: When a body moves along a circular path with a

uniform speed, its direction changes at every point. The change in direction
involves acceleration as we have learned. The force provides this acceleration
and keeps the body moving along a straight path, the force acts towards the cntre.
In simple words, force that makes a body follow a curved path.
This is the force responsible for the motion of moon around the Earth.

Keplers Laws of Planetary Motion:

1. The planets move in elliptical orbits around the sun, with the sun at one
of the two foci of the elliptical orbit.

2. Each planet revolves around the Sun in such a way that the line joining
the planet to the sun sweeps over equal in equal intervals of time. The
speed is greater when the planet is nearer to the sun and less when the
planet is away from the sun; therefore the speed is not constant.

Free fall:

The falling of a body from a height towards the Earth under the
gravitational force of Earth (with no other forces acting on it) is called

free fall.
Galileo: The acceleration of an object falling freely towards the Earth
does not depend on the mass of the object.

If no air resistance is present, the rate of descent depends only on how far the
object has fallen, no matter how heavy the object is. This means that two objects
will reach the ground at the same time if they are dropped simultaneously from
the same height. This statement follows from the law of conservation of energy
and has been demonstrated experimentally by dropping a feather and a lead ball
in vacuum.
When air resistance plays a role, the shape of the object becomes important. In
air, a feather and a ball do not fall at the same rate. In the case of a pen and a
bowling ball air resistance is small compared to the force a gravity that pulls

them to the ground. Therefore, if you drop a pen and a bowling ball you could
probably not tell which of the two reached the ground first unless you dropped
them from a very high tower.
The reason: How fast something falls due to gravity is determined by a number
known as the "acceleration of gravity", which is 9.81 m/s2 at the surface of our
Earth. Basically this means that in one second, any object's downward velocity
will increase by 9.81 m/s because of gravity. This is just the way gravity works it accelerates everything at exactly the same rate.

Acceleration due to gravity:

When an object is dropped from some height its velocity increases at a constant
rate. In simple words when an object is dropped from some height, a uniform
acceleration is produced in it by the gravitational force of the Earth and the
important point is it does not depend on the mass of the falling object. This is
known as acceleration due to gravity. It is denoted by letterg. g = 9.8m/s2. It is
negative when it is thrown upward. So it retards at a rate of 9.8m/s2 .

This table shows the various values for g. So when observed g is less when away
from the centre of Earth and g is more when it is close to the centre of the Earth.
So it is not constant al all the places. It is because the radius is maximum at
equator and so less g value and since the radius is less at the poles the g value is
maximum.
g=

GM
R*R

So when we go up the distance from the centre of the Earth increases and so less
g value. But however g is zero at the centre of Earth.
The value of g on moon is

1 th of Earth i.e. approximately 1.63m/s2.

6

Mass of the Earth is 61024 kg. Radius of Earth is 6.4106 m.

EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR FREELY FALLING

BODIES: This is when u is taken as zero.

MASS:
The mass of a body is the quantity of matter (or material) contained in it. It is a
scalar quantity which has only magnitude and no direction. The S.I unit of mass
is kilogram (kg). The mass of an object is constant and does not change from
place to place. Mass of a body is a measure of inertia of the body and it is also
known as inertial mass. The mass cannot be zero.

WEIGHT:
The weight of a body is the force with which it is attracts towards the centre of
earth.
W = mg
Weight is a vector quantity. Weight changes from place to place. Weight is not
constant. The weight of a body can be zero example : - In space.
Weight of a person in moon will be

and why.

1 th of his weight on Earth. Let us see how

6

The diameter of earth is 4 times the diameter of moon. Therefore when we find
the ratio of Wm: We
We get the ratio when we have substituted 4R in place of R2 in We.
we get W m = 1
We 6

Differences between mass and weight:

Now we will be learning more about pressure and thrust.

PRESSURE AND THRUST:

The effect of force depends on the area of the object on which it acts. Weight is
the force which acts in downward position.
Pressure is the force acting perpendicularly on a unit area of the object.
F

P=A=

Thrust
Area

Weight
Area

The S.I unit of measuring pressure is Newton per

square meter (N/m ) it is also called Pascal (Pa).

2

Thrust is the force acting on a body perpendicularly.

Pressure in fluids:
A fluid in the sense a liquid or gas. These are the substances which can flow
easily.
However, the pressure (P) exerted by liquids depends on their density (r),
acceleration due to gravity (g) and the height (h) of the liquid column.
Mathematically it is given by P = hrg. The pressure exerted at a point in a liquid
is equal in magnitude in all directions, hence it is scalar

BUOYANCY:

Whenever an object (or body) is immersed in water (or any other liquid), it
appears to lose some weight and feels lighter. This is because every liquid exerts
an upward force on the objects immersed in it. The tendency of a liquid to exert
an upward force on an object placed in it is called buoyancy.

Characteristic Properties of upthrust

For the same volume inside the fluid more the density of fluid, greater is
the upthrust.
Larger the volume of the body submerged in fluid, greater is the upthrust.
The upthrust acts on the body in upward direction at the centre of
buoyancy i.e., the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid.

Factors Affecting the Upthrust

The magnitude of upthrust on a body due to a fluid (liquid or gas)

depends on the volume of the body submerged in the fluid (liquid or gas)
and
The magnitude of upthrust on a body due to a fluid (liquid or gas)
depends on the density of the fluid (liquid or gas) in which the body is
submerged.

Upthrust = Weight of liquid displaced by the body i.e.,

Upthrust = Volume of the body submerged in the fluid Density of the
fluid Acceleration due to gravity
FB = vg, Where
FB = Upthrust
v = Volume of the body submerged in the fluid
The upward force acting on an object immersed in a liquid is called buoyant
force. The upthrust is nothing but upward force exerted by liquid.
It is known that the pressure exerted by liquid increases with depth and acts in all
directions.

Pascal'law:
The increase in pressure of a liquid at a point is transmitted to all other parts of
the liquid without any change. This is Pascals law and it is widely used in

various applications like hydraulic brakes of vehicles, vehicle lift platforms in

garages etc.
The thrust exerted by a body remains constant placed in any position.
The pressure exerted by the body changes if the surface area of contact of the
body with another surface changes.
Thrust and pressure are also applicable to fluids i.e., liquids and gases.
Buoyancy is the upward force that a fluid exerts on an object when the object
is immersed in that fluid.
Floating and sinking of objects depends on how the density of the object
compares with the density of water.
The magnitude of the buoyant force depends on the density of the fluid.
Objects with a density less than that of a given liquid float when placed in
that liquid.
Objects with a density greater than a given liquid sink when placed in that
liquid.

