Gender Analysis in Education

Gender Analysis in Education:
A Conceptual Overview
Working paper
July 2012
No. 05
GenderAnalysisinEducation
PreparedforUNGEI
July2012
UnitedNationsGirlsEducationInitiative(UNGEI)
July2012
UnitedNationsGirlsEducationInitiative(UNGEI),NewYork,2012
Thisreportisaworkingdocument.Itspurposeistofacilitaterapidexchangeofknowledgeand
perspectivesandtostimulatediscussion.Thecontentsofthispaperdonotnecessarilyreflectthepolicies
ortheviewsofUNGEI.Thepaperhasnotbeeneditedtoofficialpublicationsstandards,andUNGEI
acceptsnoresponsibilityforerrors.
ThisreportwaspreparedbyTakudzwaKanyangarara(takudzwa_Kanyangarara@mail.harvard.edu),Beth
A.Mayberry(beth_mayberry@mail.harvard.edu),AnithaPai(anitha_pai@mail.harvard.edu),and
MeaghanShanahan(meaghan_shanahan@mail.harvard.edu)aspartofthedistanceinternship
programmeattheHarvardGraduateSchool

Photo credit: UNICEF/NYHQ20062540/Pirozzi
SectionI:Analyticaloverview
Introduction
Increasingattentionhasbeengiventothe
importanceofachievinggenderequalityin
education.Todate,however,mosteffortshave
focusedonaddressinggenderparityanequal
numberorproportionofgirlsandboysaccessing
educationalopportunities.Althoughsimplegender
paritymaybeeasiertomeasure,genderequality
encompassesawiderconcept,ofwhichgender
parityisonlyapart.Genderequalitymoves
beyondaccessandrequiresthatgirlsandboysalso
experiencethesamelevelsofqualityand
outcomesofeducation.
Oneofthekeyimpedimentstoachievinggender
equalityineducationisthatitcannotbeaddressed
inavacuum;rather,educationalinstitutionsare
productsoftheinequalitiesthatexistinlarger
society.Educationalinstitutionsareshapedbythe
societalforcesthatperpetuategenderbased
discrimination;yet,theycanalsobeessentialtools
toeffectgreatchangethroughoutacommunityor
socialcontext.Behavioursandbeliefsformedin
schoolsandeducationalinstitutionscanhavea
lastingimpactongenderrelationsinsociety.
Educationsystemsarebotharesultofexternal
forcesandinstrumentaltoperpetuatingor
alleviatinggenderdisparityaroundtheworld.
Whilegenderequalityineducationnecessitates
thatgirlsandboyshaveequitableeducational
conditions,treatmentandopportunities,
policymakersandpractitionershavedifferent
rationalesforimprovement.Theneedtoaddress
genderinequalitypermeatestheMillennium
DevelopmentGoals(MDGs),UnitedNations
Educational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization
(UNESCO)EducationforAll(EFA)goals,and
developmentagencypolicyandpractice.Yet,
reasonsforgenderequalityrangefromarguments
forsocialandeconomicefficiencytothefulfilment
ofhumanrightsand/orempowermentofgirlsand
women.
Genderanalysisisaprerequisitetoensuringthat
everystepofdesign,planning,implementation
Box1.Genderterms
Gender:Thesocialandconstructed
differencesinwomensandmensrolesand
responsibilities,whicharelearned,varyfrom
culturetocultureandchangeovertime
(AdaptedfromUNESCO,2009).
Sex:Biologicaldifferencesbetweenwomen
andmen(AdaptedfromUNESCO,2009).
Genderequality:Provisionofequal
conditions,treatmentandopportunityfor
bothmenandwomentorealizetheirfull
potential,humanrightsanddignity,aswellas
opportunitiestocontributetoandbenefit
fromeconomic,social,culturalandpolitical
development(AdaptedfromStatusofWomen
Canada,2007).
Gendermainstreaming:Theprocessusedto
ensurethatwomensandmensconcernsand
experiencesareintegraltothedesign,
implementation,monitoringandevaluationof
alllegislation,policiesandprogrammes.This
leadstoequalbenefitsforwomenandmen,
andendstheperpetuationofexisting
inequality(AdaptedfromtheUnited
KingdomsDepartmentforInternational
Development(DFID),2002).
Genderparity:Anumericalconcept
concernedwiththerelativeequalityinterms
ofnumbersandproportionsofwomen,men,
girlsandboys.Ineducation,thismeansthat
thesamenumberofboysandgirlsreceive
educationalservicesatdifferentlevelsandin
diverseforms(AdaptedfromUNESCO,2009;
UNICEF2012).
and
monitoringandevaluation
ofeducationpoliciesandprogrammestakesinto
accountexistinggenderdisparities.Itcreatesthe
opportunityforuserstoaddressgender
needsthroughoutthelifecycleofthe
intervention.Byilluminatingdifferencesofgender,
itallowsuserstoevaluatethewayinwhich
interventionswillimpactgenderroles,relationsor
responsibilities.Inordertoensuretheeffective
planningandimplementationofgenderanalysis,it
isessentialthatallstakeholdersusecommon
languageandhaveasharedunderstandingof
genderterms.Afewofthekeytermsaredefined
inBox1.
Thisdocumentconsistsoftwosections:an
analyticaloverviewandanannotatedbibliography.
Theanalyticaloverviewofgenderanalysisin
educationisinformedbyanextensivereviewof
literature,includingdocumentsfromacademiaand
majordevelopmentorganizationsthatfocuson
theissuesofgenderanalysisindevelopmentand
itsapplicationtoeducation.Theanalytical
overviewdefinesgenderanalysisandits
importance,providesadescriptionandhistoryof
genderapproachesandgenderanalysis
frameworksandtheirapplicationtoeducation,
andsharesguidelinesandapproachesforplanning
andimplementinggenderanalysistoincrease
genderequalityineducation.Theannotated
bibliographyincludesanoverviewofthesources
reviewed,whichservetoguidetheanalytical
overview.
Genderanddevelopment:Anoverview
Historically,fourmaingendernarrativescanbe
identifiedinthedevelopmentdiscourse:the
WomeninDevelopment(WID)approach,the
GenderinDevelopment(GAD)approach,post
structuralismtheory,andthehumanrightsbased
approach(HRBA).Itmustbenotedthatelements
ofallnarrativescoexistandeachnarrativebuilds
onthenext,ratherthanreplacingit.
WomeninDevelopmentapproach
Inthelate1970sandearly1980s,theWID
approachbecamepopularinthedevelopment
fieldasaresultoftheconcernthatwomenwere
beingleftoutofeconomicdevelopmentprocesses.
Theapproachfocusedontheinclusionofwomen
indevelopmentasatooltoincreasetheeconomic
andsocialefficiencyofdevelopmentprocesses
(DFID,2002).Whenappliedtoeducation,theWID
approachismarkedbyanemphasisonexpansion
ofeducationforgirlsandwomen,whichislinked
toeconomicgrowthandsocialefficiency.For
example,WIDadvocatesforinvestmentsingirls
education,citingincreasedsocietalbenefitssuch
asreducedchildmortalityrates,reducedfertility
ratesandincreasedgrossdomesticproductper
capita.TheWIDapproachisprominentlyfeatured
intheconceptofgenderparity,thenotionthatan
equalproportionofgirlsandboysshouldbe
enrolledinandcompleteschooling(Canadian
InternationalDevelopmentAgency(CIDA),2003).
GenderinDevelopmentapproach
Bythelate1980s,theGADapproachcametothe
forefront.Thisapproachsoughttochallengeroot
causesofgenderinequalityandincreasewomens
accesstoresourcesanddecisionmaking(DFID,
2002).TheGADapproachfocusedon
empowerment,orincreasingtheagencyof
womenandgivingthemthepowertotakecontrol
oftheirownlives(UNESCO,2009),oftenthrough
targetedtrainingsandworkshops.Thisapproach
alsoemphasizesgenderequityasanobjective,
whichreferstotheprocessofbeingfairtowomen
andmenandchallengingpoliciesthatunfairlybias
menorwomen.
Poststructuralismanddevelopment
Poststructuralismtheoriescritiqueanumberof
developmentpracticesandmethodologies,
particularlythepowerrelationsperpetuatedby
conceptssuchasdevelopment,development
assistanceandwomeninthedevelopingworld.
Thesetheoriesdrawfrompostcolonialliteraryand
culturalstudiesandassesstheinfluenceof
colonialismonthedevelopmentandconceptions
ofgender.Poststructuralisttheoriesare
concernedwithquestionsofidentityandview
genderasamalleableformofidentificationrather
thanafixeddefinitionpresentinconventional
developmentdiscourse.Fromthepoststructural
perspective,schoolingis,inpart,aprocessthat
shouldservetoacknowledgeandcritiqueset
notionsofidentity,includinggenderand
marginalizedidentities.Whiletherearemany
strandsofpoststructuralism,oneimportantview
presentsschoolingasapostcolonialistinstitution

thatdisruptsandweakensthepoweroflocalor
indigenousknowledge(Unterhalter,2005).
Oneofthekeypoliticalandtheoreticalobjectives
istherecognitionofdifference(Mannathoko,
1999).Whilepoststructuralisttheoryisinfluential
withinacademiaandinvariouspolitical
movementsthatfocusontherightsof
marginalizedpopulations,ithasnotgreatly
influencedgovernmentandnongovernmental
organization(NGO)policiesorpractices.
Humanrightsbasedapproach
Anoverarchingdevelopmentapproachthathas
beenappliedtoeducationistheHRBA.Itisbased
onthebeliefthateducationisauniversal,
inalienablehumanrightthatisinterdependent
withotherbasichumanrights.Thisapproachaims
toensurethatalltraditionallymarginalizedgroups,
includingbutnotlimitedtogirlsandwomen,
indigenouspeople,personswithdisabilitiesand
linguisticand/orculturalminorities,haveaccessto
education(UNICEF,2007).
AftertheadoptionoftheBeijingPlatformfor
Actionatthe1995UnitedNationsInternational
ConferenceonWomen,theconceptofgender
mainstreamingwasalsowidelyadoptedbythe
developmentcommunity.Gendermainstreaming
isacommitmenttoensurethatwomensaswell
asmensconcernsandexperiencesareintegralto
thedesign,implementation,monitoringand
evaluationofalllegislation,policiesand
programmessothatwomenandmenbenefit
equallyandinequalityisnotperpetuated(DFID,
2002,p.9).Thisapproachasitrelatestoeducation
isfurtherdiscussedinBox2.
Whygenderanalysisineducation?
Genderanalysisisacriticalstepinthegender
mainstreamingoflegislation,policiesand
programmesand,inturn,inachievinggender
equality.Genderanalysisisnecessarytodetermine
theexistinggenderbalance,andtoassesstheway
inwhichapolicyorprogrammewillimpactwomen
andmen.AccordingtoCIDA,genderanalysis
providesanunderstandingofthedifferentimpact
thatlegislation,culturalpractices,policiesand
programscanhaveonwomenandmen(2007a).
Infact,ifagenderanalysisisnotconductedduring
thedesignofapolicyorprogramme,itmay
inadvertentlyincreasecurrentgenderinequalities
orleadtofurthergenderinequalities(Statusof
WomenCanada,2007).
Genderanalysisrevealsdifferencesinwomens
andmensactivities,conditions,needs,accessto
andcontroloverresourcesandbenefits,aswellas
decisionmakingpower(UNESCO,2005).
Identifyingthesedifferencescanhelppolicymakers
andprogrammemanagersunderstandwhythe
differencesexistandrevealentrypointsfor
designingpoliciesandprogrammesthatcan
successfullyaddressgenderdisparitiesand
challengedeeplyingrainedsystemicinequalitiesin
ordertoremoveorreducetheseobstaclesto
genderequality.
Girlseducationisanimportantentrypointto
begintacklinggenderinequalityindeveloping
countries(CIDA,2003,p.5).Genderequality
cannotbeachievedinschoolswithoutafocuson
fullandequalaccesstoagoodqualityeducation
forbothboysandgirls(UNESCO,2000).While
muchprogresshasbeenmadetowardsincreasing
femaleenrolmentinschooling,manygirlsstillface
cultural,societalandphysicalbarrierstoattending
school.Increasinggirlsaccesstoeducation,
however,doesnotnecessarilyleadtothe
promotionofgenderequality.Longwenotesthat
schoolsareinstitutionsfoundedonadominant
malecultureandtheycanadvertentlyor
inadvertentlyperpetuatesocietalgender
inequalitiesthroughpowerrelationswithin
schools,pedagogyandportrayalofmaleand
femalerolesintextbookandlearningmaterials
(1998).
Genderanalysiscanbeintegraltounderstanding
thegenderinequalitiesthatcurrentlyexistand
possibleroutestoremovingandreducingthem.It
canbringtolightareaswhereimprovementsmust
bemade,allowingpractitionersandresearchersto
developplansandpoliciestomeettheneedsof
theiruniquecontext.Thisprocesscanbeaided
andscaffoldedthroughtheuseofvarious
frameworks,whichwillbediscussedinthenext
section.
andmonitoringandevaluationofdevelopment
and
Box2.HumanRightsBasedApproach
TheHRBAasdescribedintheEFAGlobalMonitoringReportarticulatesathreeprongframeworkfor
understandingtherightsagendainschools.
1) Rightstoeducationfocusonthechallengesofaccesstoschools.Denialoftherighttoenrolin
schoolsisbasedprimarilyonfamilyandsocietalconstraintsthatcanresultfromdeeply
entrenchedgenderrolesandsocialnorms,whichareoftenpassedonfromgenerationto
generation.Forexample,discriminationagainstgirlswithinthefamily,childlabour,earlymarriage,
disabilityandviolentconflictaresomeofthereasonswhygirlsmaybedeniedtheirrighttoattend
school.
2) Rightswithineducationemphasizethewayinwhichgirlsneedsareaddressedduringthe
schoolingprocess.Forexample,violenceagainststudents,sexualexploitation,discriminatory
teachingpracticesorlearningmaterials,andthelackoffemaleteachersaresomeofthereasons
girlstudentsfeelunsafe,unwelcomeorunderservedintheschoolsetting,whichcanleadtohigh
dropoutratesandunderachievement.Inaddition,thecost,distanceandinfrastructureofschools
canresultinunderenrolment.
3) Rightsthrougheducationpointtotheoutcomesofschooling,includinggirlsachievementand
resultingeconomicandsocialopportunities.Inmanycases,despiteeducationalachievementby
girls,theyareunabletotranslatethosegainsintoopportunitiesintheircommunities.
Unemployment,lowerwagesthantheirmalecounterpartsandoccupationalstereotypesaresome
ofthecausesofgenderdisparityuponcompletionofschooling.
OneofthegreatestconstraintsforeffectiveimplementationineducationisthatHBRArequires
stakeholderstobeawareandacceptthateducationisarightandthatitshouldbeprovidedtoall
students.Thechallengeisinfindingeffectivewaystoaddresssituationswheregovernmentsare
unwillingorcitizensareunawareoftheirrights.HBRArequiressectorwideapproachesinorderto
addresssituationswhererightsareinterconnected.Aswithmanyoftheotherframeworks,data
collectioncanbeproblematic,particularlywhenassessinglessmainstreamindicators,suchasschool
violence,inclusionandparticipation.
Source:UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization,EFAGlobalMonitoring
Report2003/4:GenderandEducationforAllTheleaptoequality,UNESCO,Paris,2003,availableat
<http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001325/132513e.pdf>.
Genderanalysisframeworks:Acomparative
overview
Genderanalysisframeworksenablepolicymakers
andpractitionerstostructuretheapplicationof
researchongenderandconceptualtheoryinto
gendersensitiveplanning,design,implementation
educationinterventions.Theframeworksare
designedtoensurethatgenderneedsandroles
canbeidentified,addressedandmonitored
(Leach,2003).Althoughthemostcommonlyused