The Pascals law is used in hydraulic brakes.

ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE:

When an object is wholly or partially immersed in a liquid, it experiences a

buoyant or upthrust which is equal to the weight of displaced by the object.
Buoyant force acting on object = Weight of liquid displaced by that object.
Archimedes' principle indicates that the upward buoyant force that is exerted on
a body immersed in a fluid, whether fully or partially submerged, is equal to the
weight of the fluid that the body displaces. If a body has more volume then it will
experience more buoyant force.
Volume of body = volume of water displaced.

Applications of archimeds principle:

It is used in lactometer and hydrometers.

WHY OBJECTS FLOAT AND SINK IN A LIQUID?
When an object is placed in a liquid two forces are acting on it:
1. Weight of the object acting downwards.
2. Buoyant force.
If buoyant force is less than the weight exerted then the body will sink if the
buoyant force is equal to the weight of the object then it will float and if the
buoyant force is more than the weight of the object then the object will float.

The Principle of Floatation:

An object will float in a liquid if the weight is equal to the weight of liquid
displaced by it.
Weight of object = Weight of liquid displaced by it.
A less dense object floats and high denser will sink. Here density is compared to
that of the water. If the density of water and object is same even then it will float.
Mass

Density = Volume
The S.I unit of density is kg/m3 .The density of water is 1000kg/m3 or 1g/cm3.
Relative density of substance is ratio of its density to that of water. It does not
have any S.I units as it is a pure ratio. The various formulas of relative density
are:

R.D = Mass of the substance / Mass of an equal volume of water.

R.D = 2d1d2/ d1= d2. Where d2 and d1 are the densities of two substances.
The relative density is maximum at 40C i.e. why it the relative density is
measured with the density of water at 40C. Here this table shows the data:

Temp (C) Density (g/cm3)

30
0.9957
20
0.9982
10
0.9997
4
1.0000
0
0.9998
10
0.9982
20
0.9935
30
0.9839

WORK AND ENERGY:

Whenever force displaces a body then work is said to be done. In physics work is
not done even though if you have practiced a lot of numericals!
The work done depends on:
1. Magnitude of force.
2. Distance it has moved.
Work done in moving a body is equal to the product of force and distance moved
in direction of force (since distance signifies direction we can assume it as
displacement).
Work = ForceDisplacement = FS. When a body is moved on ground by
applying force then work is done against the friction and if the body is lifted
upward then the work is done against gravity.
Unit of Work is Nm or J. Work is a scalar quantity because work the dot product
of vector quantities is always scalar which means it is has only magnitude and
no direction.
Work done in lifting a body = Weight of the body Vertical distance = mgh.
This is also called gravitational potential energy.

Formula of work done by force acting obliquely is:

Example:
W= F coss.
When work is done at right angle cos900 is zero so work done is zero.
When force acts opposite to direction of motion then Force is negative and so
work done is negative i.e. W= - FS.

Negative Work:

Zero work:

Positive work:

ENERGY:
Energy is the ability to do work.
The amount of energy possessed by a body is equal to amount of work it can do
when its energy is released. Energy is a scalar quantity. The S.I unit is joule.

1kj = 1000j. There are many forms of energy but we will be learning two types of
energy in detailed.

KINETIC ENERGY:
The energy of a body due to its motion is called kinetic energy. The kinetic
energy of a moving body is measured by the amount of work it can do before
coming to rest. Let us see the derivation for the formula of K.E.

Therefore K.E. = 2mv2.

POTENTIAL ENERGY:
The energy of a body due to its position or change in shape is known as potential
energy this type of potential energy is also called elastic potential energy.
Potential energy against gravity is called gravitational potential energy.

The sum of potential and kinetic energies of a body is called its mechanical
energy.
1

Change in kinetic energy= 2m( v2-u2) = potential energy = work done.

Power:
Power is defined as the rate of doing work.

Power =

Energy
Time

Work
Time

Its S.I. unit is watt. It is a scalar quantity.

1KW = 1000 watts and 1 MW = 106 watts.

Horse power is equal to 746 watts.

Commercial unit of energy:

The commercial unit of energy is kilowatt-hour
1 KWh = 3.6106 joules.

TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY:
The change of one form of energy to another form of energy is known as
transformation of energy. Let us see some examples:

From these examples we have learnt that the total energy remains constant.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:

Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be changed from on form
to other. The best example for this is a free fall example.

SOUND:

Sound as we know is a form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in

our ears. Sound is produced because of the vibration of the particles in the
medium.
Vibration is to and fro movement. Sound travels in form of waves.
A wave is a vibratory disturbance in a medium which carries energy from one
point to another without there being a direct contact between the two points.

Intensity of Sound:
Intensity of sound is the amount of sound energy incident per unit time per unit
area.
S.I. unit is W/m2.
Sound waves are mechanical waves because it needs a medium for travel. It is
also known as pressure waves. These are mechanical waves because they need a
medium for travel.

Waves are of two types:

1. Longitudinal waves.
2. Transverse waves.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
In longitudinal waves the particles in the medium vibrate back and forth
in the same direction in which the wave is moving. These longitudinal
waves can be produced in all the three media; solids, liquids and gases.
Let us see an example and understand it better.

These waves can be seen in tuning fork experiment.

A compression is the part of a longitudinal wave in which the particles of
the medium are closer to one another than they normally are, and there is
a momentary reduction in volume of the medium. In simple words the
particles in that region are denser than normally they are. They are high
pressured region. It happens when particles in medium move forward.
Compressed sound waves produce louder sound.
A rarefaction is the part of a longitudinal wave in which the particles of
the medium are farther apart from normal, and there is a momentary
increase in the volume of the medium i.e. the particles are rarer (less
denser than normally they are). They are low pressured region. It
happens when particles move backward. Rarefacted waves produce
softer sound.
Another type of waves is transverse waves. These waves can be
produced in solids and liquids but not in gases. In transverse waves the
particles of the medium vibrate up and down about their mean position,
in the direction perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

The best example of a transverse wave is water waves (ripples) formed

on the water surface when a stone is dropped.
Crest is the hump or the elevation above the zero disturbances of
medium. And trough is the depression or hollow below the zero
disturbance of medium. Here is the graphical representation of
longitudinal and transverse waves.

The Difference between Longitudinal Waves and

Transverse Waves:
LONGITUDINAL
1. The particles of medium
vibrate in the same direction.

TRANSVERSE
1. The particles move at right
angles to the direction of wave
propagation.

2. They are possible only in

2. They are possible in all kinds
solids and liquids.
of media.
3. They consist of regions of
compression and rarefaction.

3. They consist of crests and

troughs.

4. They cannot be polarized.

5. Sound waves in air are an
example of longitudinal waves.

4. They can be polarized.

5. Vibrations in a string is an
example of transverse waves.

Characteristics of a sound wave:

Wavelength () is the distance between two consecutive crests (or

compressions) or two consecutive troughs (or rarefactions) in transverse

waves. The length of wave is2. The S.I unit is meter (m).

Amplitude (A) is
the maximum displacement of the vibrating particles from their mean
position. The S.I unit is meter (m).
Time period (T) is the interval between two successive compressions or
two successive rarefactions in longitudinal waves. Time period (T) is the
interval between two successive crests or two successive troughs
in transverse waves.
Frequency (n) is the number of waves produced by the source of sound
per unit time. The S.I unit is hertz (Hz). 1 KHz = 1000 Hz. 1 Hz is equal
1
to one vibration in a second. Frequency f = .
T

Speed of the sound waves is the ratio of distance to time. It is denoted by

the letter v. The S.I unit is m/s.
The speed of a sound wave depends on the properties of the medium
through which it propagates.
When an object travels at a speed greater than the speed of sound in air,
it is said to be travelling with a supersonic speed. Enormous energy is
produced when an object travels at a supersonic speed. This energy is
propagated as a sharp and loud sound, called a sonic boom.
object s speed
soundspeed

of sound = T =

Mach =

. Speed of sound is 344m/s.

Speed

f.

When does speed travel faster?

If the temperature of a gas increases then there is an increase in the speed

of sound and vice versa. The speed of sound depends on the density of
the medium and temperature. If the humidity of sound increases then
speed of sound also increases. Sound travels faster in a denser medium
because Sound is a mechanical wave and travels by compression and
rarefaction of the medium. Its velocity in an elastic medium is
proportional to the square root of Tension in the medium. A higher
density leads to more elasticity in the medium and hence the ease by
which compression and rarefaction can take place. This way the velocity
of sound increases by increase in density.

Why sound cannot travel in vacuum?

Sound cannot travel in vacuum because there are no particles to create a
disturbance.

Conduction of sound:
Hard materials conduct sound better than soft materials, that is why soft materials
are good sound absorbers

REFLECTION OF SOUND:
The bouncing back of sound when it strikes a hard surface is called reflection of
sound. Sound is well reflected form regular and hard surfaces.

The laws of reflection of sound:

1. The incident sound wave, the reflected sound wave, and the normal at the
point of incidence lie on the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence of sound is equal to angle of reflection of sound.
Applications of reflection of sound are megaphone and stethoscope.
A sound board is used to minimize the multiple reflections in cinema
halls.
Multiple reflection of sound is the successive reflection of sound from
various reflecting surfaces.

ECHO:
The repetition of sound caused by the reflection of sound waves is called
an echo.
The minimum distance for the repetition of an echo is 17.2 m.
Let us see how and why

Here the time is taken as 1/10 sec because that is the time till the sound
persists in our brain.

Reverberation:
The persistence of sound in a big hall due to repeated reflections from
the walls, ceiling and floor is called reverberation.
It is minimized by using soft sound absorbers like thick curtains, carpets
e.t.c.

The frequency range of hearing in humans is 20Hz to 20 KHz.

The Infrasonic sound waves have frequency of less than 20Hz.
The ultrasonic sound waves have a frequency of more than 20 KHz.

SONAR:
Sonar stands for Sound Navigation And Ranging. It is an device which is used to
measure the depth of sea bed. Let us see how it works.

Characteristics of sound:

When do we get loud and soft sound:

More amplitude then sound is loud. If amplitude is less, then the sound is
soft.
Loudness is:
i) directly proportional to square of amplitude.
ii) Inversely proportional to square of distance.
iii) Directly proportional to surface area of vibrating body.
iv) Directly proportional to the density of medium.
v) More the resonant bodies nearby, more will be the loudness.
Loud sound can travel large distance because of large amplitude and high
energy. The loudness of sound is measured in decibel .
Compressed sound waves produce louder sound but refracted waves produce
softer sound.

PITCH:
Pitch is the interpretation of the frequency of a sound by the brain or pitch is
the number of the waves perceived by the listener per second. Pitch is that
characteristic of sound by which a shrill (or an acute) note can be
distinguished from a grave of a flat note. Pitch refers only to musical sounds
and each musical note has a definite pitch. Pitch of a note depends on its
wavelength or frequency

Relation between frequency, pitch and wavelength:

Less wavelengths than more frequency and high pitch if more wavelength
then low pitch and less frequency.

When do we hear a high pitched sound and a low

pitched sound?
More frequency then high pitch and less frequency then low pitch.

.Quality (or Timbre) and wave form of Sound:

Quality or Timbre of a sound is that characteristic which distinguishes
the two sounds of same pitch and loudness but emitted by two different
instruments. It depends on waveform. The waveform of a sound from an
instrument depends on the presence of subsidiary vibrations along with
the principal vibration and the relative amplitudes of various subsidiary
vibrations in relation to principal vibration.A tone is a sound wave of
single frequency. A note is a sound produced due to a blend of several
frequencies.

Music and Noise:

Music is a pleasant sound, whereas noise is un pleasant to hear. The
waveform of musical sound is periodic and regular whereas the
waveform of noise is irregular and sudden. The frequencies that make

up a musical sound are in the ratio of small whole numbers whereas this
is not the case for noise.

HOW IS SOUND HEARD:

ELECTRICITY:

Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and
flow of electric charge. Electricity gives a wide variety of well-known effects,
such as lightning, static electricity, electromagnetic induction and electrical

current.
Electricity occurs due to several types of physics:

Electric charge: a property of some subatomic particles, which

determines their electromagnetic interactions. Electrically charged matter
is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields.
Electric field (see electrostatics): an especially simple type of
electromagnetic field produced by an electric charge even when it is not
moving (i.e., there is no electric current). The electric field produces a
force on other charges in its vicinity.
Electric potential: the capacity of an electric field to do work on an
electric charge, typically measured in volts.
Electric current: a movement or flow of electrically charged particles,
typically measured in amperes.
Electromagnets: Moving charges produce a magnetic field. Electrical
currents generate magnetic fields, and changing magnetic fields generate
electrical currents.

Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to

experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. There are
two types of electric charges: positive and negative.

Types of electric charge:

1. Opposite charges Unlike charges which attract each other.
2. Similar charges Like charges which repel each other.
SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C). One coulomb is the quantity of
electric charge which exerts a force of 9109 newtons on an equal charge
placed at a distance of 1 metre from it.
Matter consists of positively charged particles called protons and
negatively charged particles called electrons. A proton possesses a
positive charge of 1.6 10-19 C and a electron possesses a negative charge
of 1.6 10-19 C.

Thus, 6.24 x 1018 electrons have 1 C of charge.

Introduction to small terms related to electricity:

In an electrolytic cell, the anode is taken to be positive while the

cathode is now negative. Cation: positively charged particle. E.g. Ca2+.
Anion: negatively charged particle. E.g. Cl-. Electrolyte is a liquid that
can conduct electricity.

Conductor and electricity:

The direction of electric current is the direction of electrons. Conventional

Current assumes that current flows out of the positive terminal, through the
circuit and into the negative terminal of the source. This was the convention
chosen during the discovery of electricity. They were wrong!
Electron Flow is what actually happens and electrons flow out of the negative
terminal, through the circuit and into the positive terminal of the source.

Electricity is the flow of moving electrons. When the electrons flow it is

called an electrical current.

Electricity is of two types:

Static electricity: In static electricity the electric charges remain at rest and
they do not move. When work is done on atoms to add or take away electrons,
the atoms become imbalanced and take on a charge. Atoms take on a negative
charge if they gain electrons and positive if the atoms loose electrons. If we
have enough of these charged atoms gathered up in one spot---WOW!

Current electricity: An electric current is a flow of electric charge. In

electric circuits this charge is often carried by moving electrons in a wire. It can
also be carried by ions in an electrolyte, or by both ions and electrons such as in
plasma.

ELECTRIC CURRENT:

It is the rate of flow of charge. Its SI unit is ampere.

Electric current = .
Current is measured by an instrument called ammeter. An ammeter is connected
in series and has a very low resistance so that it cannot change the value of
electric current. Ammeter is connected in series.
1000mA = 1 A.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL:
An electric potential (also called the electric field potential or the electrostatic
potential) is the amount of electric potential energy that a unitary point electric
charge would have if located at any point of space, and is equal to the work done
by an electric field in carrying a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.

Potential Difference:
The potential difference between two points in an electric circuit is defined as the
amount of work done in moving a unit charge from one point to the other point.
Potential difference = Work done / Quantity of charge moved.

V= . The SI unit of potential difference is volt. The potential difference is

measured by means of an instrument called voltmeter. A voltmeter has a high

resistance so that it takes a negligible current from the circuit. Voltage is the
other name for potential difference.
Voltmeter is always connected in parallel.

SYMBOLS USED IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS:

OHMS LAW:
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points
is directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points.
Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance,[1] one arrives at
the usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship:[2]

Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the

potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R
is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically,
Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the
current. Ohms law is satisfied at constant temperature.

Current is directly proportional to potential difference and inversely proportional

to resistance.
Electric resistance is the opposition to the flow of electrons. The SI unit is omega
().

Variable resistance is a device in which resistance can be changed as per the

wish. It is also called as rheostat.

FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE:

Resistance of a conductor:
When the electrons move from one part of the conductor to the other part, they
collide with other electrons and with the atoms and ions present in the body of
the conductor. Due to these collisions, there is some obstructions to the flow of
electric current through the conductor. The property of a conductor due to which
it opposes the flow of current is called resistance.
Those substances which have comparatively high electrical resistance are called
resistors.
Those substances which have infinitely high electrical resistance are called
insulators.

Here p (rho) is resistivity, and its SI unit is m. Resistivity of a given substance

is fixed and is independent of length and area. Resistivity depends on nature and
temperature.

Combination of resistances:
The resistances can be classified into series and parallel connections.
When two or more resistances are connected end to end consecutively then they
are said to be connected in series.

When two or more resistances are connected between the same points, then they
are said to be connected in parallel.

Current is constant in series connection and voltage is constant in parallel

connection.

FORMULA FOR SERIES AND PARALLEL

CONNECTIONS:
In series connection.

In parallel connection.

DOMESTIC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS:

First let us look at differences:

So the domestic circuits are in parallel connections because if any application is

switched off then the other applications will also get interrupted in a series
connection but whereas in parallel connection it does not happen and all
applications work efficiently.

ELECTRIC POWER:
Electric power is the electric work done (or electrical energy) per unit time.
P=

. The SI unit is watt.

P = VI = V2/R =

= I2R.

Energy = power time. Therefore the product of the above values of power and
time gives the electrical energy.
So from the above formulas we can also say the relations like power is inversely
proportional to resistance e.t.c.
The commercial unit of energy is kilowatt-hour
1 KW = 3.6106 joules.

HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT:

We know that friction causes heat similarly resistance causes heat.

When an electric current is passed through a high resistance wire then that wire
becomes very hot and produces heat which is known as the heating effect of
current.

Joules law of heating:

The heat produced is a wire is proportional to square of current , resistance and
time for which current is passed.

Magnetic effects of electric current:

A magnet is an object which attracts pieces of iron, steel, nickel and cobalt.
When a magnet is freely suspended in air its north pole points towards the north
direction and its south pole directs toward the south direction.
Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
Magnetic field is the space surrounding a magnet in which magnetic force is
exerted. The magnetic field has both magnitude and direction.

The magnetic field lines are the lines drawn in a magnetic field along which a
north magnetic pole would move. These also called magnetic lines of force. By
convention, the field direction is taken to be outward from the North pole and
in to the South pole of the magnet. And inside the lines are from south to north.