genderanalysisframeworksweredesignedto
addressissuesinthedevelopmentsectormore
broadly,manyhavebeenmodifiedrecentlyto
meettheuniqueneedsoftheeducationfield.In
education,theyhavebeenparticularlyusefulto
identifyissuesofgenderbiasanddiscrimination,
andtoassessinequitiesattheclassroom,school
andnationallevels.
Thissectionprovidesanoverviewofthefivekey
frameworksthathavebeenadaptedforgender
analysisineducation:theHarvardAnalytical
Framework,MoserFramework,GenderAnalysis
Matrix,WomensEmpowermentFramework,and
theSocialRelationsApproach.Eachofthese
frameworksandelementsofmanyofthese
frameworkshavebeenaltered,combinedand
implementedforavarietyofpurposesby
practitionersandpolicymakersinthefieldof
education.Thefollowingdescriptionbriefly
highlightssomeoftheconceptualtheoriesandthe
opportunitiesandchallengesforimplementation
ofgenderanalysis.
Beforeconsideringtheutilityofgenderanalysis
frameworksineducation,itisimportantforusers
tokeepinmindthateachframeworkhas
limitationsandmustbetailoredtomeetthe
circumstancesofaparticularcontext.Mostofthe
toolsassociatedwiththegenderanalysis
frameworkscanbeadaptedtoavarietyoflevels
andstages.Yet,eachisbasedonacertain
approachandsetofvaluesthatneedtobe
acknowledgedbytheuser(Leach,2003).In
addition,genderanalysisframeworksarenota
panaceatotheissuesofgenderinequalityin
developmentoreducation.Theyenabletheuser
tobetterexaminegenderdisparity,butwithout
necessarilyrevealingalloftheunderlyingcausesor
consequencesrelatedtomen,women,boysand
girls.Ratherthanservingasanend,the
frameworksaresimplyastartingpointfor
collectiveanalysisanddiscussionandforthe
identificationofstrategiesandactionplans
(Leach,p.3).Asthereisariskofovergeneralizing
findings,itisimperativethattheframeworksbe
integratedintoacomprehensivegenderstrategy.
Genderanalysisframeworks
HarvardAnalyticalFramework
TheHarvardAnalyticalFrameworkisbasedonan
economicargumentfortheanalysisofaccessand
controlofresources.DevelopedattheHarvard
InstituteforInternationalDevelopmentin1985,
theframeworkservesasastartingpointinthe
design,implementation,ormonitoringand
evaluationprocesstorevealimplicationsfor
women,men,girlsandboys.Theframeworkhas
beencommonlyusedinschoolstorevealformal
andinformaldiscriminationandstereotyping.It
canleadtoraisedawareness,discussionofthe
causesandconsequencesofdiscriminationand,
possibly,changesinpolicyandpractice.
OneofthelimitationsoftheHarvardAnalytical
Frameworkisthatitisnotaimedatgender
transformationbutatanequitableshareof
resources,whichinitselfmaynothelpwomen,
andmayevenbedetrimentaltotheirposition
(Leach,p.54).Theframeworkdoesnotfocuson
theunderlyingcausesofgenderinequity,but
ratherarguesfortheinclusionofwomenasa
mechanismforefficiency.Unlikesomeofthelater
frameworks,itdoesnotexaminetherelationships
betweenthoseofdifferentgenders,nordoesit
connectinterventionswithstrategicgendergoals.
Whileeasytouse,thetoolscanbeoverly
simplistic,whichdistorttherealityandunder
estimatethecomplexityofmostsituations
(Leach,p.54).Thechallengesofimplementation
alsoincludefacilitatingconstructivediscussions
aboutfindings,designingstrategicplansbasedon
datacollected,andgeneratingsexdisaggregated
datawhenunavailable.
WomensEmpowermentFramework
TheWomensEmpowermentFramework,
developedbyLongweinthelate1990s,isdesigned
toassesscommitmenttowomensempowerment,
theexistenceofempowermentinthecontext
beinganalysed,andtheimpactofempowerment
oncommunitymembers.Inthiscontext,
empowermentrelatestowomensparticipation
andcontrolofprocessesandbenefits.The
frameworkisbasedonthenotionoffourlevelsof
equality.Indescendingorderofequalitycontrol
theyare:participation,conscientisation,access
andwelfare(Leach,2003).Thisframework
advancesonthecategoriesdeterminedinthe
Harvardframeworkbycreatingahierarchyfor
measurement.Itshouldbenotedthatlowerlevels
donotneedtobeachievedforhigherlevelsof
equality,butusersshouldmaintainrealistic
expectationswhendesigninginterventions.
Oneofthelimitationsofthisframeworkisthatit
providesastaticpictureofthesituationrather
thanmeasuringchangeovertime.LiketheHarvard
AnalyticalFramework,itlackscomplexityandfails
toaddressgenderrelations.Furthermore,the
hierarchyofequalityprovidedintheframework
tooldoesnotnecessarilyprovidearealisticviewof
thecontext.
MoserFramework
TheMoserFramework,developedbyCaroline
MoserattheDevelopmentPlanningUnitofthe
UniversityofLondon,isoftenusedinconjunction
withtheHarvardAnalyticalFrameworktobetter
understandthewayinwhichproductive,
reproductiveandcommunityworkcanimpactthe
genderdivisionoflabour.Itspecificallyfocuseson
integratinggenderinalltypesofintervention,and
toconfrontpowerrelationsinorganizations,
communities,andsocialinstitutions(Moser,
1999,p.55).Theframeworkassumesamore
nuancedviewofgenderplanningbyarguingthatit
ispoliticalaswellastechnical,andthatconflicts
existintheplanningprocess.Theapproach
introducestheideaofthetripleroleofwomenin
productive,reproductiveandcommunityworkand
aimstoexaminetheimplicationsthattheseroles
haveonwomensparticipationinthedevelopment
process.Mosermakesadistinctionbetween
practicalneedsortheneedsthatwomenorgirls
wouldthemselvesidentifybasedontheirexisting
positioninsocietyforexample,healthservices
andstrategicneedsorneedsthatchallengetheir
subordinatepositioninsociety,suchaslegal
representation.Thesecategorieshavebeen
appliedineducationtorecognizeandidentifythe
needsofgirlsregardingtheiraccesstoandthe
processofschooling.
Thisframeworkhasbeencriticizedforits
terminologyanddesign.Forexample,theterm
role,usedtodescribethevariousworkof
women,issaidtoignoretheunequalpower
disparitybetweengenders.Likemanyoftheother
frameworks,itdoesnotallowuserstounderstand
theoftenintersectingformsofinequality,suchas
class,disabilityorrace(Moser,1999).Inaddition,
divisionsbetweenstrategicandpracticalneedsare
saidtocreateanunrealisticdichotomythatdoes
notsuitthecomplicatedneedsofgirlsandwomen
insociety.
SocialRelationsApproach
TheSocialRelationsApproach,developedbyNaila
Kabeerinthe1990s,isuniqueinthatitfocuseson
socialrelationsbetweenmen,women,boysand
girls,andtheirrelationshiptoresourcesand
activities.Theframeworkusesasocialjusticelens
toexaminetheaspectsofsocialrelationsshared
byinstitutions:rules,resources,people,activities
andpower.Inmanycontexts,theSocialRelations
frameworkcanreplacetheHarvardframework,
whichwillallowtheusertomovebeyondmerely
theidentificationofactivitiesandaccess/controlto
highlightotherformsofmarginalizationsuchas
class,ethnicityandracethatcanexistin
conjunctionwithgender.
Intheeducationsector,theframeworkcanbe
usedtoanalyseeducationasastandalone,state
runservice,aswellasitsrelationtootherstate
services.Anorganizationallevelanalysiscanbe
appliedattheschoollevelaswell.SincetheSocial
RelationsApproachlooksatinequalityatarange
oflevels,itcanbeoneofthemorecomplicated
frameworkstoimplement,andislesssuitedfora
participatorymethodology.Itrequiresusersto
possessadetailedunderstandingofthe
interdependenceofinstitutionsandthewaysin
whichtheyperpetuategenderinequality.
GenderAnalysisMatrix
OneoftheuniquefeaturesoftheGenderAnalysis
Matrixisthatitmeasuresimpactovertime.Rather

thanlookingatthecurrentsituationofgender
equality,theframeworkaskscommunitiesto
considertheirexpectationsforanintervention.Itis
specificallydesignedsothatdevelopment
practitionersserveasfacilitators,andcommunity
membersarebelievedtohavetheknowledgeand
expertisenecessarytocarryouttheanalysis.The
matrixwasdesignedbyRaniParkerin1993and
featuresfourlevelsofanalysis:women,men,
householdandcommunity.Therearealsofour
categoriesofanalysis:labour,time,resourcesand
culture.Ratherthanemphasizingoverarching
generalitiesorsimplifyingthecausesofgender
inequality,thematrixcreatesaspacefordialogue
ontheissuesofgenderatthecommunitylevel.
Asthematrixisimplementedonareoccurring
basis,thefacilitateddiscussionsgiveriseto
unexpectedoutcomes,issuesorchangeswithin
thecommunity.Becausethefocusofthis
frameworkistomobilizecommunitymembersto
assesstheirneeds,awelltrainedfacilitatoris
particularlycriticalforeffectiveimplementation,
whichcanserveasachallenge.Inaddition,
addressingtheunexpectedissuesthatariseisnot
alwaysfeasible,particularlyinresource
constrainedenvironments.Finally,theframework
unrealisticallyassumesthatcommunitymembers
areagreeabletooneanotherandareabletowork
inacooperativemanner.
Comparingtheframeworks
Asdiscussedearlier,thedominantapproachesto
genderanalysishavebeentheWIDandGAD
discourses,whichemphasizeefficiencyand
empowerment,respectively.TheHarvard
AnalyticalFrameworkandGenderAnalysisMatrix
subscribetotheefficiencyapproachtogender
equality.Ontheotherhand,theWomens
EmpowermentFrameworkandSocialRelations
Approachsupporttheempowermentclaim,which
arguesforgenderequalityonthebasisofwomens
agency.Giventhevaryingapproachesofthefive
frameworks,theemphasisongendervaries.The
HarvardAnalyticalFramework,MoserFramework
andWomensEmpowermentFrameworkwere
designedtoaddresswomensneeds,unlikethe
GenderAnalysisMatrixandSocialRelations
Approach,whichexaminemensactivities
alongsidewomens.
Theframeworkswerealsodesignedtoaddress
differentlevelsofinterventions.Forexample,the
GenderAnalysisMatrixisnotparticularlyusefulfor
organizationalanalysis,butcanbeeffectivefor
projectlevelinterventions.TheWomens
EmpowermentFrameworkismoresuitedto
analyseprojectsandprogrammes.TheMoser
FrameworkandtheHarvardAnalyticalFramework
aresuitableforplanningatalllevels.TheSocial
RelationsApproachisdesignedforinter
institutionalanalysis,wheregenderrelationsare
assessedwithinthecontextoffamily,labour
market,communityandstate.Thisapproachcan
alsobeadaptedtoassessasingleinstitution,just
asalloftheframeworkscanbemodifiedtofulfil
theobjectivesofresearchers,practitionersand
policymakers.
Localparticipationhasbecomeincreasingly
emphasizedindevelopmentwork,and
participationisalsounderscoredinthegender
analysisframeworks.Theparticipatoryapproachis
centraltotheGenderAnalysisMatrixand
WomensEmpowermentApproach,andthethree
otherframeworkscanbemodifiedtovarying
degreesforparticipatorydesignand
implementation.
Apromisingapproachtogenderanalysis
Thefindingsfromtheliteraturereview
demonstratethatthereisnoprovenstrategyfor
genderanalysisthatisapplicabletoallsettings.
Instead,keythemesandstrategieshavebeen
identifiedtorecommendaholisticapproachfor
genderanalysis.Thisapproach,discussedbelow,
includesmethodsthatbridgedisparateideologies
andcanbesupportedbyanumberofmajoraid
developmentpartners.
Inordertotransformthestatusofgenderequality
onanationallevel,genderanalysismustbecarried
outatpolicy,institutionalandcommunitylevels.It
canbecarriedoutatdifferentstages,from
conceptionofapolicy,programmeorprojectto
thedesign,implementationandevaluation.Itis
paramountthattheorganizationorgovernment
completionratesforstudentsinpreprimary,
performingthegenderanalysisfirstdetermineits primary,secondaryandtertiaryschools
objectiveinordertofindtheapproachthatwill
(Ramachandran,2010;UNICEF,2006).Itisalso
bestmeetitsneeds.Belowwehavesummarizeda helpfultocollectandanalysedataaboutbroader
promisingapproachtogenderanalysisin
issuesthataffecteducationalaccessand
education,basedonbestpractices.Wehavealso achievement,suchasdistancebetweenachilds
includedsomeguidelinesforimplementation,
schoolandhome,measuresofparentalawareness
basedontheextensiveexperienceofDFID(2002). abouteducationalopportunities,andadultliteracy
Step1:Measureandanalysetheexistinggender rates(Oxfam,2007;UNICEF,2008a).School
quality,socioeconomicstatusoffamilies,regional
balance
constraintsonaccessibilitytoqualifiedteachers,
Onceanorganization,governmentorsectorhas
healthbarriersandnutritionshouldallalsobe
decidedtoundertakeagenderanalysis,itis
consideredandmeasuredonschool,community,
importanttobeginbycollectingdata.Thereare
regionaland/ornationallevels(NZAID,2006;
fourmainareasthatmustbeconsideredwhen
carryingoutagenderanalysis.Thefirstisrolesand Ramachandran,2010).
responsibilities.Whataretheproductive,
reproductive,communitylevelandpoliticalroles
Equallyimportantisqualitativedataregardingthe
playedbymembersofeachgender?Dothese
schoolandcommunityenvironmentinwhicha
responsibilitiesdifferformenandwomen?
childisbeingraised.Schoolenvironmentswhere
Second,itisvitaltoanalysewhethermenand
genderbasedviolence,discriminationor
womendifferintheiraccesstoassets,resources
harassmentoccursarenotsafeforfemale
andopportunities.Thesemaybehuman,natural, students,norconducivetotheirlearning
social,physicalorfinancial.Third,analystsmust
(Ramachandran,2010).Evenwhendiscrimination
examineifandhowpoweranddecisionmaking
isnotimmediatelyevident,thoseconductinga
poweraredividedbygender.Doesthisdifferas
genderanalysisshouldgivecarefulattentionto
thelenschangesfromthehouseholdleveltothe
moreinsidiouswaysthatgenderdisparitiesexistin
communitylevel?Whataboutfromlocal
classrooms.Forexample,thesubtleloweringof
governmenttonationalgovernment?
expectationsforgirlsinclassessuchasmathand
sciencecanleadtoveryrealdifferencesin
Finally,itisimportanttodeterminewhethermen performance.Whengirlsarentencouragedto
achieve,eitherbydiscriminatorytreatmentin
andwomensharethesameneeds,prioritiesand
perspectives.Thesemaybebasedonthesituation classesortextbooksandcurriculathatenforce
restrictivegenderstereotypes,achievement
alreadyathandormayrequireaddressingareas
suffers(FAWE,1997;Oxfam,2007;Ramachandran,
thatmayneedtobechangedinthefuture.In
2010;UNICEF,2008a).Alloftheseenvironmental
orderforagenderanalysistobethoroughand
factorswithinaschoolmustbetakenintoaccount
complete,datamustbecollectedandanalysed,
andalloftheseareasmustbeconsidered(DFID,
whenanalysinggenderrolesineducation.
2002;NewZealandAidProgramme(NZAID),2006).
Itisalsoimportanttokeepinmindthatschools
DFIDdifferentiatesbetweentwoimportanttypes areareflectionoftheirlargersociety.Gender
ofdata:quantitativesexdisaggregateddataand
analystsmustcollectinformationaboutexternal
qualitativegenderanalyticalinformation(DFID,
factorsthatmayaffectgirlsabilitytoaccess
2002).Bothtypesofdataarenecessarytoexamine education,betheyphysical,psychologicalor
theexistinggenderbalancewithinthecontext.
cultural.Dataregardingaverageagewhengirls
Sexdisaggregatededucationaldatashouldinclude begintomarryandhavechildrencanprovide
insightintopotentialcausesforextendedabsences
informationsuchasenrolment,retentionand
10

ordropouts.Sexualandreproductivehealthdata,
includingHIV/AIDSinfectionrates,information
aboutsexualdebut,andmaternalhealthstatistics
canbeusefulindeterminingsomeoftheroot
causesforgenderinequalities,astheyare
reflectiveofhealthsectorfactorsthataffect
education(CIDA,2007a;UNICEF,2006).Evenifa
girlishealthyandabletoattendschooland
achieve,shemaynothaveequalopportunitiesfor
employmentandcontinuededucation(UNICEF,
2008a).Thisinitselfcanbemotivationtoleave
formalschoolingandcanleadtoawideninggap
betweendemographicgroups.
Thereareavarietyofsourcesthatcanbeusedto
collectandsortdatafromtheareasdiscussed
above,aswellasothersthatmayshedlightonthe
genderbalancewithinagivencontext.These
includeinternational,nationalandlocaldatabases
collectedbygovernments,multilaterals,NGOsand
aidorganizations.TheSwedishInternational
DevelopmentCooperationAgency(Sida)has
compiledalistofdatabasesandindicesthatcan
beusedasdatasourcesforgenderequality
researchinits2010document,Tool:Indicatorsfor
MeasuringResultsonGenderEquality,including
demographicandhealthsurveys,databasesof
workandemploymentlaws,andhumanrights
data.Theyalsoincludepotentialindicatorsthat
canbeusedtomeasuregenderequalityinvarious
sectors,oneofwhichiseducation(Sida,2010b).
Oncethesedatahavesuccessfullybeencollected,
theymustbeanalysedtodeterminewhetherthey
aresufficienttotrulyanswerthequestionathand:
Whatistheexistinggenderbalance?Ifthedata
arenotadequate,specialtoolsandsurveysmay
needtobeemployedtocollectthenecessarydata.
GuidelinesforimplementationofStep1
Genderanalysisatcommunityandinstitutional
levelsmustentailexaminationanddatacollection
onthefollowingissues:
Communitylevel
Thedivisionoflabourproductivelyand
reproductivelyformenandwomen.
Theresourcesandassetsthatareavailable,
andwhocontrolsthem(NZAID,2006).
Thelevelsofparticipationandcontrolin
decisionmakingofmenandwomen.
Theneedsofmenandwomen,andhow
theseneedscanbeaddressed.
Institutionallevel:Policies
Thegenderspecificpoliciesthatexistwithin
aninstitution,andhowthesepolicieshave
beenimplemented.
Theleveltowhichgenderisintegratedinall
ofthepolicies.
Theleveltowhichgenderissuesare
exhibitedbytheattitudesandbehavioursof
employees,particularlythoseininfluential
positions.
Theroleofexternalagenciesininfluencing
internalapproachestogenderissues.
Thelevelsofparticipationandcontrolin
decisionmakingofmenandwomen.
Institutionallevel:Culture
Theextenttowhichthemissionandvalues
incorporategenderequality.
Theattitudesandbehavioursofthe
employeeswithintheinstitution.
Genderspecificemployeedatathatis,the
numberofmenandwomenateach
hierarchicallevelwithintheinstitution.
Earningsofmenversuswomen.
Thesafetyandpracticalityofthe
environmentforwomenandmen(DFID,
2002).
Recruitmentprocedures.
Theexistenceofpoliciesthatadvocatefor
genderequality,suchastheEqual
OpportunityAct.
Step2:Raiseawarenessandidentifyallies
Oncepotentialgenderrelatedissueshavebeen
discoveredduringthedatacollectionphase,itis
importanttogaugeandmostlikelyraise
communityawarenessaboutthediscrepanciesin
treatmentandeducationthatexist.Understanding
thelevelofawarenesscaninvolvelearningabout
thepoliciesandprogrammescurrentlyinplace
thatfosterorsupportgenderequality,speakingto
highlevelpolicymakerstodeterminetheir
11
viewpoints,orexamininghowvariousfunding
streamsareusedtopromoteordecreasegender
inequality(DFID,2002).Duringthisprocessitis
importanttoidentifyallies,includingboth
internationalanddomesticorganizations,law
makingbodiesandchampions(UNESCO,2009).
Thesealliescanbeofgreathelpwhencreating
programmingthatraisesgenderawarenessand
knowledgebyensuringthatallpartiesunderstand
therolethatgenderplaysindailylife,regardlessof
thesector.Itisalsoimportanttobecertainthat
stakeholdersunderstandthelanguageand
vocabularyassociatedwithgenderanalysis.
UNICEFpointsoutanimportantdistinction
betweengenderparityandgenderequalityby
remindingreadersthatmeasuresmustbe
availabletocompensateforhistoricalandsocial
disadvantagesthatpreventgirlsandboysfrom
operatingonalevelplayingfield(UNICEF,2008a,
p.5).Oncestakeholdersshareamutual
understandingoftheterminologyandissues,the
planningofpoliciesandprogrammescanbegin.
Genderanalysismustbeparticipatoryinnatureso
thattheneedsofwomenandmenwithinagiven
contextcanbesuccessfullyincorporatedinto
policies,programmesorprojects.Additionally,
womenandmenshouldbothbeactivelyinvolved
indecisionmakingattheinstitutionaland
communitylevels.
Communitylevel
Inmanycommunitieswomenareoftenleftoutof
decisionmakingprocesses,associetalnormsand
beliefshavedeniedwomenofpower.Ininstances
wherewomenhavebeenallowedtopartakein
suchprocesses,theyareoftengivenrolesthatstill
encouragethemtobepassive(DFID,2002).The
followingstepscanbetakentohelppromotethe
fullparticipationofwomenindecisionmaking:
Understandingthesocialdynamicsand
constructsofgenderrolesand
responsibilitieswithinthecommunity.
Developingstrategiesbasedonthese
societalnorms.
Creatingactivitiesthatbringtogether
communitymembersinaspacewherethey
arecomfortableandwillingtodiscuss
genderissueswithintheircommunities.
Collaboratingwithotherorganizationsthat
worktopromotethestatusofwomen.
Workingwithmentoencourageattitudes
andbehavioursthatsupportwomenby
helpingthemunderstandthebenefitsof
womensequalstatus.
Buildinggendersensitivepartnerships
betweencommunityrepresentativesand
localauthorities(DFID,2002,p.21).
Institutionallevel
Atthislevel,womenneedtoberepresentedand
givenaspacewheretheyareabletohaveavoice
thatcanbeheard.Inordertoworktowardsthis,
institutionscandothefollowing:
Collaboratewithoneanotherthatis,
governments,internationalorganizations
andcivilsocietyneedtoworktogether.
Creategendernetworks.
o Internally,unitsthatfocusongender
canbecreated.
o Anetworkoforganizationsthatwork
towardsadvancingwomensstatuscan
beformed.
o Media,includingInternetplatforms,
canbeusedforinformationsharingof
bestpracticesandchallenges(DFID,
2002).
Gatherindividualswhoaregenderequality
championsatalllevels(civilsociety,
organizationandgovernment)sothatthey
canshareideasandstrategiesandadvocate
forwomen.
Step3:Planandimplementpoliciesand
programmesthatpromotegenderequality
Oncegapsinpolicyandprogrammingare
identified,awarenessabouttheirimportanceis
raisedandalliesareidentified,itistimetodesign
policiesandprogrammesthataddressareasof
genderbaseddiscrepanciesinaccess,achievement
12

andacceptance.Barriersandconstraintswithin
thecontextorsectorshouldbespecifically
addressed.Ineducation,thismayinclude
preparingorrevisingexistingpoliciesregarding
access,qualityandmanagement,ordeveloping
programmesthattransformorimprovegender
relationsandmakeparticipation,benefitsand
effectivenessofschoolsmoreequal,regardlessof
gender(EFAFastTrackInitiativeandUnited
NationsGirlsEducationInitiative(UNGEI),2010;
NZAID,2006).
Oneareainwhichgendershouldbeafocusof
planningisthatofbudgeting.Itisessentialthat
gendersupportiveprogrammesbeadequately
fundediftheyareexpectedtomakesustainable
change.Genderresponsivebudgetinglooksatthe
impactoffundingonmenandwomen,andgirls
andboys.Therearethreetypesofgender
responsivebudgeting:gendertargetedfunding,
employmentequityfunding,andgeneralor
mainstreamfunding(Oxfam,2007).Gender
targetedfundingisusedtospecificallyeliminate
sourcesofgenderinequality,andmightinclude
scholarshipsthatallowpreviouslyunderserved
girlstoattendschool.Employmentequityfunding
promotesequalemploymentamongpublic
servants.Oneexamplemightbeadditionaltraining
forwomensothattheyarequalifiedtobecome
teachers.Finally,generalormainstreamfunding
involvesprovidingadditionalmoneytospecific
sectorsthatarechosenbasedontheirgendered
impact(Oxfam,2007).
Oneexampleofgeneralormainstreamgender
responsivebudgetingisthefundingofearly
childhoodcareanddevelopmentprogrammes,
whichdisproportionallybenefitgirlsandwomen.
First,itprovidesequalcareandsupportforfemale
babiesandchildrenthatmaynothaveotherwise
receivedit,eliminatingthegendergapbefore
schoolsbegin.Second,itrelievesgirlsandwomen
fromtheburdenofchildcarethatoftenprevents
themfromattendingschoolsorholdingasteady,
wellpayingjob.Genderresponsivebudgetingis
justonewaytoensurethatgenderissuesare
consideredduringtheplanningstagesofeffective
genderawarenessprogrammesandpolicies.
Aftercarefulplanning,policiesmustbe
implemented.Governments,external
organizationsandotherstakeholdersmustwork
togethertoensurethattheprogrammesare
effectivelyfunded,andthattheresourcesand
expertisenecessarytocarryouttheprojectsand
policiesareavailable(Ramachandran,2010).These
resourcesmayincludehumanresources,effective
trainings,orthedevelopmentoftoolsthatcanbe
usedontheground(Danida,2008).
Specificactivitiesmustbedesignedtotarget
particularareasorissuesrelatedtowomens
empowermentwithinthecontextorsectorbeing
analysed.Thesemightincludeholisticearly
childhoodcareanddevelopmentprogrammes,
transformationsinthecurriculatochallenge
stereotypes,trainingteacherstobemoregender
sensitiveintheirclassroomsandcreatesafer
learningenvironments,effortstoengagemenand
boys,orcreatingdistancelearningprogrammes
(PlanInternational,2011;Ramachandran,2010;
UNESCO,2009).Eachcountryorcontextwillhave
topickrelevantpoliciesandprogrammesto
addresstheirspecificneeds.
Genderpoliciesneedtobetranslatedinto
sustainablepractice,butresearchshowsthat
institutionsfailatgenderpolicyimplementation
becausetheylackinstitutionalcapacityingender
issues(DFID,2002).Thus,inordertobuildcapacity
ingenderissues,institutionsneedtoconsiderthe
following:
Communitylevel
Understandingandactingonthegender
issuesthatareidentifiedbythecommunity.
Improvingaccesstoresourcesandassets
wherethereisaneedasidentifiedbythe
community.
Increasingandimprovingtheparticipation
levelsofwomenandmenindecision
making.
Workingwithcommunitiestocreate
dialogueonthesocialdynamicsofgender
andaddressingideasthatmaybebarriersto
13
theachievementofgenderequality.
Box 3. Holistic approach to gender analysis

based on best practices

Step 1: Measure and analyse
Accurate and indepth data collection is integral
to a successful gender analysis. Data should
include both qualitative and quantitative
information in order to measure all aspects of
gender inequality within a society or sector. A
holistic approach must also include multiple
levels of analysis, including both institutional
and community levels.

Step 2: Raise awareness and identify allies
After data have been collected and weaknesses
identified, steps must be taken to raise the
awareness of community members, politicians
and organizations. The identification of those
who can serve as allies, both locally and
internationally, will aid this process and ensure
that what is learned in the gender analysis will
actually be put into practice.

Step 3: Plan and implement
Programmes and policies must be designed and
implemented based on the unique
characteristics of the context being studied.
Programmes should address the specific
problems identified during the data collection
process, and utilize the full scope of support
garnered during awareness raising and
identification of allies.

Step 4: Monitor and evaluate
The final step in the process is the monitoring
and evaluation of the programmes and policies
that have been implemented. The design of
future initiatives should reflect what is learning
during this monitoring and evaluation to
continually ensure that the needs of the
community in question are effectively being
met.
Creatingaunitthatfocusesongender
issueswithintheinstitution.Theroleof
thesestaffisnottotakefullpersonal
responsibilityforgenderwork,buttoactas
catalystssupportingandpromotinggender
relatedskillsandapproachesamongst
professionalcolleagues(DFID,
2002,pg.33).
Creatinggenderresponsivebudgetsthat
includetheallocationoffundstowardsthe
implementationofstrategiesusedto
increasegenderequality.
Developingstrategiesthatpromotegender
development,suchasgendertrainingsfor
employees.
Developingstrongpoliticalwill,leadership
andcommitmenttoaddressinggender
issuesinternallyandexternally.
Allowingforequalopportunitieswithinthe
institution.
Opennesstochangeandnewideas.
Step4:Monitoringandevaluatingnew
programmesandpolicies
Thefinalstepinthisprocessistomonitorand
evaluatetheprogrammesandpoliciesthathave
beenputintoplace.Genderissuesshouldbea
focusinmonitorsreports,quarterlyorsemi
annualprogressandperformancereports,and
endofprojectanalyses(CIDA,2007b).Specific
indicatorsshouldbeidentifiedandmeasured
throughoutthedurationoftheprojecttoensure
thatitishavingitsintendedeffect.Inadditionto
gatheringthisinformation,theremustbe
increasedaccountabilityfortheresultsthatare
found(Ramachandran,2010).Implementing
agenciesorgovernmentsmustberesponsiblefor
analysingaprogrammeseffectsandmakingthe
necessarychangestoensurethatitisaseffective
aspossible.Monitoringandevaluationdata
shouldalsobeusedtodesignthenextroundof
interventionsandpolicies,ensuringcontinued
Institutionallevel
progressuntilgenderequityisachieved.
Improvinggenderequalityinhiring
processesandtheorganizationalstructureof GuidelinesforimplementationofStep4
Qualitativeandquantitativedataongender
theinstitution.
14

relationsandtheneedsofmenandwomencanbe
usedtomonitorandevaluateprogresstowards
achievinggenderequality.Institutionscancarry
outtheactionsbelowtomonitorandevaluate
policiesandprogrammes.
Institutionallevel
Developinginformationsystemsthatcontain
genderspecificdata.
Developingappropriategenderindicators.
Improvingandsupportingresearchon
genderissues.
Disseminatingfindingsfromthegender
analysis.
Usinggenderanalysisfindingstoinform
genderpoliciesandpractice.
Conclusion
Inadevelopmentarenaincreasinglyfocusedon
measurableandquantifiableresults,the
implementationofpoliciestoincreasegender
equalityinschoolshasmostlyfocusedongender
parity(enrolmentrates,completionrates,
achievement,representationofwomenandmen
intextbooks,etc.).Althoughtheseareimportant
measures,inordertoachievegenderequalityin
education,itisnecessarytoconductgender
analysisthatisnotonlyquantitative,butalsotakes
intoaccountdeeplyentrenchedsocialand
institutionalinequalities.
Asresearchincreasinglyfocusesonthechallenges
particulartothefieldofeducation,itisimperative
thatinstitutionsimplementgendermainstreamed
strategiestoaddresstheeducationalneedsof
women,men,girlsandboys.Thisincludespolicies
andprogrammesbasedoncomprehensive
quantitativeandqualitativegenderanalysisthat
areadaptedtothelocalcontext.
Extensiveresearchofexistinggenderanalysis
strategieshasyieldedasetoffourmainstepsthat
areusefulforresearchers,practitionersand
policymakers.First,stepsmustbetakentocollect
sexdisaggregateddatathattrulyreflectthe
currentstateofthesituation.Next,awareness
withinthecommunity,governmentand
institutionsmustberaised,bringinggender
equalitytotheforefront.Duringthistime,allies
canbeidentified,bothdomesticallyandabroad,
whoseresourcescouldbeusedtoaddressgender
inequalities.Third,theinformationandresources
collectedshouldbeusedtodesignandimplement
effective,farreachingprogrammesthatpromote
equalityandprovideaplatformforincreased
understandingandrespect.Finally,these
programmesandpoliciesshouldbecarefully
monitoredtoensurethattheneedsofall
membersofthecommunityarebeingmet.
Informationgatheredshouldalsoinformthe
designoffuturepoliciesthatwillbeusedtowork
towardsamorejustandequalsociety.
Whilethereisnosinglesolutiontotheissuesof
genderdisparity,itisimperativethatall
stakeholderstakethestepsnecessarytocreatea
worldthatallowswomen,men,girlsandboysto
thriveandrealizetheirfullpotential.
15
Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography
SectionII:Annotatedbibliography
Keythemes
Thefollowingannotatedbibliographyisdividedintofivekeythemes:
CausesofgenderinequalityandanalysisInthissectionthedocumentsexaminethereasons
forgenderinequalitywithineducationandsocietyatlarge.Duetosocietalandculturalbeliefs,
girlsoftenfacediscriminationacrossthelifecycleandbeartheburdenofdomesticwork,early
marriageandmarginalization.Withineducation,issuesofdiscriminationintheclassroom,
unequalaccesstoschools,physicalandsexualviolenceandclassroommaterialsthatpromote
stereotypesarediscussedindetail.
GenderanalysisineducationInthissection,thesourcesprovidedhighlightvarious
componentsofthedesign,purposeandoutcomesofgenderanalysisineducation.Itisargued
thatallstakeholdersneedtoplayaroleinaddressinggenderinequality;yet,theapproachfor
genderanalysisvariesbasedonanorganizationsparticularobjectives.Anumberofsourcesalso
explainhowgenderanalysisfitsintothebroaderprocessofgendermainstreaming.
FrameworksusedtoanalysegenderThissectionpresentsabroadoverviewofthe
frameworksthathavebeenusedtoconductgenderanalysis.Whilesomeofthesourcesfocus
ondevelopmentissues,allframeworkscanbeappliedtoeducation.Casestudiesareincluded
thatdiscusshowframeworkscanbeusedduringvariousaspectsoftheprogramcycle.The
sourcespointtotheconceptualtheories,limitationsandoutcomesoftheapplicationofgender
analysisframeworks.
Tools,guidelinesandtrainingsrelatedtogenderanalysisThissectionoutlineshowgender
analysiscanbecarriedoutatcommunity,institutionalandpolicylevels.Thesourcesalsodiscuss
thechallengesforimplementationandmakerecommendationstoavarietyofstakeholders.
Oneofthechallengesofimplementationattheinstitutionallevelistobuildcapacitywhere
genderanalysisandinterventionscanbecarriedout.Atthecommunitylevel,encouragingthe
participationofmenandwomenindecisionmakingisachallengeduetoexistingnorms.Atthe
policylevel,achallengeistocreatesynergiesbetweenstakeholdersanddevelopabalanced
approachtoinclusivepoliciesthatbestservetheneedsofthecommunities.Toolsareprovided
informatsthatareeasilyaccessible,suchaselearningmodules.
GenderreviewsandevaluationsInthissection,anumberofsourcespointtothelackof
effectivepracticesforgendermainstreamingwithinmultilateralandbilateralorganizations.Itis
particularlytroublesomethattheseinstitutionsadvocateforgenderequality;yet,sofewhave
mademeasurableprogresstowardsgendermainstreaminginternally.
Methodology
Thisannotatedbibliographyincludesacomprehensiveliteraturereviewtoassessdifferentapproaches
togenderanalysisusedbyvariousinternationaldevelopmentorganizations,includingSida,theUnited
StatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID),Danida,CIDA,DFIDandOxfamInternational,as
wellasareviewofacademicarticlesonthesubject.
Searchstrategy
16