The strength of magnetic field is indicated by the degree of closeness of the

field lines. Where the field lines are closest together, the magnetic field is the
strongest. The magnetic field lines do not intersect one another. If the magnetic
lines of force intersected each other, then that would violate the laws of
physics. If the lines intersected, then at the point of intersections there would
be two directions of magnetic field force, and this cannot defy the laws of
physics, so therefore it does not happen. A good example of this would be if you
had a compass and you tried to use it to view the field direction. If you had two
lines of force intersecting, then the compass would have to point in both
directions, and that can't happen both theoretically and through observation.
An event like that would generate a monopole, which is an impossible,
theoretical magnetic event.
The earth behaves like a big magnet actually it is an electromagnet. It is said
that the molten form of metals inside the Earth are the cause for
electromagnetism of Earth.

Actually the south pole of earths magnet is in the geographical north because it
attracts the north pole of suspended magnet.

Magnetic effect of current:

A current flowing in a wire always gives rise to a magnetic field around it.
Let us have a look at different patters produced by current carrying conductors.

Magnetic field pattern due to a straight current carrying

conductor:

In a straight current carrying conductor the magnetic field lines are circular. The
magnitude of magnetic field produced by a straight current carrying wire at
particular point is directly proportional to current passed and inversely
proportional to distance of that point from the wire.
Maxwells right hand thumb rule is used to determine the direction of magnetic
field produced by straight current carrying conductor. It says to hold the current
carrying wire in right hand so that the thumb points towards the direction of
current, then the fingers will encircle the wire in the direction of lines of
magnetic force. Maxwells corkscrew rule is also used for this case it says to
imagine driving a corkscrew in the direction of current then the direction in
which in which we turn its handle is the direction of lines of magnetic force.

Magnetic field pattern due to a circular loop:

Electric current in a circular loop creates a magnetic field which is more

concentrated in the center of the loop than outside the loop. Stacking multiple
loops concentrates the field even more into what is called a solenoid.
The magnitude of magnetic field in this case is directly proportional to current
and inversely proportional to the radius of circular loop.

Clock face rule:

If current flows in clockwise direction then it is South Pole and is a current flow
in anti-clockwise direction then it is North Pole of that disc magnet.

Magnetic field due to solenoid:

The magnetic field produced by a current carrying solenoid is similar to the

magnetic field produced by a bar magnet. The magnetic field lines inside the
solenoid are in form of parallel straight lines. This tells us that the magnetic field
strength is same at all points inside the solenoid i.e. uniform magnetic field
strength is maintained in a solenoid. The strength of magnetic field produced by a
current carrying solenoid is directly proportional to number of turns in a solenoid
and current passed through the solenoid and depends upon the nature of fore
material (material inside the wire it may be iron or steel). The steel when used
can be magnetized permanently whereas soft iron produces the strongest
magnetism and can be magnetized temporarily.

Electromagnet:
An electric current can be used for making temporary magnets known as
electromagnets. An electromagnet works on magnetic effect of current. An
electromagnet is a magnet consisting of a long coil of insulated copper wire
wrapped around a soft iron core that is magnetized only when electric current is
passed.

The strength of electromagnet can be increased by increasing the number

of turns and current flowing in coil. It is inversely proportional to the distance
between the turns.

Differences between a permanent magnet and an

electromagnet:

Permanent Magnets and Electromagnets: What are the Differences?

A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is magnetized and
creates its own persistent magnetic field. As the name suggests, a permanent
magnet is 'permanent'. This means that it always has a magnetic field and will
display a magnetic behavior at all times.
An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire which acts as a magnet when an
electric current passes through it. Often an electromagnet is wrapped around a
core of ferromagnetic material like steel, which enhances the magnetic field
produced by the coil.
Permanent Magnet v. Electromagnet: Magnetic Properties
A permanent magnets magnetic properties exist when the magnet is
(magnetized). An electromagnetic magnet only displays magnetic properties
when an electric current is applied to it. That is how you can differentiate
between the two. The magnets that you have affixed to your refrigerator are
permanent magnets, while electromagnets are the principle behind AC motors.
Permanent Magnet v. Electromagnet: Magnetic Strength
Permanent magnet strength depends upon the material used in its creation. The
strength of an electromagnet can be adjusted by the amount of electric current
allowed to flow into it. As a result, the same electromagnet can be adjusted for
different strength levels.
Permanent Magnet v. Electromagnet: Loss of Magnetic Properties
If a permanent magnet loses its magnetic properties, as it does by heating to a

(maximum) temperature, it will be rendered useless and its magnetic properties

can be only recovered by re-magnetizing. Contrarily, an electromagnet loses its
magnetic power every time an electric current is removed and becomes
magneticonce again when the electric field is introduced.
Permanent Magnet v. Electromagnet: Advantages
The main advantage of a permanent magnet over an electromagnet is that a
permanent magnet does not require a continuous supply of electrical energy to
maintain its magnetic field. However, an electromagnets magnetic field can be
rapidly manipulated over a wide range by controlling the amount of electric
current supplied to the electromagnet.
A magnet exerts a mechanical force on a current carrying conductor and if wire is
freely suspended then it can even produce motion in it.

Electromotive force (emf) is a measurement of the energy that causes current

to flow through a circuit. It can also be defined as the potential difference in
charge between two points in a circuit. Electromotive force is also known as
voltage, and it is measured in volts.
Magnetic flux (most often denoted as m), is the amount of magnetic field (also
called "magnetic flux density") passing through a surface (such as a conducting
coil). The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb) (in derived units: voltseconds). The CGS unit is the maxwell.

Flemings left hand rule:

Hold out your left hand with forefinger, second finger and thumb at right angle
to one another. If the fore finger represents the direction of the field and the
second finger that of the current, then thumb gives the direction of the force.
It is found that whenever an current carrying conductor is placed inside a
magnetic field, a force acts on the conductor, in a direction perpendicular to
both the directions of the current and the magnetic field.

The electric motor:

A motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

A device which reverses the direction of current through a circuit is called a
commutator (or split ring). Its function is to reverse the direction of current
flowing through coil every time the coil just passes the vertical position during a
revolution. Carbon brushes are fixed to the base of motor and they press lightly
against the two semi rings of commutator. So the function of carbon brushes is to
make contact with the rotating rings of commutator and through them to supply
current to the coil.

How motor works?