Asearchforbroadorganizationalreportsongenderanalysisanddevelopmentwasfollowedbyfocused
researchontheimplicationsofgenderanalysisintheeducationsector.Theresearchfocuseson
materialpublishedafter2000,andsomeoftheseminalworkproducedinthe1990s.Althoughacademic
researchwasreviewedandincludedwhenrelevant,mostattentionwasgiventodocumentspublished
byinternationaldevelopmentorganizations.
Causesofgenderinequalityandanalysis
Brock,Colin,andNadineK.Cammish,FactorsAffectingFemaleParticipationinEducationinSeven
DevelopingCountries,Revisededition,DFIDEducationResearchSeries(SerialNumber9),
DepartmentforInternationalDevelopment,London,1998.
Keywords:aideffectiveness,casestudies,crosssectoralapplication,implementation,planning,
promotionofequality,publicprivatepartnerships
Thisdocumentwouldbemostusefulforthosewithlittleunderstandingofthecomplexfactors
thatresultingenderinequalitiesinschooling,especiallyinthedevelopingworld.Thedocument
focusesonprohibitivefactorsthataffectgirlsschoolinginBangladesh,Cameroon,India,
Jamaica,theSeychelles,SierraLeoneandVanuatu.Theauthorsfoundthattherewerenine
interrelatedfactorsthatpreventedgirlsfromaccessingeducationalopportunities,including:
geographicbarriersanddifficultiesofphysicalaccess,whichinfluencefemalestudentsmore
thanmales;socioculturalbeliefsandpracticesthatfavourboysandadverselyaffectthe
opportunitiesaffordedtogirls;malnutritionofgirls,whobearthebruntofdomesticworkbut
donotreceivepreferentialfeeding;harsheconomiccircumstancesthatleaveparentsunwilling
orunabletofinanciallysupporttheirdaughterseducation;religiousandpoliticalbeliefsthat
preventtheeducationofgirlsandwomen;andlegalprecedentfordiscriminationagainst
women,ineducationandbeyond.Theauthorsthengoontooutline23major
recommendationsforpoliciesthatcouldbeusedtoincreasegenderawarenessandgender
equity.Theseinclude:increasingthenumberofpublicprivatepartnershipsthatworkto
integrateandcoordinateworkinvariousaspectsofdevelopment;provisionofthenecessary
materialsforschoolingtogirls,eliminatingsomeofthepreventativecostsassociatedwith
education;providingscholarshipstogirlsinordertosupporttheadvancementofeducation;
raisingawarenessaboutgenderequalityincommunities;andensuringthesafety,securityand
availabilityoffemaleteachers.
Joshi,GovindaPrasad,andJeanAnderson,FemaleMotivationinthePatriarchalSchool:Ananalysis
ofprimarytextbooksandschoolorganisationinNepal,andsomestrategiesforchange,Genderand
Education,vol.6,no.2,1994,pp.169181.
Keywords:casestudies,classroommaterials,genderbasedexpectations,girlseducation,
institutionalapproach,marginalizedpopulations,Nepal,policy,recommendations,training
Thisarticleprovidesinterestinginsightintothegenderdisparitiesoccurringinaspecificcontext,
Nepal.Itwouldbeusefulforpractitioners,governmentofficialsandresearchersinterestedin
understandingthehistorical,culturalandpoliticalcausesofinequalityinthecountry.Nepalese
societyisregulatedbyreligionandstrictpatriarchalbeliefs.Inthepast1,500yearsorso,the
statusofwomeninNepalhasdeclinedwiththewidespreadacceptanceandpracticeofchild
marriageandtheimplementationoflawscreatedtoregulatepeoplesconduct.Thesesocietal
rules,calledthelawsofManu,accordedwomenalowerstatusinsociety,whichhashada
negativeeffectontheeducationalandcareeropportunitiesavailableforgirlsandwomen.At
17

thetimeofprinting,overallfemaleliteracywasonly18percent,withonly16.1percentof
womeninruralareasabletoread,exacerbatedbyfamiliesreluctancetosendgirlstoschool.
Traditionalgenderrolesandgenderbasedexpectationspreventmanyfamiliesfromseeingthe
valueofeducatingtheirdaughters,andwithoutwomeninpositionsofpowerinthe
government,therewaslittlehopeofchangingthetrend.Theauthorsconductedresearchto
examinethestatusofgirlsandwomenasreflectedinprimaryschooltextbooks,andtoexamine
howthestructureofschoolsaffectedgirlseducationalopportunities.Theyfoundthatmale
characters,bothinwordsandpictures,heavilydominatedtextbooks,withmathtextbooks
havingtheleastintegrationoffemalecharacters.Thistrendonlyincreasedasgrades
progressed.Structuraldecisionsinschoolsalsofavouredboys,includingsexsegregatedseating
wheregirlsweretoldtositinthebackoftheroom,morerestrictiveuniformsforfemale
students,andlackoffemaleteachersforsubjectssuchasscienceormath(theywererelegated
tosoftsubjectsinstead).Theauthorsthengoontoprovidesomesuggestionsforwaysin
whichtheenvironmentofNepaleseschoolscouldbechangedtobemoresupportiveoffemale
students.Thesuggestionsincluded:guidelinesoutlininghowtocreategenderneutraltextbooks
andmaterials,inserviceandpreservicetrainingonequityforteachers,andincreasedresearch
andcommunityawareness.
OConnor,JosephP.,DifficultiesFacedbyGirlsintheStudyofScience,MathematicsandTechnology
Subjects:FindingsoftheFemaleEducationinMathematicsandScienceinAfrica(FEMSA)project,
Connect:UNESCOInternationalScience,Technology&EnvironmentalEducationNewsletter,vol.23,
no.3,1998,pp.13.
Keywords:classroominteraction,curriculum,genderattitudes,genderbasedviolence,girls
education,policy,science/technology/engineering/math(STEM)
Thisresearchprovidesinsightintothecausesforgenderdisparitiesineducation,withspecial
attentiontotheSTEMsubjectsandcareers.Thisarticleoutlinesthebasicfindingsofthefirst
phaseoftheFemaleEducationinMathematicsandScienceinAfrica(FEMSA)study.National
surveyswerecollectedfrom21Africannationsthatassessedparticipationoffemaleresidentsin
scientificandvocationaleducationandcareers,underlyingreasonsforinequalities,andsteps
thatcouldbetakentoremedythesituation.Thearticleidentifiesseveralfactorsthatprevent
girlsfromaccessingeducationandemploymentintheSTEMfield,namely,limitedprimaryand
secondaryeducationaccessthatdonotfosterskills,andnotionsofgenderrolesthatrestrict
opportunitiesforwomen.TheprojectfoundthatgirlswhowishedtoparticipateinSTEM
activitiesandcareerswereactivelydiscouragedbyteachersandharassedbymaleclassmates.
Parentsalsodiscouragedparticipation,fearingitwouldhindermarriageprospects.Theauthor
reportsthattherewerethreemainlessonslearnedduringthefirstphaseoftheproject:1)most
feltthatgenderinequalityinSTEMparticipationwasinevitable,2)whenpeoplelearnedofthe
curablecausesofinequality,theywerekeentoidentifyfeasiblesolutionsandwantedtoworkto
changethesituation,and3)evenwhentherewasgoodwillandadesiretochange,fewknew
wheretobeginorwhatstepstotake.Theyalsowarnofevaluationfatigue,orawarinessof
nationstosubmitthemselves/theirresidentstocontinuedtesting,questioningandevaluating.
ThefirstphaseoftheFEMSAstudyseemstoindicatethatattitudesandculturalnormswillneed
tobeaddressedbeforepoliciesareabletotrulyextendequalopportunitiesintheSTEMfields
towomen.
Tembon,Mercy,andLuciaFort,GirlsEducationinthe21stCentury:Genderequality,empowerment
andgrowth,WorldBank,Washington,D.C.,2008.
18

Keywords:smarteconomics,genderdisparities,socialexclusion,humancapital,female
mortality,productivity,economicopportunities,labourmarket,cashtransfers
Thispublicationwouldbeofinteresttopolicymakers,economists,researchers,practitioners
andthoseinterestedinunderstandingtheglobalchallengespertainingtoeducationandgender
equalityandhowtheyaffectsociety.Thisbookisacompilationofpaperswrittenbydifferent
authorsthatwerepresentedataWorldBanksymposiumongenderequalityandwomens
empowermentin2007.Thechaptersoutlinetheprogressthathasbeenmade,thelessons
learnedandthechallengesthatremaininworkingtowardsgenderequalityandwomens
empowerment.
Part1ofthebookfocusesonissuesofeducationquality,skillsdevelopmentandeconomic
growth.Researchshowsthatmanystudentsindevelopingcountriesarenotacquiringthe
relevantskillsnecessaryforsuccessinschools.Theauthorspresentevidencethatimprovingthe
qualityofeducationleadstonotonlysocialbenefitsbuteconomiconesaswell.Part2focuses
ontheactualfactorsthatareholdingmanycountriesbackfromachievinggenderequityin
education.Theauthorspresentsolutionsthatcanbeusedtoimproveaccess,qualityandequity
inlowincomeregionsandregionsthataregoingthroughconflict.Chapter8byChangu
Mannothokowillbeparticularlyuseful,asitdiscussesframeworksandapproachesthathave
beenusedastoolstoachievetheglobaleducationgoals(EFAandMDGs)pertainingtogender
equalityandequity.Thefourapproachesaddressedare:WID,GAD,poststructural,andthe
rightsbasedapproaches.Part3ofthebookfocusesonbestpracticesfromthefield,suchasthe
useofconditionalcashtransferstolowerthecostsassociatedwithschooling.Thelastchapterin
Part3presentsasummaryoffivestrategiestoachievegenderequityineducation.These
strategiesare:improvingthequalityofeducation,reachingthemostvulnerablepopulations,
focusingonpostprimaryeducation,increasingresearchandstrengtheningpartnerships.
Wamahiu,SheilaParvyn,ThePedagogyofDifference:AnAfricanperspective,inEquityinthe
Classroom:TowardsEffectivePedagogyforGirlsandBoys,editedbyPatriciaF.MurphyandCaroline
V.Gipps,UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization,Paris,1996,pp.4557.
Keywords:Africa,classroom,genderideology,pedagogy,policy
Thischapterisusefulforthoseinterestedinunderstandingthecausesofgenderinequalityin
theclassroom.Itconcentratesonthecomplexinterplaybetweenmacrolevelpolicy(both
internationalandnational)andmicrolevelpractices,beliefsandattitudes(p.45)andhow
genderideologydisadvantagesgirlsinAfrica.Thissystematicprocessoffemale
disenfranchisementiscalledthepedagogyofdifferencebytheauthor,whobelievesthatin
orderforgenderparitytobeareality,itwillneedtobereplacedwithapedagogyof
empowerment.Theauthorbeginsbyprovidingdetailsaboutthehistoryofthepedagogyof
differenceandhowitisexpressedinsocietiesthroughoutAfrica.Thisstyleofinteractionand
educationfeaturesthedifferencesbetweenmenandwomen,ratherthanthesimilarities,and
deemphasizestheroleandimportanceofwomeninsociety.Apedagogyofempowerment,on
theotherhand,wouldencouragegirlstorecognizeandrealizetheirpotential.Ahistoryofthe
pedagogyofdifferencepointsoutthatitwasinexistenceinprecolonialtimes,andwasonly
reinforcedduringthecolonialera.Genderbasedexpectationsreinforcedtheideathatwomen
wereinferiorinthefamily,communityandschool.Thecolonialeducationsystemalsogave
preferencetoAfricanmales,whilefemalestudentswerekeptoutofschoolorhadtheir
educationrestrictedtoskillsforhomemaking.IncontemporaryAfricansociety,genderbased
19

violenceiscommon,bothinsideschoolsandinthecommunity.Girlsaresocializedtobelieve
thattheyarelessthanmen,withlowerintelligence,limitedusefulnessoutsideofthehome,and
fewrealskillsorstrengths.Thisoftenleadstolowerselfesteemingirls,reinforcedby
differentialtreatmentinschools.Teacherscommonlydownplayorrefusetorecognizethat
femalestudentsareasskilledastheirmalecounterparts,affectinggirlswillingnessto
participateinclassandbesuccessfulstudents.
Theauthorassertsthatthesepracticesmustbeabandonedinfavourofapedagogyof
empowermentthatteachessocialresponsibility,criticalthinking,flexibilityandcreativity.
Educationmustbegenderresponsive,withoutlosingsightofcommonhumanrightsthatare
applicableregardlessofgender.Thisshift,fromasystemofoppressiontoempowerment,must
occurbeforeAfricacantrulyreachgenderequalityineducationordailylife.
Ramachandran,Vimala,GenderIssuesinHigherEducation:Advocacybrief,UnitedNations
Educational,ScientificandCulturalOrganizationsAsiaandPacificRegionalBureauforEducation,
Bangkok,2010.
Keywords:genderawarenessgenderbasedviolence,genderequity,gendermainstreamingin
education,guidelines,marginalizedpopulations,promotionofequality,recommendations,
STEM
Thisadvocacybriefisespeciallyusefulforthoseconcentratingongenderequityinhigher
education.Itincludesanoverviewofissuespreventingequityinhighereducation,aswellas
bestpracticesforovercomingthesebarriers.Thebriefdiscussestherolegenderplaysinaccess
toandcompletionofhighereducationandtheproblemsthatstemfrominequitableaccess.In
thepast,therehasbeenlittleresearchdoneonthebarriersfemalestudentsperceiveor
experiencewhenstrivingforhighereducation.Thusfar,attemptstoincreaseaccesstohigher
educationforwomenhavebeennarrowlyfocusedonthefollowingareas:affirmativeaction
usingquotasystems,incentivestoincreasethenumberofwomenstudyingSTEMsubjects,
creationandsupportofwomensstudiesprogrammes,andprovidingadministrativeand
managerialseatsathighereducationinstitutionstowomen.Thegoalofthisbriefistoinspire
greaterdiscussionandresearchregardingtherolegenderplaysinhighereducation.Thekey
highereducationissuesthatareaffectedbygenderare:access,retentionandcompletion;
interplaybetweengirlsschoolingandtheirfamiliessocioeconomicstatus;genderimbalancein
certainfieldsofstudy,suchastheSTEMfields;theenvironmentofschoolswhereincluding
genderbasedviolenceanddiscriminationandsexualharassmentareprevalent;andtherole
variousotherfactors,suchasschoolquality,socioeconomicstatusandregionaldifferences
haveinrestrictingaccesstohighereducation.
Inordertoaddresstheissuesofinequalitydiscussedabove,thebriefproposesaprocessof
creatingknowledgeabout,awarenessof,andaresponsibilityforgenderequalityknownas
gendermainstreaming.Thisprocessincludesidentifyinggapsingenderequity,raising
awarenessabouttheinequalities,buildingsupportforchange,devisingstrategiesand
programmestopromotechange,deliveringresourcesandexpertisenecessarytocarryoutthe
newpoliciesandpractices,monitoringprogress,andincreasingaccountabilityforresults.The
authorincludessomebestpractices,includingincreasingpoliticalcommitmenttothecause,
providingopportunitiesfordistancelearningprogrammes,creatingsaferlearning
environments,andprovidingstipends,scholarshipsandchildcarefacilitiestosupportthe
enrolmentoffemalestudents.
20
UnitedNationsChildrensFund,TheStateoftheWorldsChildren2007:WomenandchildrenThe
doubledividendofgenderequality,UNICEF,NewYork,2006.
Keywords:childmortality,discrimination,economicproductivity,empowerment,health,
nutrition,maternalmortality
Thisdocumentreportsonthestatusofwomenandchildrenglobally.Thedocumentwouldbe
usefulforpolicymakers,practitionersandgenderexperts.Ithighlightshowachievinggender
equalitycanaidinmovingalloftheMDGs,byspecificallyfocusingonthethirdMDG,which
pertainstopromotinggenderequalityandwomensempowerment.Thelivelihoodsofwomen
playaroleinthewellbeingofchildren.Discriminationtowardswomencanhaveanegative
impactonthelivesofchildren.Thus,achievinggenderequalityandempoweringwomencanbe
viewedasadoubledividendwherebythelivelihoodsofbothwomenandchildrenarepositively
affected.Thereportdiscussesthechallengesthatwomenandgirlsface,suchaschildmarriages,
highmaternalmortalityrates,physicalandsexualviolence,andlowerwages.Inchapter1,the
reportprovidesanoverviewofgenderdiscriminationacrossthelifecycle.Subsequentchapters
focusongenderequalityinthefollowingareas:household,employment,andpoliticsand
government.Thelastchapterdiscusseswaysinwhichcountriescanbenefitfromthedouble
dividendofgenderequalitythroughavarietyofactions.Educationishighlightedasanarea
wherebytherootcauseofgenderdiscriminationcanbeaddressed.Thiscanbedoneby
increasinggirlsaccessandcreatinggirlfriendlyschools.
WorldBank,WorldDevelopmentReport2012:Genderequalityanddevelopment,InternationalBank
forReconstructionandDevelopmentandWorldBank,Washington,D.C.,2011.
Keywords:economicprospects,humancapital,signalling,skill,talent
Thisreportwillbeusefultopolicymakers,economists,practitionersandthosewhodesireto
understandtheeconomicsofgenderequalityanddevelopment.Thereportiswrittenfroman
economicsperspectiveandthusdiscusseshowgenderequalityisafundamentalobjectivefor
economicdevelopment.Thereportarguesthatwomenaregettingclosetorepresentinghalfof
thegloballabourforce,therebyensuringgenderequalitywillleadtoincreasedproductivity.
Thus,anybarriersthatdiscouragewomentoparticipateinthelabourforceneedtoberemoved
sothatwomensskillsarenotunderused.Thereportalsomakesthecasethatgenderequalityis
beneficialforfuturegenerations.Atthehouseholdlevel,womentendtospendinamannerthat
benefitstheirchildrenandcanhelpthegrowthofcountries.Additionally,researchshowsthat
childrenwhosemothersareeducatedandingoodhealthhavebetterfutureprospects.Chapter
3ofthereportfocusesoneducationandhealth.Muchprogresshasbeenmadetowardsclosing
schoolinggendergapsandatthetertiarylevelthereisactuallyabiastowardswomen.However,
problemsstillpersist,suchasgirlsfromlowincomehouseholdsdroppingoutofschoolfirst,
curriculumsthatcatertotheeliteanddifferencesinthecareerpursuitsofboysandgirls.The
reportprovideslistsofprioritiesforpolicyrecommendations.Onerecommendationistoshrink
theeducationalgapsfordisadvantagedpopulationswithstrategiessuchasconditionalcash
transfersandschoolconstructionprojects.Anotherrecommendationistolimitthe
reproductionofgenderinequalityacrossgenerationsbyreachingouttoyoungpeople.Thiscan
beachievedbyreducingsegregationinacademicssuchthatgirlsandboysarefreetopursue
studiesandcareersoftheirchoice.Althoughwrittenineconomicslanguage,thereportisuseful
inthatitmakesacaseforgenderequalitybyaddressingthesocietalbenefitsthatmaybe
accrued.
21
Genderanalysisineducation
CanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgencyEducatingGirls:AhandbookAbasicreferenceguide
forCIDAstaffinCanadaandinthefield,CIDA,Quebec,2003,availableat
<www.ungei.org/resources/files/CIDAEducatingGirlshandbook.pdf>.
Keywords:curriculum,girlseducation,humanrightsbasedapproach,schoolmanagement,
teacherprofessionaldevelopment
Thishandbookwouldbeusefulfororganizationsplanningandimplementinggenderanalysisin
educationandseekinggenericinterventions,whichcouldbeadaptedtolocalcontextsto
addressgenderanalysisfindings.Thehandbookfocusesonmakingacasefortheimportanceof
girlseducation,laysoutstepsforinforminggirlseducationprogrammesandpolicyand
providespracticaltoolstoconductagenderanalysisaswellaspracticalactivitiesforimproving
gendermainstreamingineducation.Thehandbookmakesthecaseforinvestingingirls
educationfromahumanrightsperspectiveaswellasemphasizesthehighrateofsocialand
economicreturntoeducation,specificallytheroleofgirlseducationinimprovingfamilyhealth,
personaldevelopment,socialdevelopmentandhumancapacitydevelopment.Girlseducation
isadvocatedasanimportantentrypointtobegintacklinggenderinequalityindeveloping
countries(p.5).
CIDAadvocatestheuseofgenderanalysisonallaspectsofeducationinordertoachievegender
equality.Thehandbookincludesatoolthatconsistsofguidingquestionsforgenderanalysisand
focusesonassessinginstitutionalandschoolmanagement,communityinvolvementandlocal
governanceingirlseducation,teachersdevelopment,gendersensitivityincurriculumand
learningmaterials,addressingsexualviolenceandschoolsafety,improvingschoolinfrastructure
andaddressinghealthissues(especiallygenderandHIV/AIDS).Thehandbookofferspractical
interventionsuggestionsforaddressingissuesofinterestfromgenderanalysisfindings.These
interventionscanbeadaptedtodifferentcontexts.
CIDApromotestransformativegenderstrategiesthatchangeattitudesandpracticesthatcreate
barrierstoequalparticipationofgirlsandwomenineducationalsystemsandrecognizesthat
genderinequalitymustbeaddressedthroughworkingwithavarietyofpartnersin
multidimensionalandcrosscuttingways.
Kabira,WanjikuMukabi,andMashetiMasinjila,ABCofGenderAnalysis,ForumforAfricanWomen
Educationalists,Nairobi,1997.
Keywords:classroominteraction,classroommaterials,curriculum,genderanalysistools
Thisdocumentisusefulforpolicymakersandpractitionerstoconsiderhowgenderanalysiscan
beconductedattheschoolandclassroomlevels.Itprovidestoolsthatcanbeusedtofacilitate
gendersensitivepractices.Specifically,theauthorsprovidetoolsforteachers,researchers,
curriculumdevelopersandotherstoassessgenderawarenessintextbooks,educational
materialsandclassroomsettings.Themanualwascommissionedupontherecognitionthatthe
portrayalofgenderrolesandrelationshipsineducationalmaterialcanleadtothepropagation
ofgenderstereotypes.TheauthorsarguethattheHarvardFrameworkiseffectiveintheanalysis
ofdevelopmentprojects;however,adifferentmethodologyisneededwhenassessing
perception,biasandportrayalofgenderastheyrelatetoeducationaltools.Usingnarrotological
22

analysis,themanualhighlightshoweffortstohumanizeconceptsandmakesituationsrelevant
tostudentshaveledtoeducationalmaterialwithnarrationandillustrationsthatcreateand
perpetuategenderstereotypes.Theinitialsectionofthemanualdealswithpresentationin
educationalmaterial.Focusingonnarrationandillustration,theauthorsproposequestionsto
askwhenassessingaction,locusofactivities,help,visibility,powerandlanguageuseto
determinerepresentationsofgender.Thefinalsectionpointsoutinteractionswithinschools
andhighlightssituationsofgenderdiscriminationofwhichteachersandschooladministrators
shouldbeaware.Toalesserdegree,themanualdiscusseshowteacherscanaddressthisintheir
classrooms.
Thismanualisusefulinthatitdetailshowgenderanalysismethodologycanbeappliedinthe
classroom.Byfocusingonthecontentofeducationalmaterialandclassroominteraction,the
frameworkhelpsschoolstaffconsiderhowtheycanassesssituationsandimplementgender
sensitivepolicies.Oneoftheshortcomingsofthearticleisthatitdoesnotprovidedetailon
actionstobetakenbasedonthegenderanalysisfindings.Italsodoesnotaddresshow
administratorscanimplementschoolwidegenderawarepoliciesandmanageteacher
resistance.
Gaynor,Catherine,TheSupply,ConditionandProfessionalDevelopmentofWomenTeachers,United
NationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganizationsInternationalInstituteforEducational
Planning,Paris,1997,availableat<http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001097/109763eo.pdf>.
Keywords:educationplanning,genderequality,policy,teacherprofessionaldevelopment
Thisarticlediscussesthechallengesthatfemaleteachersaroundtheworldfaceduetogender
inequalitywithintheteachingprofessionandeducationadministrationsystem,underlying
causesoftheseinequalitiesandsuggestionsforimprovinggenderequalitywithintheteaching
profession.Whilemanyeffortstowardsgenderequalityineducationfocusonincreasinggirls
enrolment,oftenseekingtorecruitandretainmorefemaleteachers,manyinitiativesfailto
addressgenderinequitieswithintheteachingprofession.Thisarticleseekstogiveanoverview
ofthecurrentstatusoffemaleteachers;identifypriorityissuesinthesupply,deploymentand
careerdevelopmentoffemaleteachers;andrecommendpossibleinterventionsforoverhauling
genderimbalancesandbiasesembeddedinmanyeducationsystems.
Theauthornotesthatalackofgenderanalysisweakensthepossibilitiesformakingeffective
interventionsinteachermanagementasitleadstotheerroneousassumptionthatthe
experiencesofmaleandfemaleteachersarethesame(p.5).Thearticlearguesthatan
understandingofwomensandmensdifferentroles,needsandconstraintsisessentialto
designingandimplementingpoliciesandprogrammesthataregenderresponsive.Without
adequategenderanalysisintheteachingprofession,resultinggenderblindpoliciesandequal
treatmentandaccesstoteachingopportunitiesarenotsufficientforcreatinggenderequality
withintheteachingprofessionandtheeducationsystematlarge.Instead,astartingpointfor
addressinggenderissuesshouldbeginwithagenderawarenessapproach,whichchallenges
traditionalassumptionsaboutfemaleteachers,theirplaceinthehome,societyandthe
teachingprofession.Theeducationsystemmustbecomegendersensitiveandtheexisting
powerstructuremustbealteredtobetterreflectwomenspracticalandstrategicneeds.The
authordefinespracticalgenderneedsasneedsarisingfromexistingsocietalroles,forexample,
theneedforfemaleteacherstohaveaccesstoadequatechildcarefacilitiesfortheirchildren
andtotakematernityleave.Strategicgenderneedsarerelatedtochangingpowerrelations
23

betweenmaleandfemaleteachers,includingequalpay,equalteachingconditions,equal
representationinmanagementpositionsandequitabledivisionoflabour.
Theauthornamesmanyfactorsthatinfluencethesupplyoffemaleteachers,includingsocio
culturalfactors,agenderbiasededucationsystem,safetyandlivingconditions,multiplesocietal
demandsonwomen,lackofwomenineducationmanagementpositions,fewopportunitiesfor
careeradvancementandsexualharassment.Thesebarriers,aswellasthesubordinateroleof
womeninmanypartsoftheworld,hasledtoaconcentrationoffemaleteachersatlowerlevels
andgradesofeducationwithfewopportunitiesforeducationmanagementanddecision
making,fewfemaleteachersteachingscienceandmathandfewleadershippositionsfor
womenineducation.
Suggestionsgivenbytheauthorforpossibleinterventionsforenhancingthesupplyand
deploymentofwomenteachersincludeincorporatingadequategenderanalysisinteaching
policiesandinterventions,improvingmonetaryandnonmonetaryincentives,offeringmore
flexibleschedulesandaccommodations,offeringlocalrecruitmentandtrainingandothermore
familyfriendlyinitiatives,andcodifyingrulesandregulationtooutlawsexualharassmentand
guaranteelabourrights,suchasmaternityleaveforwomenandpaternityleaveformen.The
authorsuggeststhatfutureresearchshouldfocusonensuringgenderequality,notonlyfor
learnersbutalsoforteachersandeducationadministrators.
Longwe,SaraHlupekile,EducationforWomensEmpowermentorSchoolingforWomens
Subordination,GenderandDevelopment,vol.6,no.2,1998,pp.1926.
Keywords:criticalconsciousness,empowerment,gendertraining,subordination
Thisarticlewillbeusefultothoseinterestedinwomensempowerment.Itiswrittenbythe
creatoroftheWomensEmpowermentFramework.Thus,itisausefultoolforpolicymakers,
practitionersandresearchers.Thearticlecontrastseducationforwomensempowermentwith
educationforsubordination.Longwedescribesempowermentasacollectiveactionto
overcomegenderinequality.Thatis,womenacknowledgeandaddressthegenderissuesthat
preventtheiradvancementwithinsociety.Developmentorganizationscanusegendertraining
todesigntheirprogrammessuchthattheyaccountforgenderissuesthatmayprohibit
development.Longwepresentsaconservativeandradicaldefinitionofgendertrainingas
seekingtoaddresswomensaccesstoresources.Thusgendertrainingequipswomenwith
productiveskillsthatwillenablethemtohaveincreasedaccesstoresources.Theradical
definitionofgendertrainingencompassestheissuesthattheconservativedefinitionfailsto
address.Longwepointsoutthattheconservativedefinitionfailstoacknowledgethatthe
mannerinwhichlabourandaccesstoresourcesaredividedisaresultofthemaleprivilegethat
isembeddedwithincommunities.Radicalgendertrainingaddressestherootofthegender
inequalitiesbytakingintoaccountthepatriarchalstructuresthatexistwithincommunities.
Longwealsodiscusseshoweducationplaysaroleinchangingthesebeliefsthatexist.Contrary
topopularbelief,increasingfemalesaccesstoeducationdoesnotnecessarilytranslateinto
promotingthestatusofwomenandachievinggenderequality.Theauthorarguesthatschools
actuallycontributetowomenslackofadvancement,astheyareinstitutionsthatarefounded
onthevaluesofamaledominatedcultureandthusteachstudentstherulesofthisculture.In
orderforschoolstopromotetheriseofwomen,empowermentofwomenneedstooccur.The
24

articleendsbydiscussinghowradicalgendertrainingcanbeusedtoaddressandshiftthe
powerdynamicswithinsocietyandtheeducationsystem.
MinistryofForeignAffairsofDenmark(Danida),GenderEqualityToolbox,Danida,Copenhagen,
2008.
Keywords:aideffectiveness,crosssectoralapplication,gendermainstreaming,governance,
health,promotionofequality,publicprivatepartnerships
Policymakersandpractitionersacrossdevelopmentsectorswillfindthistoolboxtobeauseful
introductiontogenderanalysisandhowgendersensitivitycanbeincorporatedintotheirwork.
Brokendownintosubdocuments,DanidasGenderEqualityToolboxoffersanoverviewofthe
roleofgenderanalysisindevelopment,aswellaspracticalsuggestionsthatcanbeusedto
guideprogrammingandpolicy.TheToolboxaimstohelppractitionersandpolicymakersasthey
navigatethechallengesofanalysinggendersroleinacountryandworkingtoincreasegender
equality.Itbeginsbygivinganoverviewofgendermainstreaming,challengestogender
equality,andlessonsthathavebeenlearnedinthepast(Book2:GenderEqualityinContext).
Book3(GenderEqualityintheAidEffectivenessFramework)examinesthestepsthatcanbe
takentointegrategenderawarenessandequalityintotheadministrationofaid,whileBook4
(GenderEqualityatCountryLevel)providesinsightintotheroleofacountrygenderanalysisand
stepsforimplementation.Book5(GenderEqualityataSectorLevel)isbrokendownintothe
areasofagriculture,education,health,privatesectorpartnershipsandgovernance.Each
bookletdescribeshowgenderequalitycanbeintegratedintosectorprogrammes,issuesthat
shouldbeconsideredbeforeandduringimplementation,andexamplesofsuccessful
programmes.Thefinalbook(Book6:GenderEqualityProgramming)providesanoverviewof
howgenderequalitycanbeintegratedatmultiplestagesoftheprogrammecycleandincludes
toolsformonitoringandevaluation.Thisdocumentisextremelyhelpfulinprovidingabroad
overviewofgenderanalysis,aswellasanunderstandingofhowgenderequitycanbe
incorporatedintomanydifferentdevelopmentsectors.Itprovidesstepbystepsuggestionsfor
implementingagenderanalysisonacountrylevel,whichwillbeusefulinguidingfuturemodule
design.Theinformationseemsunbiasedandapplicabletoawiderangeofcountriesand
settings.
OxfamGreatBritain,PractisingGenderEqualityinEducation,OxfamGB,Oxford,UK,2007.
Keywords:access,genderequality,genderequity,capacity,quality
Thisdocumentgivesanoverviewofthekeyissuespertainingtogenderequalityineducation
andthuswouldbeusefulfordevelopingpoliciesandforaidingpractice.Specifically,itwouldbe
ofusetoministriesofeducation,NGOs,practitionersandeducators.Theinformationincluded
inthisbookcomesfromtheBeyondAccess,Gender,EducationandDevelopmentprojectthat
wasapartnershipbetweenOxfamGB,theInstituteofEducationattheUniversityofLondonand
DFID.Thebookiswrittenasatooltohelpstakeholdersunderstandthemainissuesthatare
hinderingtheprogresstowardsachievinggenderequalityineducation.Itiswrittentonotjust
influencepolicybutalsopractice.Astheissuesareaddressed,examplesofbestpracticesina
varietyofcontextsareprovided.Thechaptersareframedaroundfivemainthemes:
1. Partnershipsbetweenpractitioners,policymakersandresearchers
2. Multipleinterventionsandactions
3. Advocacyforpolicyandpracticechange
4. Governmentcommitmenttoandresponsibilityforbasiceducation
25

5. Adequateandsustainablefinancing.
Chapter2discussestheneedforschoolstobuildawelcomingculturesothatoncegirlsarein
school,theyremaininschool.Thiscanbedonebyensuringthatthecurriculumisgender
sensitive.However,inorderforthecurriculumtobeeffective,pedagogicalmethods,learning
andinteractionsalsoneedtochange.Theauthorsendthechapterbyprovidingthe
recommendationthatschoolcurriculumsbemadegenderequitable.Additionally,theyoutline
therolesthatteachers,governments,parentsandcommunitymemberscanplay.Chapter3
exploresgenderequalityandadultbasiceducation.Themajorityofilliterateadultsarewomen.
AlthoughadultbasiceducationisnothighlightedspecificallyintheMDGs,alongwithgender
equalityitcanempowerwomenandgirlsandadvancetheprogressoftheMDGs.Thusitis
importantforgovernmentstoprioritizeadultbasiceducation.Adultliteracyworkers,teachers
andfacilitatorsneedtobetrainedinparticipatorypracticesthatincludebothfemalesand
males.Inchapter4theauthorsdiscusstheneedforgenderequitableeducationtoalsoreach
thosewhoarenotapartoftheformaleducationsystemthatis,nomadicandpastoralist
children.Thesechildrenhavenotbeenabletotakefulladvantageoftheirbasicrightto
education.Schoolparticipationratesforthesechildrenarelow,particularlyforgirls.Gender
analysisisnecessarytohelpthegenerationofpoliciesthatareinthebestinterestsofthese
children.Chapter5and6providetherequirementsandstepsforachievinggenderequalityin
education.Thereisaneedforcommitment,leadership,responsivenessandcapacity
development.Chapter7focusesongenderresponsivebudgetingandcitescountryexamplesof
howthisisbeingdone.ThelasttwochaptersexploregirlseducationinAfricaandSouthAsia.
Miske,Shirley,MargaretMeagherandJoanDeJaeghere,GenderMainstreaminginEducationatthe
LevelofFieldOperations:ThecaseofCAREUSAsindicatorframework,Compare:AJournalof
ComparativeandInternationalEducation,vol.40,no.4,2010,pp.441458.
Keywords:genderequalityindicators,gendermainstreaming,NGOeducationaloperations
Thisarticlesummarizessomeofthechallengesofgendermainstreamingineducationand
examinestheuseofCAREUSAsCommonIndicatorFramework.Itisusefulforresearchers,
practitionersandpolicymakerstounderstandthebenefitsandpossibilitiestoimprovinggender
mainstreamingprocesses.Gendermainstreamingineducationparticularlyattheoperations
levelincommunitiesandschoolshasreceivedlittleattention.Inthisarticle,theauthorsexplore
thelimitationsofgendermainstreamingpracticesindevelopmentagenciesandexamineCARE
USAsCommonIndicatorFrameworktoseehowfindingscangeneratebetterwaysofgender
mainstreaming.TheFramework,whichusesanumberofeducationspecificframeworksandthe
SocialRelationsApproach,aimstoaddresseducationalattainment,quality,equalityandgirls
empowerment.TheCIFconsistsof12qualitativeandquantitativeindicatorsandwaspilotedin
Cambodia,Honduras,MaliandtheUnitedRepublicofTanzania.Resultsindicatethree
implicationsforgendermainstreaming:1)qualitativeindicatorsneedtobeembeddedto
examinetheunderlyingcausesofgenderissues;2)genderrelationsneedtobeexploredmore
deeply;and3)empowermentneedstobeunderstoodinrelationtochildrenandyouth.The
authorsnotethatoneofthemostpromisingresultsoftheCommonIndicatorFrameworkisthat
itwasabletogeneratedialogueaboutgenderrelationsandgendermainstreamingatthe
operationslevel,andthatinformationgeneratedwassenttothehigherlevelsoftheinstitution.
Inaddition,dialogueandlearningsweresharedfromsouthtosouth.
26