A simple motor has six parts:

Armature or rotor
Commutator
Brushes
Axle
Field magnet
DC power supply of some sort

Working principle of DC Motor mainly depends upon Fleming Left Hand

rule. In a basic dc motor, an armature is placed in between magnetic poles.
If the armature winding is supplied by an external dc source, current starts
flowing through the armature conductors. As the conductors are carrying
current inside a magnetic field, they will experience a force which tends to
rotate the armature. Suppose armature conductors under N poles of the
field magnet, are carrying current downwards (crosses) and those under S
poles are carrying current upwards (dots). By applying Flemings Left hand
Rule, the direction of force F, experienced by the conductor under N poles
and the force experienced by the conductors under S poles can be
determined. It is found that at any instant the forces experienced by the
conductors are in such a direction that they tend to rotate the armature.
Again, due this rotation the conductors under N poles come under S pole

and the conductors under S poles come under N pole. While the
conductors go form N poles to S pole and S poles to N pole, the
direction of current through them, is reversed by means of commutator.
Due to this reversal of current, all the conductors come under N poles
carry current in downward direction and all the conductors come under S
poles carry current in upward direction as shown in the figure. Hence, every
conductor comes under N pole experiences force in same direction and
same is true for the conductors come under S poles. This phenomenon
helps to develop continuous and unidirectional torque.

Electromagnetic induction:
Electromagnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force
across a conductor when it is exposed to a varying magnetic field.
In simple words, when a magnet is moved across a fixed coil of wire then
electric current is produced. That is there should be relative motion
between magnet and coil (wire).

Flemings right hand rule:

Also known as the Generator Rule this is a way of determining the direction of
the induced emf of a conductor moving in a magnetic field.
The thumb, the first and the second fingers on the right hand are held so that they
are at right angles to each other.
If the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb in the
direction of the motion of the conductor then the second finger will point in the
direction of the induced emf in the conductor. Emf is nothing but electromotive
force.

If current flows only in one direction then it is called direct current and if
current reverses after equal intervals of time then it is called alternating
current. In India the current reverses 100 times in a second. The best
advantage of alternating current is it can be transmitted over long distances
without much loss of electrical energy.

WORKING OF DC GENERATOR:

An electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical

energy, generally using electromagnetic induction. The source of mechanical
energy may be a reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling through a
turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand
crank, or any other source of mechanical energy.
The Dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for
industry. The dynamo uses electromagnetic principles to convert mechanical
rotation into an alternating electric current. A dynamo machine consists of a
stationary structure which generates a strong magnetic field, and a set of rotating
windings which turn within that field. On small machines the magnetic field may
be provided by a permanent magnet; larger machines have the magnetic field
created by electromagnets.
The energy conversion in generator is based on the principle of the production of
dynamically induced e.m.f. Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux ,
dynamically induced e.m.f is produced in it according to Faraday's Laws of
Electromagnetic induction. This e.m.f causes a current to flow if the conductor
circuit is closed. Hence, two basic essential parts of an electrical generator are (i)
a magnetic field and (ii) a conductor or conductors which can so move as to cut
the flux.

Generator Construction:
Simple loop generator is having a single-turn rectangular copper coil rotating
about its own axis in a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnet or
electro magnets. In case of without commutator the two ends of the coil are
joined to slip rings which are insulated from each other and from the central
shaft. Two collecting brushes (of carbon or copper) press against the slip rings.
Their function is to collect the current induced in the coil. In this case the current
waveform we obtain is alternating current (you can see in fig). In case of with
commutator the slip rings are replaced by split rings. In this case the current is
unidirectional.
Components of a generator:
Rotor: In its simplest form, the rotor consists of a single loop of wire made to
rotate within a magnetic field. In practice, the rotor usually consists of several
coils of wire wound on an armature.
Armature: The armature is a cylinder of laminated iron mounted on an axle. The
axle is carried in bearings mounted in the external structure of the generator.
Torque is applied to the axle to make the rotor spin.
Coil: Each coil usually consists of many turns of copper wire wound on the
armature. The two ends of each coil are connected either to two slip rings (AC)
or two opposite bars of a split-ring commutator (DC).
Stator: The stator is the fixed part of the generator that supplies the magnetic
field in which the coils rotate. It may consist of two permanent magnets with
opposite poles facing and shaped to fit around the rotor. Alternatively, the
magnetic field may be provided by two electromagnets.
Field electromagnets: Each electromagnet consists of a coil of many turns of
copper wire wound on a soft iron core. The electromagnets are wound, mounted
and shaped in such a way that opposite poles face each other and wrap around the
rotor.
Brushes:The brushes are carbon blocks that maintain contact with the ends of the
coils via the slip rings (AC) or the split-ring commutator (DC), and conduct
electric current from the coils to the external circuit.
How DC generator works?
The commutator rotates with the loop of wire just as the slip rings do with the
rotor of an AC generator. Each half of the commutator ring is called a

commutator segment and is insulated from the other half. Each end of the
rotating loop of wire is connected to a commutator segment. Two carbon brushes
connected to the outside circuit rest against the rotating commutator. One brush
conducts the current out of the generator, and the other brush feeds it in. The
commutator is designed so that, no matter how the current in the loop alternates,
the commutator segment containing the outward-going current is always against
the "out" brush at the proper time. The armature in a large DC generator has
many coils of wire and commutator segments. Because of the commutator,
engineers have found it necessary to have the armature serve as the rotor(the
rotating part of an apparatus) and the field structure as the stator (a stationary
portion enclosing rotating parts)

WORKING OF AC GENERATOR:

Working principle:

According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, when a conductor

moves in a magnetic field (thereby cutting the magnetic flux lines), a
dynamically induced emf is produced in the conductor. The magnitude of
generated emf can be given by emf equation of DC generator. If a closed path is
provided to the moving conductor then generated emf causes a current to flow

in the circuit.
One of the main functions of commutator is to convert generated AC emf into
DC. As you can see in the above image, direction of generated emf will change
across every conductor when it rotates (see the direction across conductor
ABCD in case 1 and case 2 in above image). It can be understood from the
image, comparing both cases, that even though the generated emf across the
conductors is AC the output of a DC generator is converted to DC with the help
of commutator. The output voltage waveform of a DC generator is as shown
below.

Domestic wiring:
Live wire has red covering, neutral wire has black covering and earth wire has
green covering. An extremely large current can flow in domestic wiring because
of two reasons i.e. short circuiting and overloading.

The next picture shows overloading. If too many electrical appliances of huge
power rating are used at a time and from the same switch it results in over
usage of current from the same socket does it is overloaded and the wires get
heated and a spark may start resulting in fire breakage.