Thisarticleprovidesausefulalternativetocommongenderanalysisframeworks.TheCommon
IndicatorFramework,whichutilizesacombinationofeducationanddevelopmentframeworks,
highlightsopportunitiesforimprovinggendermainstreamingprocesses.
UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization,Promotinggenderequalityin
education:GenderineducationnetworkinAsiaPacific(GENIA)toolkit,UNESCOsAsiaandPacific
RegionalBureauforEducation,Bangkok,2009,availableat
<http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001864/186495E.pdf>.
Keywords:genderresponsiveeducation,gendermainstreamingineducation,gender
responsivebudgeting,genderresponsivecurriculum,genderresponsiveclassrooms,gender
responsiveteachers,toolkit,projectdesignandmanagement
Thistoolkitcontainsgenderresponsivetoolsdesignedforawidevarietyofeducation
stakeholders,includingpolicymakersandplanners,programmeofficers,curriculumdevelopers,
teachers,schoolheads,teachertrainersandresearchers.Thetoolscanbeusedtodesignand
implementgenderresponsiveeducationprogrammes,productsand/orpoliciesandtoassess
existingprogrammes,productsandpolicies.Furthermore,thetoolkitcouldbeusedasaguide
forgenderworkshops.Thereisamatrixatthebeginningofthemanualwithanexplanationof
alltoolsandtheintendeduser(s)indicatedforeachtool.Thiscomprehensive,userfriendlyand
genderresponsivetoolkitisverywelldesignedandpracticalanditappearstobebasedonthe
SocialRelationsApproachframework.AlthoughitwasdesignedfortheAsiaPacificregion,the
toolsseemtobeapplicabletoawiderangeofcountriesandsettings.Thetoolkitisopensource
andUNESCOencouragesreproductionandtranslationofthematerials.Thetoolkitisdivided
intothreeparts:
Part1:ToolsforRaisingGenderAwareness
Part2:ToolsforGenderResponsiveEducationalEnvironment
Part3:ToolsforGenderResponsiveEducationalManagement
Part1includesathoroughglossaryofgendertermsanddefinitions,aresourcelistanda
summaryofmajorglobalcommitmentstogenderequalityineducation,afactsheetabout
genderissuesineducationmostlypertainingtotheAsiaPacificRegionandatooltoassess
thegenderresponsivenessofanorganization.Part2includesatooltohelpcurriculum
developersuseagenderresponsivemechanismduringthedevelopmentoftheirteachingand
learningmaterials;atoolforassessingthegenderfriendlinessofschools;asetof
recommendationsforhowteacherscanadoptgendersensitiveattitudestowardsstudents;a
guideforassessingthegenderresponsivenessofteaching/learningmaterials;guidelinesfor
collectingschoolleveldataongender;andagenderresponsiveschoolobservationtool,which
offersaneasytouseandthoroughdatacollectiontoolforprogrammeofficers,researchersand
schoolheads.
Part3includesanaccessibleoverviewofgendermainstreamingineducation,includingthe
benefitsofgendermainstreamingandspecificstrategiesthatcanbeusedforgender
mainstreaming.Italsoincludesagenderresponsivebudgetingineducationtool;aguidefor
developinggenderresponsiveeducationprogrammes;atoolfordevelopinggenderresponsive
termsofreferenceforresearchandsurveys;andatoolfororganizinggenderresponsive
trainings,meetingsandconferences.Theusefulresourcesectionincludesasamplegender
trainingworkshopagenda,aswellastipsforfacilitators.Attheendofthemanual,thereisan
extensivereferencesectionwithlinkstogendertrainingmaterials,genderglossaries,and
27

additionalresourcesongenderanalysis,gendermainstreaming,genderstatistics,aswellasalist
oforganizationssupportinggenderequality,withwebsitelinks.
UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment,AGenderAnalysisoftheEducational
AchievementofBoysandGirlsintheJamaicanEducationalSystem,USAID,Washington,D.C.,2005,
availableat<http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADE595.pdf>.
Keywords:Caribbean,genderparity,genderequity,Jamaica
Thisdocumentisusefultopolicymakers,researchers,practitionersandthoseinterestedina
countryexampleofgenderanalysisineducation.Itprovidesacasestudyforgenderanalysisin
educationthatwasdoneinJamaica.Thestudywasdoneatatimewheretherewasgeneral
concernregardingthelowperformanceofboysinliteracyattheprimarylevelandtheweak
representationofmalesintertiaryinstitutions.Thus,thepurposeoftheanalysiswasto
investigatetheroleofgenderinmaleandfemaledevelopment,academicachievement,and
schoolingoutcomesinanefforttodevelopeffectivestrategiestoaddresstheeducational
challenges.Thestudylookedatgenderdynamicsatvariouslevels,includinghousehold,school
andcommunitylevels.Themethodsthatwereusedtoaccessthecurrentstatuswere
participatoryinnatureandinvolvedfocusgroupdiscussionswithstudents,parents,teachers,
principals,policymakersandotherrelevantstakeholders.Classroomswerealsoobserved.
Additionally,quantitativedatawereused.Amongthefindingswere:insensitivityinthe
classroom,limitedteacherunderstandingofgenderissues,adisproportionaterepresentationof
boyswhoperformbelowgradelevel,andstronggenderstereotypesengrainedwithinparents,
teachersandchildren.Theendofthedocumentprovidesrecommendationsforaddressingthe
findings,suchasthecreationofchildcentredclassrooms,expandingliteracyinterventions,and
developinggendertrainingmodulesforparentsandteachers.
Unterhalter,Elaine,FragmentedFrameworks?Researchingwomen,gender,educationand
development,inBeyondAccess:TransformingPolicyandPracticeforGenderEqualityinEducation,
editedbySheilaAikmanandElaineUnterhalter,OxfamGreatBritain,Oxford,UK,2005,pp.1535.
Keywords:frameworks,genderanddevelopment,humandevelopmentapproach,womenin
development
Thisarticleisusefulforthoseinterestedinunderstandingthebackgroundandinfluencesof
differentapproachestogenderequality.Itprovidesanintroductiontothestrengths,limitations
andapplicationofthefourapproachestogenderequalityineducation.Unterhalterdiscusses
theassumptionsandtheoriesbehindeachapproachandpointsouttheimplicationsforpolicy
andpractice.
TheWIDapproach,whicharguesforequalityfromanefficiencyperspective,equatesgender
withwomenandgirls,whoareidentifiedintermsofbiologicaldifferences.Educationis
understoodasschoolinganddevelopmentorempowermentislinkedwitheconomicgrowthor
socialcohesionandsometimesimprovedgovernance(p.18).Theauthornotesthatthisisone
ofthedominantapproachesastheconcernwithequalaccesstoresourcesiseasilyquantifiable.
Oneofthelimitationsisthatitdoesntdealwithissuesthatunderliethecausesofinequality
suchasexploitationandsubordination.Incontrast,GADtheoristsconsiderequalityintermsof
theremovalofthestructuralbarrierstogenderequality:unfairlaws;labourmarketpractices;
managementregimesininstitutions;barrierstowomensdecisionmakinginallsettings;
inequitableprocesseswithregardtothedistributionoftime,money,andschooling(p.22).The
28

GADapproachisusedlessoftenintheeducationsectorandisutilizedmoreoftenbysmallscale
projectsratherthanlargeINGOs.Thepoststructuralistapproachusesliterarytheorytocritique
developmentpracticesanditsinfluenceremainspredominantlyinacademia,whilethehuman
developmentapproachfocusesontheequalityofhumanrightsandcapabilities.Thisarticle
providesausefuldescriptionoftheframeworksthatcanbeusedbytrainers,practitioners,
researchersandpolicymakers.
UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment,Women,Men,andDevelopment,USAID,
Washington,D.C.,2006.
Keywords:casestudies,crosssectoralapplication,economicgrowth,genderbasedviolence,
health,HIV/AIDS,humantrafficking,implementation,promotionofequality
Women,Men,andDevelopmentdiscussesUSAIDsworktoimproveequitybetweenmenand
womenthroughitsdevelopmentprojectsaroundtheworld.Itconcentratesontheareasof
education,economicgrowth,womenshealth,HIV/AIDS,traffickinginpersons,genderbased
violence,andthelegalrightsandpoliticalparticipationaffordedtowomen.Eachsectionfocuses
ontherationaleforincreasinggenderequityinthatsector,oftencitingtheeconomicandhealth
benefitsassociatedwitheducatinggirlsandwomen,andoutlinestheremainingchallenges
facedbyaidorganizations.ThisinformationisthenfollowedbydescriptionsofUSAID
programmesonthegroundinvariouscountriesthathaveexperiencedsuccessinaddressing
issuesofgenderinequality.Thefinalsectionaddressesthreatstoprogressintheareasof
genderequalitythatshouldbeconsideredwhendevelopingplansforgenderanalysis.These
includetheincreasingproliferationofHIV/AIDS,genderbasedviolenceandregionsinconflict.
Demographicshiftstowardsyoungergenerationsandincreasedglobalizationarealsopotential
challengesinthestruggleforenderequity.Thedocumentprovidesdescriptionsofgender
analysisandworktowardsgenderequalityinpractice.Italsoprovidessomeusefulexamplesof
howoneorganizationisworkingtoincreasegenderequityinmultiplesectors,including
education.Thechallengesdiscussedinthedocumentarealsovalidandmustbeconsideredby
thosewhohopetodesignandimplementaneffectivegenderanalysisprogramme.Itisalso
interestingtoseehowUSAIDincorporatespiecesofmultipleframeworksintoitsgenderequity
work.
Frameworksusedtoanalysegender
CanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgency,GenderEqualitybetweenWomenandMen,CIDA,
Quebec,2007,availableat<www.acdicida.gc.ca/acdicida/acdicida.nsf/eng/JUD31192610JXF>.
Keywords:genderanalysis,humanrights
Thiswebsitewouldbeusefulforpractitioners,policymakersandresearcherslookingforabasic
overviewofgenderanalysis.ItincludesinformationonCIDAsgenderequalitypolicy,whichis
basedonthesocialrelationsandhumanrightsbasedframeworks.CIDAsgenderequalitypolicy
seekstheadvancementofwomensequalparticipationwithmenasdecisionmakers,the
realizationoffullhumanrightsforwomenandgirls,andthereductionofgenderinequalitiesin
accesstoandcontroloverresourcesandbenefitsofdevelopment.Itincludesbriefsectionson
thepurposeofgenderanalysisandwhattoaskduringagenderanalysis.Thereisalsoalinkto
anothersectionofthewebsitespecificallyfocusedongenderanalysis.Thissectionprovidesa
briefoverviewandanswersthequestionsof:whatisgenderanalysis,whatcangenderanalysis
29

tellus,whenistheprocessofgenderanalysisapplied,andwhoundertakesgenderanalysis?
Thissectionalsoincludeselementsofgenderanalysisandlinkstogenderanalysistoolsand
frameworks.
Kabeer,Naila,GenderEqualityandWomensEmpowerment:Acriticalanalysisofthethird
MillenniumDevelopmentGoal,GenderandDevelopment,vol.13,no.1,2005,pp.1324.
Keywords:access,agency,employment,politicalparticipation
ThisarticlewillbeusefultopolicymakersandthosewithaninterestintheMDGs.Inthearticle,
KabeerdiscussesthethirdMDG,whichpertainstogenderequalityandwomens
empowerment,andtheindicatorsthatcanbeusedtomonitorthisgoal.Therearethree
indicatorsthathavebeenusedtomonitorMDG3:1)Eliminatingthegenderdisparitiesatall
educationlevels;2)Increasingwomenswages;and3)Increasingwomenspolitical
representation.Kabeerarguesthatinorderforgenderequalitytobeachievedineducation,
employmentandpoliticalparticipation,thereneedstobeashiftinthesocialrelationsthrough
whichaccesstotheseresourcesisgenerated.Shepresentssomeotherimportantresourcesthat
theMDGshavenottakenintoconsiderationwhenaddressingtheissueofgenderequalityand
empowerment.Theconceptofempowermentisaddressedthroughthreeareas:agency,
resourcesandachievements.Agencyreferstohowchoicesaremade,andKabeerarguesthat
resourcesarethemechanismthroughwhichchoicesaremadeandenactedwhileachievements
aretheresultsofhavingchoice.Theauthorstatesthatempowermententailsnotonlytheability
tohaveachoicebuttomakeachoicethatchallengesthepowerdynamicsinsociety.Thearticle
mainlyfocusesontransformativeagency,whichistheabilitytomakechoicesthathavelong
termimpact.Thearticlediscussestherelationbetweenthistransformativeagencyand
education,employmentandpoliticalrepresentation.Thepositiveeffectsandthelimitationsof
eachoftheseresourcesareaddressed.Kabeerconcludesbydiscussingtheneedforthe
indicatorsspecifiedforMDG3tobringaboutlongtermchangebyincreasingwomensagency,
asopposedtobeingatokengestureofpaternalistbenevolence(p.23).
Leach,Fiona,PractisingGenderAnalysisinEducation,OxfamGreatBritain,Oxford,UK,2003.
Keywords:frameworks,GenderAnalysisMatrix,HarvardFramework,SocialRelationsApproach,
WomensEmpowermentFramework
Thisbookwouldbeofinteresttopolicymakers,educationists,researchersandpractitioners
interestedinapplyinggenderanalysisframeworkstoeducation.Inthisbook,Leachprovidesan
overviewofexistinggenderanalysistoolsandhowtheycanbeusedtoachievegenderequityin
education.Socialjusticeandhumanrightsarethecoreprinciplesguidingthebook.Leach
discussesthedifficultythatshehashadapplyingframeworksfordevelopmenttoeducation
settings,andpresentswaysinwhichtheseframeworkscanbemodifiedandappliedtothe
educationcontext.Thebookbeginsbyexplainingthekeyconceptsingenderandeducation.
Fourframeworksareaddressedinthebook:theHarvardFramework,theWomens
EmpowermentFramework,theGenderAnalysisMatrixandtheSocialRelationsApproach.
Leachpresentsbackgroundinformation,keycomponents,andstrengthsandlimitationsofeach
framework.Theframeworksareaccompaniedbycasestudiesthathighlighttheirapplicationin
thecontextofeducation.Leachadvocatesthattheframeworksbeusedinwaysthatinvolvethe
targetpopulations(ParticipatoryRuralAppraisal).Thisbookisparticularlyusefulwhentryingto
understandthevariousgenderanalysisframeworksthathavebeenused.Throughthecase
studiesitgivesapictureofwhattheframeworkswouldlooklikeinpractice.
30
UnitedNationsChildrensFundandUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization,A
HumanRightsBasedApproachtoEducationforAll:Aframeworkfortherealizationofchildrensright
toeducationandrightswithineducation,UNICEFandUNESCO,NewYorkandParis,2007.
Keywords:conceptualframeworks,education,gendermainstreaming,guidelines,humanrights,
marginalizedpopulations,planning
Thisdocumentisespeciallyusefultoaidworkersinterestedinpromotingtherecognitionof
educationasahumanright,andusingthatbeliefasabasistopromotinggenderequalityin
education.ThedocumentprovidesabroadoverviewofUNESCO/UNICEFsHRBAtoeducation
forall,includingbackgroundandvalidationforconsideringeducationtobeabasichumanright,
andtheguidingprinciplesthatshouldinformprogrammeandpolicydesign.Thisframework
aimstoensurethattraditionallymarginalizedgroups(includingbutnotlimitedto:indigenous
populations,girlsandwomen,peoplewithdisabilities,andlinguisticand/orculturalminorities)
haveaccesstoeducation.Thebeliefthateducationisahumanrightmeansthatitisuniversal,
inalienableandinterdependent/interrelatedtootherbasichumanrights.Thisdocument
recognizestheinterplaybetweenhumanrightsandthefactthatmanyhingeuponothers,
makingitnecessarytomeettherightofeducationtosuccessfullyreachothers.Further,it
providesstepsforapplyingahumanrightsapproachtoeducationalprogrammingandplanning,
includingkeyinformationthatshouldbelookedatwhencompletingagenderanalysisinagiven
country.Thetenetsofthisapproachmustbeincorporatedintothedesignofgenderanalysis
toolsthatwillbeusedbytheorganization.TheHRBAintegratesnicelywiththeSocialRelations
Approach,andtogetherthetwocanbeusedtoprovidestrongrationalizationforwhygender
equalityisnecessaryandhowitcanbebetterimplementedinpolicyandprogrammes.
UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment,GenderAnalysisFrameworks(Atraining
resourceguide),USAIDsMiddleEastBureau,Cairo,2008.
Keywords:conceptualframeworks,onlinetrainingmodule,training
Thisdocumentismostusefulforpractitionersandpolicymakerswhoareinthepreliminary
stagesofdeterminingwhichframeworkwouldbethemostusefulforcompletingagender
analysisintheircontext.Thisshortresourceguideongenderanalysisframeworkswascreated
asasupplementtoaGenderIntegrationWorkshoprunbyUSAIDsMiddleEastBureau.The
documentprovidesashortdescriptionofgenderanalysisbeforeoutliningfivemajorgender
analysisframeworks(HarvardAnalyticalFramework/GenderRolesFramework,MoserGender
PlanningFramework,GenderAnalysisMatrix,WomensEmpowermentFrameworkandthe
SocialRelationsApproach).Theseoutlinesincludeabriefdescriptionofthehistoryofeach
framework,areasinwhicheachframeworkmightbeapplied,prosandconsofuse,and
additionalresourcesthatcanbeusedtofindoutmore.Whileverybasic,thedocumentprovides
concisesummariesofthedifferentframeworksusedtoanalysegender,whichisusefulwhen
tryingtogetabroadoverviewofthetopicseachframeworkexamines.Thelinksandsuggested
sourcesforadditionalinformationarealsousefulaswestrivetogainadeeperunderstandingof
themanyframeworksthatcanbeusedtocarryoutgenderanalysis.
UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment,EducationfromaGenderEqualityPerspective,
USAID,Washington,D.C.,2008,availableat
<www.ungei.org/resources/files/Education_from_a_Gender_Equality_Perspective.pdf>.
Keywords:educationinterventions,educationquality,girlseducation,genderequality
31
Thisdocumentcouldbeparticularlyusefulforeducationpractitionersandpolicymakerswhen
searchingforpossibleinterventionsasaresultofgenderanalysisfindings.Thedocument
discussescurrentdevelopmentchallengestogirlseducationandintroducesagenderequality
conceptualframeworkforreachingalllearners.Itfocusesonmovingbeyondequalaccessfor
boysandgirlstoequalqualityofeducation,whichwouldallowbothboysandgirlstoreceive
themaximumbenefitfromtheireducation.Thedocumentalsoincludesequalityofaccess,
learningprocess,educationaloutcomesandexternalresults.Itofferspolicymakersand
programmeofficerspracticallistsofexamplesofinterventionsthatmightimprovegender
equalityineacharea.Italsomentionsthecurrenttrendofboyslaggingbehindgirlsinsome
developingcountriesandrecommendspolicyattentionforthisissuewithoutdivertingattention
fromgirlseducationissues.Inaddition,thedocumentdrawscomparisonsbetweenqualityand
equalityineducationandhowtheyrelatetoeachother.
Thisdocumentcouldbeusefulformakingthecaseforconductinggenderanalysisineducation,
andfornotjustfocusingonequalaccesstoeducationandgenderparity,butalsothequalityof
educationexperiencesandoutcomesthatgirlsandboysreceive.Itcouldalsobeusefulinthe
gendermodules,perhapsasawaytoassisteducationstakeholdersdecideonpossible
appropriateinterventionsasaresultoftheirgenderanalysisfindings.
Tools,guidelinesandtrainingsrelatedtogenderanalysis
CanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgency,GenderEqualityToolkit:CIDAChinaprogram,CIDA,
Quebec,2007,availableat
<www.acdicida.gc.ca/INET/IMAGES.NSF/vLUImages/China/$file/ChinaProg.pdf>.
Keywords:gendersensitive,genderterms,humanrights,implementation,logframes,
monitoringandevaluationsystems,planning,projectdesign,toolkit
Thisdocumentwouldbeusefulforpractitionersandpolicymakersseekingtocreategender
sensitiveprogrammesandpoliciesand/orseekingtobuildastrongargumentforgender
equalityandgenderanalysis.AlthoughthistoolkitwasdesignedfortheCIDAChinaprogramme,
mostofthetoolsareapplicabletoavarietyofcontexts.Thistoolkitforgenderequalityincludes
aglossaryofgenderterms,asectiononmakingthecaseforgenderequalityandtoolsfor
integratinggenderequalityinprojectdesign,planning,implementationandanalysis.Thetoolkit
isbasedonCIDAspolicyongenderequality,whichseekstoadvancewomensequal
participationwithmenasdecisionmakers,therealizationoffullhumanrightsforwomenand
girlsandreducinggenderinequalitiesinaccesstoandcontroloverresourcesandbenefitsof
development.ThetoolkitandCIDAsgenderequalitypolicydrawonsocialrelationsandhuman
rightsframeworks.
Manyofthetoolsaregearedtowardscreatinggendersensitiveprogrammedesignsand
monitoringandevaluationsystems.Thesetoolscouldbeadaptedforuseinplanningeducation
programmes.Thereisausefultoolforintegratinggenderintologicalframeworksandadetailed
toolforcreatingresultsbasedgenderindicatorsforavarietyofdesiredgenderoutcomes.One
toolisastakeholdermatrix,whichallowsdevelopmentpractitionerstoexamineandassessthe
interestsofdifferentstakeholdersintheareaofgenderequalityinordertofindentrypointsfor
theintegrationofgenderequalityinprogrammes.Theothertoolisaninterestingtablelisting
32