A fuse is a safety device having a short length of a thin, tin-copper plated wire
having low melting point. More the thicker fuse more current rating like 20A so
it can withstand till 20 A if it reaches more than that then it breaks.
The thinner the wire the greater is the resistance and more will be heating
effect so it melts easily for even small current. A copper wire is not used directly
for fuses because it has high melting point. So a fuse should have low melting
point and high resistance.

OPTICS: REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF

LIGHT.

Light is a form of energy. It is an electromagnetic wave. The wavelength of

visible light is 410-7 to 810-7m. The speed of light is 3108m/s. As we have
learnt the rectilinear property of light states that light always travels in straight
line.
It is said that light has dual nature it is sometimes considered to be stream of
particles and sometimes it is said to be an electromagnet but recently scientists
have conducted an experiment and have come to conclusion that light has dual
nature.
This image shows the dual nature of the light.

Properties of light:

If an opaque object on the path of light becomes very small, then light has the
tendency to bend around it and not do in straight line this effect is called as
diffraction of light. For this case light is thought to be a wave.

Let us compare the visible light to the other:

Reflection of light:

When light travelling from on medium falls on another medium most of it

bounces back into the first medium. This phenomenon is called reflection of
light.

Laws of reflection of light:

1. Incident ray, reflected ray and normal lie on the same plane.
2. The angle of reflection is equal to angle of incidence.

Plane mirror:
A plane mirror is a mirror with a flat (planar) reflective surface.
As we know angle of incidence is the angle between incident ray and normal
and similarly angle of reflection is the angle between reflected ray and
normal.
Characteristics of image formed by a plane mirror:
The images formed by a plane mirror are upright (erect), virtual (in fact all
virtual images are upright and all real images are inverted), same size and
same distance and as we experience daily the image is laterally inverted.
Do you know the cause for the lateral inversion well we will learn it by a
picture:

Radius of curvature of a plane mirror is infinite ().

We can form an inverted image in a plane mirror like in this picture:

We can also form a real image on plane mirror by projecting a covergent

beam.

If a plane mirror is turned by x0 then the reflected ray moves by 2x0.

To view full image of an object we need a plane mirror of at least half the size of
object.
Angle of deviation is the angle between extended incident ray and reflected ray it
tells by how much angle the light got deviated. It is denoted by letter d.

Spherical mirror:
A spherical mirror is a mirror whose reflecting surface is a part of hollow sphere.
These are also called as parabolic mirrors.
There are two types: concave and convex mirror.

Let us learn some important terms:

Principal focus is the point where the infinite rays are met after reflection from a
concave mirror.

Focal length is the distance between principal focus to the centre of the mirror. It
is denoted by letter f.
Pole of mirror is the geometric centre of mirror.
Radius of curvature is the radius of sphere from which the spherical mirror is
thought to be hollowed. It is denoted by letter R.
Centre of curvature is the centre of sphere from which is the spherical mirror is
thought to be hollowed. It is denoted by letter C.
Aperture is the diameter of reflecting surface of mirror.

Object distance is denoted by letter u and image distance by letter v.

Mirror formula is:

. And

Concave mirror:
It is converging mirror. It can form enlarged, diminished, same size , virtual and
real images.

Let us see the rules for drawing ray diagrams

for a concave mirror:
1. When the light ray passes through
principal focus then it is reflected
parallel and a parallel ray is reflected
through principal focus.
2. When a ray passes through centre of
curvature is reflected back in the same path.

The reason is it falls tangently on the mirror so the incident ray falls
normally and so it is reflected back in the same path.
3. And as know angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.

We can find the angle of incidence and angle of reflection by drawing a

ray through centre of curvature as shown here;

Images formed by concave mirror at different positions:

When object is placed beyond C.

When object is placed at C.

When object is placed between C and F.

When object is placed at F:

The image here will be formed at infinity because the rays after reflecting travel
parallel.

When object is placed between F and pole of centre.

Convex mirror:
It is a diverging mirror and forms virtual, erect and diminished images.
Let us see the rules for drawing ray diagrams in a convex mirror.

Images formed by convex mirror:

When the object is placed between infinity and centre of curvature then the
image is:

Formed between the pole and the focus

Erect

Diminished

Virtual

When the Object is at Infinity:

The image is

Formed at the focus

Extremely diminished

Virtual

Erect

Position of the object

Position of the
image

Size of the
image

Nature of the
image

At infinity

At focus

Extremely
diminished

Virtual and
erect

Between infinity and

pole of the mirror

Between the focus

Diminished
and pole

Virtual and
erect

Uses of these mirrors:

Concave mirrors are used in T.V dishes and torches. In torch the bulb is placed at
the focus.
The bulb is placed at focus so that it can reflect the light at long distance
(infinity).
Convex mirror as they have more field view are used in rear view mirrors.

When the upper part of concave mirror is covered then also the full image is
formed but however the intensity will be reduced.
Intensity (Aperture)2.

Sign conventions:
When the distance is measured in the direction of light then it is taken as positive
and if it is opposite to the direction of light then it is taken as negative.
If the height measured is above the principal axis then it is positive and if the
height is measured below the principal axis then it is negative.

Sign conventions for spherical mirror:

Magnification is the ratio of height of image to the height of object.

If m is positive then image formed is virtual and if m is negative image formed is
real. If m is less than one then it is diminished image if m is more than one it is
enlarged image.

It is also equal to . only in mirrors.

Refraction of light:
The phenomenon of bending of light from its straight line as it passes obliquely
(not perpendicularly) from one transparent medium to other is called refraction of
light. The refraction takes place at the surface of separation. During refraction the
wavelength changes but however the frequency remains constant.

Laws of refraction:
Incident ray, refracted ray and normal lie on the same plane.
The ratio of sin r to sin i is always constant. This is called as Snells law but
however his law is not applicable when a light ray is incident on a transparent
medium normally.

Refractive index:

The refractive index of a medium for a light of given wavelength is defines as

ratio of speed of light in air to its speed in that medium. Refractive index does
not have any unit because it is a pure ratio. Higher the wavelength lesser will be
refractive index.
There are two types of refractive index: Absolute and relative.
Absolute refractive index is speed of light in air/ speed of light in medium
Relative refractive index is speed of light is medium 1 / speed of light in
medium 2.
The refractive index of vacuum is 1 and that of air is 1.003 and of diamond is
2.42 (highest refractive index).
Factors on which refraction depends:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Medium
Temperature
Surrounding medium
Wavelength of light.