commonexamplesofargumentsthatpeoplemaymaketoavoidintegratinggenderinto
projectsandconstructivecounterarguments.
Hanson,Cindy,CanadianGenderBasedAnalysisTraininginSouthAfrica,InternationalFeminist
JournalofPolitics,vol.9,no.2,2007,pp.198217.
Keywords:gendertraining,hegemony,internationaldevelopment,mainstreaming,reflexivity,
transnationalfeminismfacilitation
Thisarticleisusefulforthoseinterestedinthedevelopmentandimplementationofgender
analysistraining.Itisparticularlyrelevantfortrainers,practitioners,supervisorsand
policymakerswantingtoconsiderthechallengesofconductinggenderanalysistrainingsina
varietyofcontexts.Inthearticle,theauthorusesatransnationalfeministlenstoevaluate
genderbasedanalysistraining.AsaCanadiangenderbasedanalysistrainer,shedefinesherrole
asatransnationalfeministthroughherbeliefincommunitybasedstruggles,solidarity,and
transformation(p.200).Shedoesnotprovideinformationaboutthecontentofthetrainingor
thegenderanalysisframeworkthatisused,butratherusesherexperienceinSouthAfricato
critiquetheprocessbywhichgenderbasedanalysistrainingisconducted.Someofthe
challengesinconductingeffectivetrainingareasfollows:
TrainingmaterialsareoftencreatedbythoseintheNorthforthepurposeof
educatingthoseintheSouth.Frameworksandpracticesareoftenprescribedas
universalandappropriateforthehomogenouspoorthirdworldwoman,
withoutacknowledgmentofthefeministandelitedrivenagendasfromwhich
theymaycomefrom.Theauthornotesthatsuchdivisionsofpowerlegitimize
somevoicesoverothersandestablishfalsebinaryconstructsthatreinforcethe
poweroftheNorthovertheSouth.
Trainingcurriculaaredesignedwithoutparticipationfromthosebeingtrained.
Thetrainingcontent,pedagogyandmaterialsareoftendeterminedbythe
fundingagency,wherebytheyaredevelopedintheNorthanddistributed
throughouttheSouthwithoutconsiderationtocontextualdifferences.
Trainingsareoftenresourceandfundingconstrained,andthereforelimitedin
theirabilitytoenactrealchange.
Trainingsareconductedincontextswherethereisastrongworkplace
hierarchy.Whenseniormanagersandlowerlevelstaffaretrainedinthesame
programme,thosewithoutofficialpowercanfeelsilenced.Theauthornotes
thatdevelopingsupportofmanagement,theagencyoflowerlevelstaff,and
integratingthemainstreamingprocessintotheworkplacearecriticalchallenges
tobeaddressed.
Toamelioratesomeofthechallengesthatexist,theauthorsuggestscreatingtimeandspacefor
relationshipbuilding.Shearguesthatthetrainermusthaveknowledgeoflocalhistoryanduse
culturespecificexamplesintrainings.Inaddition,cofacilitatingwithamemberofthegroup
thatisbeingservedisausefulmeanstobuildinclusivity.Shearguesthatthereispotentialto
usetransnationalfeministmethodologiestoworktowardssolidarityandchallengepower
relations;yet,moreresearchneedstobeconducted.Althoughthisarticledoesntdiscuss
genderanalysisofeducationplanning,itispertinenttogenderanalysistrainingintheeducation
sector.
DepartmentforInternationalDevelopment,GenderManual:Apracticalguidefordevelopmentpolicy
33

makersandpractitioners,DFID,London,2002,availableat<www.allindiary.org/pool/resources/dfid
gendermanual.pdf>.
Keywords:genderanddevelopment,gendermainstreaming,historyofgenderand
development
Thismanualwouldbeusefulforpractitionersandpolicymakersseekingtocreategender
sensitiveprogrammesandpoliciesand/orseekingtobuildastrongargumentforgender
equalityandgenderanalysis.Themanualbeginswithbackgroundideasandconceptsrelatedto
gender,includingthehistoryofgenderanddevelopmentfromthe1970sto2002insection1.
Section2includesemergingbestpracticesingendermainstreamingandfourkeystepsof
gendermainstreaming:collectingsexdisaggregateddataandgenderanalyticalinformation,
influencingthedevelopmentagenda,actiontopromotegenderequality;andorganizational
capacitybuildingandchange.Section3includespracticaltoolsandguidelinesforplanningand
implementationofthefourkeystepsingendermainstreaming.
Themanualdoesnotholdtoaspecificanalyticalframework,butsuggeststhatwhile
frameworkscanbehelpfulforpolicymakersandpractitioners,theyshouldbeusedcriticallyand
withcare,asnooneframeworkcancatertotheneedsofallcontexts.Theauthorstatesthat
frameworksshouldbeusedtoinspire,nottorestrictthinking(p.13).Althoughthetoolsare
notcomprehensiveandcannotbetakenoutintothefieldandimplemented,theguidelinesare
veryhelpful,astheyoffermanyissuestoconsiderduringthegendermainstreamingprocess.
UnitedNationsGirlsEducationInitiative,EquityandInclusioninEducation:Aguidetosupport
educationsectorplanpreparation,revision,andappraisal,UNGEIandEFAFastTrackInitiative
Secretariat,NewYorkandWashington,D.C.,2010,availableat
<www.ungei.org/resources/index_2393.html>.
Keywords:educationplanning,equity,inclusion,training
Thismanualisusefulforlocalgovernments,civilsocietyandcommunityorganizationsin
institutingaprocesstoaddressequityandinclusionineducationplanning.Theguidewas
developedtosupporttheintegrationofequityandinclusionissuesineducationsectorplans
whiletheyarebeingdeveloped,revisedorappraised.Itisdesignedprimarilyforusebylocal
governments,civilsocietyorganizationsandcommunitylevelbodies.Itincludesathreestep
processintheareasofbaselinedataonenrolmentandcompletion,barrierstoequityand
inclusion,policies,strategiestopromoteequityandinclusion,institutionalarrangements,
schools,parentalandcommunityparticipation,teachers,curriculaandbudgetsandunitcosts.
Thestepsareasfollows:
1. Highlightkeyquestionstoinvestigatethestatusofinequityandexclusion;
2. Answerspecificquestionsforanassessmentofthefocusarearegardingequityand
inclusion;and
3. Prepareandrevisetheeducationsectorplanaroundaccess,qualityand
management.
Theguidewascreatedtoassessinclusionandequityinavarietyofdisadvantagedgroups,andis
usefultoexaminegenderasitrelatestoissuesofrace,casteandothersourcesof
marginalization.Thefirststepintheprocesscanserveasaguidelinetofosterdialogueabout
thecausesandstructuralandculturalbarriersthatimpedegenderequityandinclusion.The
secondstepenablesuserstoassesstheparticularcircumstancesinthegeographicarea.Finally,
thethirdstepallowstheusertoconsiderthefutureimplicationsaboutwhatchangesneedto
34

occurforarevisedplantobeimplemented.Whiletheguidelinesprovideathoroughlistof
questionsthatcanbeusedateachstep,thesectiononhowtoimplementtheassessmentisnot
asdetailed.Suggestionsincludehostingworkshopsandconsultations;however,issuessuchas
buildingconsensusandaddressingconflictingprioritiesarenotdiscussed.
Warren,Hannah,UsingGenderAnalysisFrameworks:Theoreticalandpracticalreflections,Gender&
Development,vol.15,no.2,2007,pp.187198.
Keywords:conceptualtheory,frameworks,genderanalysis,training
Thearticlecritiquesthegenderanalysistrainingandimplementationprocess.Itisparticularly
relevantfortrainers,practitioners,supervisorsandpolicymakersinterestedinthechallengesof
conductinggenderanalysistrainings.Inthearticle,theauthorcritiquesthegenderanalysis
trainingprocessandcurrentapplicationofframeworks.Bydiscussingherexperiences
conductingtrainingsandbycitingpublicationsthatcritiquethetrainingandimplementation
process,Warrendiscussesthechallengesthatarise.Theseinclude:1)Trainingistypically
conductedwithfewlowlevelstaff,ratherthantakinganinclusiveapproach;2)Stafffrom
multipleorganizationsareoftentrainedtogetherdespitedifferencesintheirorganizations
approachestogenderequity;and3)Clarityisnotprovidedastothewhyofgenderspecific
strategies;therefore,thosewhoattendtrainingsareoftenlookingforatechnicalskillrather
thananunderstandingoftheoreticalandpoliticalideologies.
Warrensuggeststhattrainersadoptapedagogyfocusedonexperientiallearning,sothatthey
canusetheframeworkthatbestsuitstheirorganizationsneeds.Shealsosuggests
implementingorganizationwidetrainingthataddressesthespecificcapacityneedsandthe
approachoftheinstitution.Intermsofapplication,theauthorarguesthattheframeworkshave
beenreducedtochecklistsandgatheringofdatawithouttheunderstandingofthetheoriesand
politicalideologiesthatunderpinthem.Certainframeworksareusedwithoutanunderstanding
oftheirlimitations,certaindatapointsareprivilegedandothersexcluding,andframeworksare
seenasuniversalandthereforenotadaptedtolocalneeds.Thisarticleclearlysummarizesa
numberofthechallengesinimplementinggenderanalysistraining;however,feasibleoptions,
particularlyforresourceconstrainedenvironments,arenotprovided.
InternationalLabourOrganization,OnlineGenderLearning&InformationModule,ILOsSouthEast
AsiaandthePacificMultidisciplinaryAdvisoryTeam,Manila,1998,availableat
<www.ilo.org/public/english/region/asro/mdtmanila/training/homepage/mainmenu.htm>.
Keywords:casestudies,conceptualframeworks,genderaudit,genderawareness,gender
mainstreaming,internationalagencies,onlinetrainingmodule,tools,training
Thisresourceisusefulforpractitionersandpolicymakersseekingabroadoverviewofgender
analysisorexamplesofsuccessfulonlinetrainingmodulesonthetopicofgenderanalysis.This
onlinemoduleprovidesabasicintroductiontogenderissues,includinggenderanalysisand
frameworks.Itbeginsbydifferentiatingbetweensexandgender,beforetakingadeeperlookat
genderroles.Foreachstepofthisprocessthereareguidingexercisesincludedonthesite,
whichleadparticipantstoaclearerunderstandingoftheissuesathand.Itdiscussesthebenefits
ofgenderawareness,resourcesthatcanbeusedtocompleteagenderneedsassessment,and
toolsthatmaybeusedtobetterunderstandthechallengesofcarryingoutagenderanalysis
(andhowtoovercomethem).Conceptualframeworksforgenderanalysisandplanningare
analysedbasedontheircharacteristics,applicabilitytovarioussituations,strengthsand
35

weaknesses,andsuggestionsareprovidedforcarryingoutaneffectivegenderanalysis.One
effectivetoolthatissharedistheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO)manualfor
participatorygenderaudits,whichisausefulguidethatoutlinestheprocessforcompletinga
genderanalysis.ThedocumentdiscussingtheILOsparticipatorygenderauditstrategyisalso
useful.Itencouragestheactiveparticipationofstakeholdersinordertogetadeeper
understandingoftheissuesathandinagivencontext.Thisresourceisausefuloverviewor
backgroundongenderanalysisframeworks,processes,challengesandbenefitsforpractitioners
andpolicymakers.Thosewhoarenewtogenderanalysismaywishtogothroughtheactivities
andtoolsinordertodetermineanypersonalbiasesorpreconceivednotionsthatmayaffect
theirunderstandingorimplementationofgenderanalysis.Thedocumentisalsousefulfor
practitionersdevelopingonlinetrainingmoduleswhowishtoseeanexampleofonethatwas
craftedandusedtoeffectivelyreachawideaudience.
NewZealandAidProgramme,NZAIDGenderAnalysisGuidelines,NZAID,Wellington,NewZealand,
2006.
Keywords:conceptualframeworks,gendermainstreaming,guidelines,tools,training
NZAIDdesigneditsguidelinestoinformpolicyandpracticeincountrieswhereitworks.This
documentgivespractitionersandpolicymakersinsightintothebasictenetsofgenderanalysis,
includingusefulvocabularyandstrategiesforimplementation.NZAIDsdocumentcoverskey
genderconceptsandprovidesanoutlineformethodologiescommonlyusedingenderanalysis.
Theguidelinesintroducekeyterms,discusswhatcanbelearnedfromgenderanalysis,analyse
thedifferentlevelsatwhichgenderanalysiscantakeplace,provideexamplesofwhengender
analysisshouldbeimplemented,andexaminecommonlyusedapproaches,completewith
guidanceforwheneachshouldbeused.TheguidelinesbeginwithNZAIDsrationalefor
incorporatinggenderawareness/equalityintopolicyandpractice,withspecialattentiontothe
roleofgenderequalityinpovertyelimination.Theythenprovideastepbystepguidefor
genderanalysis,takingcaretopointoutthatgenderanalysisinpracticeisoftenaniterative
processandthoseimplementingitmustmaintainflexibility.Perhapsoneofthemostuseful
sectionsinthedocumentisannex1,whichincludesatablediscussingwhatissuesmustbe
consideredwhentryingtodeterminetheanswertovariousquestionsthatplayapartingender
analysis.Thedocumentalsoincludessuggestionsaboutwhatframeworksmaybemostuseful
whendeterminingtheanswerstoeachquestion.Thereisalsoachartthatbreaksdownthe
mostcommongenderanalysisframeworks(HarvardAnalyticalFramework,MoserGender
PlanningFramework,SocialRelationsFrameworkandWomensEmpowermentFramework)into
objectives,features,situationswheretheyaremostsuitable,strengthsandlimitations.This
broadoverviewisveryhelpfulindecidingwhichframeworkismostapplicabletoacertain
situationortopic.
PlanInternational,BecauseIamaGirl:Thestateoftheworldsgirls2011So,whataboutboys?,
PlanInternational,Surrey,UK,availableat<http://planinternational.org/girls/resources/what
aboutboys2011.php>.
Keywords:casestudies,genderattitudes,genderequality,genderroles,policy,
recommendations
Thisdocumentisusefulforthoseinterestedinillustrativedescriptionsofthecausesand
outcomesofgenderinequality.Thecasestudiesandrecommendationsprovidedarerelevantto
policymakers,researchersandpractitioners.PlanInternationalsannualreportonthestatusof
36

girlsworldwidefocusesonmakinggenderanissuenotjustaboutgirlsbutalsoaboutboys.
Theauthorsarguethatmalesneedtoparticipateinthegenderdiscourse,astheyholdmuchof
thepowerinfamilies,communitiesandgovernments.Thereporthighlightsthatsharingpower
isempoweringforbothgirlsandboys.Indiscussingtheseissues,thereportfocusesonthelife
cycleofboysandgirlsandshowshowideasofgenderareformedateachstage.Thelifecycle
startsinthehome,wheretherootsofdiscriminationbegin,thenmovestotheschoollevel,
wherenewideasaboutgenderareformed,andfinallytostagesofadolescenceandadulthood.
Chapter3,titledChangingourdestiny:Learningforlife,exploresthereasonsforgender
inequalityinschools.Itincludesvignettesofthelivesofstudentsandparentsandprovidesshort
casestudiesoftheprogrammaticinterventionsofPlanandotherNGOs.Thereportconcludes
byrecommendinganeightpointactionplanandbestpracticesforpolicymakersandcivil
societyorganizations.Themaingoalsoftheplanaretoeducate,inspirecampaignsforgender
equalityandencouragethedevelopmentoflegislationtosupportequity.
TheActionPlanrecommendationsareasfollows:
1. Startyoung:preschooleducationshouldpromoteequalitybetweengirlsandboys
andinvolveparents;
2. Transformschoolcurriculatochallengestereotypesandacknowledgedifferences;
3. Supportgirlsandboysparticipationinthecreationofpoliciestoimprovesex
education;
4. Makeschoolssafeforgirlsandboys;
5. Launchcampaignsthatchallengediscriminationandengagemenandboys;
6. Passlawsthatenablebothparentstotakeanactivepartinraisingtheirchildren;
7. Enforcelegislationtoendviolenceagainstwomenandgirls;and
8. Legislateforequalopportunities.
Thepolicyrecommendationsrelevanttoeducationinclude:
1. Nationalgovernmentsanddonorsmustadaptearlychildhoodcareand
developmentprogrammestoincorporateexplicitgenderequalitygoals
a) Promisingpractice:challenginggenderstereotypesthroughholisticearly
childhoodcareanddevelopment
2.Donorsmustreplicatesuccessfulinitiativesandprovenmainstreamcurriculathat
challengetraditionalmasculinitiesandpromotehealthy,supportivebehaviours
a) Bestpractice:analysemasculinitiesandreeducateyouth
b) Bestpractice:workwithboysandgirlsinschoolstochallengenegative
behaviours
c) Bestpractice:createtransformativeeducationalcurricula
3.Nationalgovernmentsmustenableandsupportgirlsandboysparticipationinthe
creationofpoliciesonsexualandreproductiverights
a) Bestpractice:createaparticipatoryprocessinvolvingyouthleadersboth
girlsandboys
b) Bestpractice:adoptacomprehensivegendersensitiveapproachtosexual
andreproductiverights
4.Nationalgovernmentsanddonorsmustensurethatschoolsaresafespacesforboth
girlsandboysbypromotinggenderequitableattitudesandthroughgender
equitablecurricula
a)Bestpractice:trainingteachers
37

ThedocumentprovidesillustrativeexamplesofhowNGOsorgovernmentbodiesare
implementinggendersensitiveprogrammes.However,oneofthechallengesofmakingpolicy
recommendationsthatfitavarietyofcontextsisthattheylackspecificity.Thesamplecase
studiesprovideevidenceofhowtheycanbeimplemented,yetfurtherresearchisnecessaryto
provideusefulguidelinesforadoption.
SwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency,GenderEqualityinPractice:Amanualfor
Sida,Sida,Stockholm,2009,availableat<www.sida.se/publications>.
Keywords:genderanalysis,gendermainstreaming,institutionalapproach,povertyanalysis,
recommendations
Thisdocumentisusefulforpractitionerstounderstandtheroleofgenderanalysisinthe
broadergendermainstreamingprocess.Thearticleincludesrecommendationsthatarerelevant
atpolicy,institutionalandinterventionlevels.ThedocumentaimstopresentSidastaffwitha
detailedmanualforgendermainstreaming.ItdirectsstaffontheuseofSidasgender
mainstreamingmodelandincludespracticaltoolstoexaminegenderinpovertyanalysis.
Genderanalysisisdefinedasthemandatoryprocessbeforeinitiatinganyintervention.Theaim
istogatherbaselineinformationinordertounderstandtheexistingcontext.Thedocumentalso
describestheneedforgenderanalysistoaddressthedivisionoflabour,rolesand
responsibilities,typesofwork,accesstoandcontroloverresources,andtherelativeposition
insocietyofwomen,men,boysandgirls.
Thedocumentprovidesarangeoftipsthatcanbeusedbyorganizationsatpolicy,institutional
andinterventionlevels.ElementsoftheHarvardFramework,suchastheaccessandcontrol
profile,arediscussed.Also,thetripleroleofwomenasdefinedintheMoserFrameworkisalso
included;however,unliketheMoserFramework,Sidaproposesanintegratedgender
mainstreamingprocess.AsnotedintheweaknessesofboththeMoserandHarvard
Frameworks,thecausesofinequalitiesarenotassessed.Themanualalsoprovidescasestudies
ofthegendermainstreamingprocessthatcanbeusedtohighlighthowtheguidelinesareput
intopractice.Althoughthemajorityofthedocumentdoesnotdirectlyaddressissuesin
education,manyparallelscanbedrawnfromthedevelopmentissuesdiscussed.
SwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency,Tool:Indicatorsformeasuringresultson
genderequality,Sida,Stockholm,2010,availableat<www.sida.se/publications>.
Keywords:datasources,genderequality,impactmeasurement,indicators,monitoring,tools
Thisdocumentisusefulforresearchersandpractitionersinterestedingatheringquantitative
dataaspartofthegenderanalysisprocess.Itprovidesindicatorsanddatasourcesfor
measuringgenderequalityatnationalandregionallevels.Thedocumentprovidesdatasources
andquantitativeindicatorsforSidacountryteamstomonitorgenderequalityofprogrammatic
efforts.Thetablesinthedocumentdescribetheusabilityofdatabasesandindicatorstomonitor
progressofSidasworkinthesectorsofeducation,health,democracy/humanrights/gender
equality,conflict/peaceandsecurity,marketdevelopment,sustainableinfrastructureand
services,andagricultureandforestry.Datasourcesarespecificallychosentoenablemonitoring
andevaluationofoutcomeandimpactresultsovertime.ThereportindicatesthatSidastaff
couldusetheinformationderivedtodeterminetheobjectivesforfutureinterventions,derive
conclusionsfromimplementedprogrammes,presentresultstostakeholders,andadvocatefor
policylevelchanges.
38
Theindicatorslistedfocusonnationalandregionalleveldata;therefore,itbecomesdifficultto
correlatechangesindatawiththespecificprogrammeinterventionsofanyorganization.To
makeanyconclusionsfromthedata,organizationswouldhavetocoupleresultswith
programmespecificevaluations.Thetablesonlyprovideoutcomeandimpactindicators,and
requireadditionalsourcestobeusedforindicatorstoconsiderduringotherphasesofthe
programmecycle.Also,withineachsectorlisted,thedocumentfocusesonSidapriorityareas,
whichinclude:womenseconomicempowerment;womenspoliticalparticipation;sexualand
reproductivehealthandrights;andwomenssecurity,includinggenderbasedviolence.While
thedocumentprovidesacomprehensiveguidefordatasourcesaccordingtothesepriorities,
theresourceslistedshouldbeelaboratedtocoverotherissues,specificallythosethatrelateto
education.Itwouldalsobeusefultoincludeinformationondataforprogramme,localandstate
levels.
UnitedNationsChildrensFund,GenderEqualityElearningCourse,UNICEF,NewYork,2012,
availableat<www.unicef.org/gender/index.html>.
Keywords:casestudies,gendermainstreaming,historyofgenderanddevelopment,HRBA,
onlinetrainingmodule,training,UnitedNationsconventionsandconferences
Theseonlinegenderequalitytrainingmodulesareusefulforpractitionersandpolicymakers
whowantabasicoverviewofHRBAtopromotinggenderequality.Thisinteractiveonline
genderequalitycourseisintendedforUnitedNationsstaff,butelementscouldbeadaptedfor
otheraudiences.Itisintendedforusewithgroupsandencouragesengagementintargeted
conversationsaboutgenderwithcolleagues,aswellasreflectionongenderissues.Theeight
modulecourseincludesgenderequalitybackgroundinformation,includingthehistoryof
genderanddevelopment,definitionsofkeytermsandtherationaleforgenderequality,aswell
asrelevantUnitedNationsconventionsandconferencesrelatedtogenderequality.Maintopics
addressedincludegendermainstreaming,promotinginteragencycollaborationingender
equalityinitiatives,integratinggenderequalityintonationalprocesses,integratinggender
equalityinhumanitariansettings,andengagingmenandboysingenderequality.Themodules
integrateHRBAthroughout,aswellastheSocialRelationsApproach.Eachmoduleincludescase
studiesandinteractivequestions,aswellasinteractivepresentations.Therearealsoresources
thatcorrespondtoeachmodule,suchasacomprehensiveglossaryofgendertermsanda
timelineofUnitedNationsconventionsandconferences.
Thecoursedemonstrateshowpresentations,groupdiscussions,casestudies,interactive
questionsandjournalscanbeintegratedintoonlinegendermodulestomakethemmorethan
justPowerPointpresentations.Themoduleonengagingmenandboysingenderequalitymight
beextremelyuseful,asitisanimportanttopicthatisoftenabsentfromgenderliterature.It
offersseveralsuccessfulexamplesofdifferentprogrammesthroughouttheworld,whichhave
successfullyengagedmenandboysingenderequality,andwhichcouldbebuiltintocase
studies.
UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment,GenderandResultsWorkshop:Building
technicalexpertise,USAID,Washington,D.C.,1999.
Keywords:genderawareness,guidelines,internationalagencies,implementation,planning,
tools,training
39
Thesedocumentsreflectonorganizationalstrengthsandweaknessandcanbeextremelyuseful
tothosedesigningnewtrainingsandprogrammes.USAIDtakespreviousexperiencesinto
accountandtheinformationcontainedhereinwillbeusefultopractitionersdesigningtraining
programmesregardinggenderanalysis.ThistrainingguidewasimplementedforUSAIDmission
staffers.TheguidebeginsbypresentinginformationandfindingsfrompreviousUSAIDgroups
taskedwithcompletinggenderanalysesandgatheringdataongenderequity.Itnotesthe
importanceofdevelopingagenderlensthatcanbeusedtocriticallyevaluateactions,policies
andprogrammesinagivensettingtodeterminetheireffectivenessinworkingtowardsgender
equality.Next,theguideprovidesinformationaboutthebehindthescenespreparations
undertakeninordertomakethetrainingmoreeffective(designofspecificmaterials,etc.).The
guidethengoesontooutlineeachdayofthefourdaytraining,includingthetopicsaddressed,
howsessionswerefacilitated,whatparticipantswereexpectedtodoandknow,andbasictake
awaysfromeachsession.Thethemesforthetrainingwere:
o Day1:IntroductiontoGender
o Day2:DemocracyandGovernance(asitpertainstogender)
o Day3:EconomicGrowthandAgriculturalDevelopmentTechnicalTrack
o Day4:FacilitationTraining
Genderreviewsandevaluations
Moser,Caroline,andAnnaliseMoser,GenderMainstreamingsinceBeijing:Areviewofsuccessand
limitationsininternationalinstitutions,Gender&Development,vol.13,no.2,2005,pp.1122.
Keywords:Asia,China,gendermainstreaming,internationalinstitutions,Beijing,NGO
Thisarticleisusefulforthoseinterestedinexaminingthechallengesofgenderatthe
institutionallevel.Itexaminespoliciesininternationaldevelopmentinstitutionstoassess
gendermainstreamingasitrelatestotheadoptionofterminology,theadministrationofpolicy
andimplementation.Theauthorsarguethatwhilemostinstitutionshavestandardizedtheir
terminologyandinstitutedpolicies,theapplicationofgendermainstreamingpracticesvaries
greatly.Furthermore,theimpactofgendermainstreamingpolicyongenderequalityisyettobe
seen.Theauthorsreviewthegendermainstreamingpoliciesof14internationalinstitutions,
includingbilateraldonors,internationalfinancialinstitutions,UnitedNationsagenciesand
NGOs.Themajorityofgendermainstreamingpolicieswithintheseorganizationssharethe
followingkeycomponents:adualstrategyofmainstreaminggendercombinedwithtargeted
actionsforgenderequality;genderanalysis;acombinedapproachtoresponsibilities,whereall
staffshareresponsibility,butaresupportedbygenderspecialists;gendertraining;supportto
womensdecisionmakingandempowerment;andmonitoringandevaluation.Theauthors
pointtothedistinctionbetweenthoseorganizationsthatargueforgenderequalityasanendin
itselfandorganizationsthatcitegenderequalityasaninstrumenttoachievebroader
developmentgoals.Theauthorsalsodiscusspossiblecausesofgendermainstreamingpolicy
evaporation,whichincludelackofstaffcapacity,organizationalcultureandattitudes,the
treatmentofgenderequalityasaseparateprocess,staffsimplificationofthegenderissue,and
alackoffeelingofownershipofthepolicy.
Thisarticlehighlightsthechallengesandcausesofintegratingacoherentgendermainstreaming
strategyintoinstitutionalpractices.Throughtheexaminationofavarietyofinternational
agencies,theauthorsdemonstratethelackofbestpracticesacrossinternationalagencies.
40
SwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency,PromotingGenderEqualityinSwedish
DevelopmentCooperation:Finalreport,Sida,Stockholm,2010,availableat
<www.sida.se/publications>.
Keywords:evaluation,HRBA,institutionalapproach,policy
ThisdocumentassessesSidasgenderpolicyandwouldbeusefulforresearchers,practitioners
andpolicymakerswhoareinterestedinunderstandingtheopportunitiesandlimitationsofthe
institutionsapproach.ThisevaluationreportaddressestheprogressandshortcomingsofSidas
genderpolicy.UsingcasestudiesfromEthiopiaandKenyaandinterviewswithinternalstaff,the
evaluationteamfoundthatgenderanalysisisoftencarriedoutbeforetheprogrammedesign
phase,asrequired;however,uponimplementationthefocusongenderequalityisnot
maintained.Oneoftheidentifiedreasonsforthisweaknessisthatatopdownapproachto
providingguidelinescanleadtoresistancefromincountrypartnerswhoareresponsiblefor
implementation.Arecommendationtocounterthisapproacharguesforashiftfromthemodel
wherepolicyandtheoryinformpracticetoafocusonlocallevelpracticestofeedbackinto
institutionalnorms.Anotherissuediscussedisthebroadcategorizationofwomenasvulnerable
groupsratherthananuancedunderstandingoftheirvariedpositions.Thereportalso
summarizestheadvantagesandshortcomingsoftheHRBAapproachinSida.Thereport
explicitlystatesthefocusofwomensempowermentandcitestheresearchofNailaKabeer.
Theevaluationhighlightstheimportanceofincentivizinggendermainstreaming,bothininternal
processesandwithpartnerorganizations.Further,Sidasfocusonnationalleveldataingender
analysislendsitselftogenderanalysisintheplanningphaseandevaluation,andhashadless
bearingongenderequalityattheprogrammelevel.Thereportpointsoutthatthereareno
frameworkswherebygenderequalityinspecificprojectscanbeassessed,bestpracticesshared,
orsynergiesdeveloped.Thisdocumentisusefultounderstandaninstitutionalapproachto
genderanalysis.
41
Gender Analysis in Education: References
Section III: References
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DevelopingCountries,Revisededition,DFIDEducationResearchSeries(SerialNumber9),Department
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CIDAstaffinCanadaandinthefield,CIDA,Quebec,2003,availableat
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CanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgency,GenderEqualitybetweenWomenandMen,CIDA,
Quebec,2007a,availableat<www.acdicida.gc.ca/acdicida/acdicida.nsf/eng/JUD31192610JXF>.
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Quebec,2007b,availableat
<www.acdicida.gc.ca/INET/IMAGES.NSF/vLUImages/China/$file/ChinaProg.pdf>.
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policymakersandpractitioners,DFID,London,2002,availableat
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Hanson,Cindy,CanadianGenderBasedAnalysisTraininginSouthAfrica,InternationalFeministJournal
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AsiaandthePacificMultidisciplinaryAdvisoryTeam,Manila,1998,availableat
<www.ilo.org/public/english/region/asro/mdtmanila/training/homepage/mainmenu.htm>.
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Kabeer,Naila,GenderEqualityandWomensEmpowerment:AcriticalanalysisofthethirdMillennium
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Leach,Fiona,PractisingGenderAnalysisinEducation,OxfamGreatBritain,Oxford,UK,2003.
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42

MinistryofForeignAffairsofDenmark,GenderEqualityToolbox,Danida,Copenhagen,2008.
Miske,Shirley,MargaretMeagherandJoanDeJaeghere,GenderMainstreaminginEducationatthe
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43

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44
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3 United Nations Plaza
New York, NY 10017, USA
Email: ungei@unicef.org
Web: http://www.ungei.org
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Box 3. Holistic approach to gender analysis

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: An Annotated Bibliography

Gender Analysis in Education: References

Section III: References

Gender Analysis in Education: References

Gender Analysis in Education: References

United Nations Girls Education Initiative

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