Reflection can also take place in transparent medium this phenomenon is called
total internal reflection.
Critical angle- It is angle of incidence such that angle of refraction is 900.
Total internal reflection takes place when angle of incidence is greater than
critical angle.
Refraction does not takes place perpendicularly.

The reason is light is a mixture of different colors of different wavelengths and

when light falls perpendicularly all the parts of light waves reach the glass slab at

the same time, enter the glass slab at same time , slow down at same time and so
there is no change in the direction and speed of light and so no refraction of light
takes place. A medium is said to be optical denser medium is when it has more
refractive index compared to the other media similarly if that medium has less
refractive index it is said to be optically rarer. Optical density does not depend
upon the density of the substance.
More refractive index then more deviation and less speed.
Less refractive index then less deviation and more speed.
When light ray travels from rarer to denser it bends towards the normal and if it
travels form denser to rarer then it moves away from normal.

Lens formula:
1

m= .

Convex lens:
It is a converging lens. It can form images similar to that of concave mirror.
The focal length is positive in convex lens.

When an object is placed in front of a lens, light rays coming from the object fall
on the lens and get refracted. The refracted rays produce an image at a point
where they intersect or appear to intersect each other. The formation of images
by lenses is usually shown by a ray diagram. To construct a ray diagram we need
atleast two rays whose path after refraction through the lens is known. Any two
of the following rays are usually considered for constructing ray diagrams.

A ray of light passing through the Optical Center of the lens travels
straight without suffering any deviation. This holds good only in the case
of a thin lens.

An incident ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes

through the focus.

An incident ray passing through the focus of a lens emerge parallel to

the principal axis after refraction.

The nature of images formed by a convex lens depends upon the distance
of the object from the Optical Center of the lens. Let us now see how the
image is formed by a convex lens for various positions of the object.
1. When the Object is placed between F1 and O:

Formation of Image by a Convex Lens

The image is

Formed on the same side of the lens

Virtual

Erect

Magnified

2. When the Object is placed between the Optical Center (O) and first Focus
(F1)

Here we consider two rays starting from the top of the object placed at F1 and
optical center. The ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes
through the focus (F2). The ray passing through the optical center goes through
the lens undeviated. These refracted rays appear to meet only when produced
backwards. Thus, when an object is placed between F1 and O of a convex lens, a
virtual, erect and magnified image of the object is formed on the same side of
the lens as the object.

3. When the Object is placed at 2F1

The image is

Formed at 2F2

Real

Inverted

Same size as the object

Here one of the rays starting from the top of the object placed at 2F1 passes
through the optic center without any deviation and the other ray which is
parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through the focus. These two
refracted rays meet at 2F2. Thus, when an object is placed at 2F1 of a convex
lens, inverted and real image of the same size as the object is formed at 2F2 on
the other side of the lens.

4. When the Object is placed between F1 and F2

The image is

Formed beyond 2F2

Real

Inverted

Magnified

Let us consider two rays coming from the object. The ray which is parallel to the
principal axis after refraction passes through the lens and passes through F2 on
the other side of the lens. The ray passing through the optic center comes out of
the lens without any deviation. The two refracted rays intersect each other at a
point beyond 2F2. So, when an object is placed between F1 and 2F1 of a convex
lens the image is formed beyond 2F2.

5. When the Object is placed at F1

The image is -

Formed at infinity

real

Inverted

Magnified

Here again we consider two rays coming from the top of the object. One of the
rays which is parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through F2 and
the other ray which passes through the optical center comes out without any
deviation. These two refracted rays are parallel to each other and parallel rays
meet only at infinity. Thus, when an object is placed at F1 of a convex lens, the
image is formed at infinity and it is inverted, real and magnified.

6. When the Object is placed beyond 2F1

The image is

Formed between F2 and 2F2

Real

Inverted

Diminished

The ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through F2 and the
ray which passes through the optical center comes out without any deviation.

The refracted rays intersect at a point between F2 and 2F2. The image is
inverted, real and diminished.
7. When the Object is placed at Infinity

The image is

Formed at infinity.

Inverted

Real

Highly diminished

When the object is at infinity, the rays coming from it are parallel to each other.
Let one of the parallel rays pass through the focus F1 and the other ray pass
through the optical center. The ray which passes through F1 becomes parallel to
the principal axis after refraction and the ray which passes through the optical
center does not suffer any deviation.
The table below gives at a glance the position, size and nature of the image
formed by a convex lens corresponding to the different positions of the object
and also its application.
Position of Position of
the object the image

Nature of Size of the

the image image

on the same
Between O
Erect and
side of the
and F1
virtual
lens

Magnified

Application

Magnifying lens (simple

microscope), eye piece of
many instruments

At 2F1

At 2F2

Inverted
and real

Same size

Photocopying camera

Between F
and 2F1

Beyond 2F2

Inverted
and real

Magnified

Projectors, objectives of
microscope

At F1

At infinity

Inverted
and real

Magnified

Theatre spot lights

Beyond 2F1

Between F2
and 2F2

Inverted
and real

Diminished

Photocopying (reduction
camera)

At infinity

At F2

real

Diminished

Objective of a telescope

Concave lens:
It is diverging lens.
Its focal length is negative. It has properties similar to convex mirror.
The following rays are considered while constructing ray diagrams for locating
the images formed by a concave lens for the various position of the object.

An incident ray of light coming from the object parallel to the principal
axis of a concave lens after refraction appears to come from its focus.

An incident ray of light passing through the Optical Center comes out of
the lens without any deviation.

A concave lens always gives a virtual, erect and diminished image

whatever may be the position of the object.

Let us now draw ray diagrams to show the position of the images when the
object is placed

at infinity and

between O and F1 and

any position between infinity and O.

When the Object is at Infinity:

The image is

Formed at F1

Erect

Virtual

Diminished

When the Object is placed between O and F:

The image is

Formed between O and F1

Erect

Virtual

Diminished

When the Object is Placed at any Position between O and Infinity:

The image is

Formed between O and F1

Erect

Virtual

Diminished

Difference between images formed by concave and convex

lens:

Power of a lens:
Power of lens is reciprocal of focal length (in metre).
1

P = . Its S.I unit is dioptre. It is inversely proportional to focal length.

Power of combined lens is equal to the sum of its individual power.
The power of a lens is its ability to bend light the greater the power the
greater the refraction of light.