42.

4 human Writing and Research in Different Disciplines

of the brain (ventriculitis) or of the linings and substance of the brain

(meningoencephalitis). Such infection is most likely in those infants from
whom corrective surgery is withheld. The parents of Baby Jane Doe, a
child born with spina bifida, were told she would inevitably be severely re-
tarded. For that reason they decided not to allow a surgeon to treat her. Be-
cause she was not treated, she acquired a brain infection, which means she
is likely to be retarded. This becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.
—David G. McLone, “The Diagnosis, Prognosis, and
Outcome for the Handicapped: A Neonatal View”

The author of this paragraph is a pediatric neurosurgeon who has treated

hundreds of infants born with spina bifida. But since he is writing for a
journal of general interest, he wants to reach more than just an audience
of fellow specialists. So he explains such technical terms as ventriculitis and
meningoencephalitis. He also explains—in language we can readily under-
stand—exactly how the threat of retardation is used to justify the with-
holding of surgery from infants who need it.
This explanatory point serves a persuasive end. Elsewhere in his essay,
McLone shows that no one can predict the life of an infant born with
spina bifida until that infant has been treated. Here he shows what hap-
pens when a prediction of retardation is used to justify the withholding of
corrective surgery: the withholding of surgery leads to infection and retar-
dation, and the prediction becomes “self-fulfilling.” Thus McLone con-
verts his specialized knowledge into writing that can reach and persuade a
general reader to accept his main point, which is that all infants born with
spina bifida should be treated.

42.4 ORGANIZING A RESEARCH PAPER IN THE HUMANITIES

A research paper on one or more works of literature, art, music, or philoso-

phy normally includes secondary as well as primary sources, and in gen-
eral, you should organize this material as follows:

1. In the introduction you identify the particular work or works you will
consider in the paper. You also formulate the question you will try to an-
swer: What do we learn about motherhood from Toni Morrison’s Beloved—
a novel about a black woman who kills her own infant daughter to save
her from a life of slavery? How does J. D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye
represent the passage from innocence to experience? Why does Mary Woll-
stonecraft attack Rousseau in Vindication of the Rights of Women? Why does

660
 Writing and Research in Different Disciplines human 42.4
Velázquez’s Las Meninas include a self-portrait of the artist himself at work?
How does the hard-boiled hero of the American detective novel reflect
American notions of heroism? Here, for instance, is the introduction to a
research paper by a first-year college student:
Individual identity is a cherished ideal, and when institutions
threaten to deny it, they provoke resentment. Nevertheless, in order to
function in a society, individuals must be willing to compromise their per-
sonal moralities and assume certain prescribed roles. This conflict between
the rights of the individual and those of society produces a sense of frus-
tration, creating the need for an outlet. Consequently, we look to heroes,
to strong individuals who will never compromise their values or surrender
their identities. To nineteenth-century individuals, America offered a vast
and challenging frontier—a place where individuals could preserve their
identities. The question I want to answer is how the values of these fron-
tier heroes survive in the hard-boiled heroes of American detective novels.
—Neil Okun, “Heroism in the American Detective Novel”

2. In the body of the paper, you develop an answer to the basic question
in terms of individual works, supplemented by comments drawn from sec-
ondary sources. Secondary sources—books and articles—help you to clarify
the meaning of the works you discuss, to explain the connections between
them, and to sharpen the edge of your argument. But the works them-
selves—not the secondary sources—should be the prime source of evidence
for your argument:
Dashiell Hammett’s first novel, Red Harvest, pits the Continental Op
against a town totally controlled by three mobs and a corrupt police force.
As Robert Parker notes, Personville (pronounced “Poisonville”) is the ulti-
mate “symbol of the end of the frontier . . . a western city, sprung up on
the prairie in the wake of the mines” (95). When the Op arrives in re-
sponse to a call for his services, he discovers a dead client. At this point he
could have left, since he had already received all the pay he would get. But
in leaving, he would have sacrificed his heroic stature, so he stays to fight
for what he sees as justice.
He wins only a limited victory. Though he eventually cleans up the
town by turning the various mobs against each other, the novel lets us see
that evil will return. When the Op leaves, Personville is “nice and clean
and ready to go to the dogs again” (178). Nevertheless, the detective has
endured and upheld his own personal code of morality.
—Neil Okun

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42.5 cms Writing and Research in Different Disciplines

3. In the conclusion of the paper, you restate the main point of your
argument and indicate what the argument contributes to our understand-
ing of the works of literature you have discussed:
The demand for an individual who will not compromise on questions
of morality produced the wilderness hero, a man who fled the corrupting
influence of society for the freedom and challenge of the frontier. When
the frontier closed, this man no longer had a refuge; he was forced to fight
to retain his individuality and preserve his moral integrity. With a value
system rooted in the nineteenth-century frontier, the hero of the detective
novel must often confront the twentieth-century city. The reaction is
often violent, and the hero can never impose his values on society. Yet he
is personally victorious, for he always leaves uncorrupted, and he continu-
ally restores our faith in what Sisk calls “the American as rugged individu-
alist and shaper of his own destiny” (368).
—Neil Okun

42.5 DOCUMENTING SOURCES IN THE HUMANITIES

IN-TEXT PARENTHESES VERSUS NOTES

Authors of papers written in the humanities typically cite sources in either
one of two ways—in parentheses within the text or in notes. The author
of the paragraphs quoted above uses the MLA style of parenthetical cita-
tion, the parenthetical style normally used in the humanities (see chapter
39). But if your teacher asks you to cite your sources in notes, you should
follow the note system explained in the Chicago Manual of Style, 14th ed.
(Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1993). In the CMS system, each citation in the
text is followed by a raised number referring to a note.1

USING THE CMS NOTE SYSTEM

CMS notes may be footnotes at the bottom of each page or endnotes at
the end of the paper. While footnotes are easier for the reader to find, they
are sometimes harder for the writer to manage because varying amounts of
room must be left for them on each page. Some word processing programs
will lay out footnoted pages for you. But in any case, you should find out
which kind of note your teacher prefers and then use it consistently. Do not
use footnotes and endnotes in the same paper.

1. This is the note. (Citation numbers within the text are raised, but note numbers are
not.)

662
 Writing and Research in Different Disciplines cms 42.5
All notes written in CMS style—whether footnotes or endnotes—
should be written as follows. The first reference to any book you cite
should look like this:
Author Comma Title Place of publication

1. Seamus Heaney, The Redress of Poetry (New York: Farrar,

Straus and Giroux, 1995), 15. Page number(s)

Comma
Publisher Date of publication Parentheses

To cite again a source you have just cited in the previous note, use Ibid.
(Latin for “in the same place”):

2. Ibid., 17.

To cite again a source you have cited more than one note earlier, use the
author’s last name:

3. Heaney, 17.

If your paper cites more than one work by the same author, a follow-up ref-
erence to any of his or her works should include a short version of its title:

4. Heaney, Redress, 17.

Specific in-text, footnote/endnote, and Bibliography-entry formats are

illustrated below. For further variations, see the CMS or the student guide
adapted from it, Kate L. Turabian’s Manual for Writers of Terms Papers,
Theses, and Dissertations, 6th ed. (rev. John Grossman and Alice Bennett
[Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1987]).

1. BOOK BY ONE AUTHOR

Goldberg believes that “moral notions tend to be basic to

each sociodiscursive order, for they are key in defining the
Raised number
interactive ways social subjects see and conceive [of] them- follows
punctuation at
selves.”1 end of sentence.

First line of each

1. David Theo Goldberg, Racist Culture: Philosophy and the footnote is
indented five
Politics of Meaning (Cambridge: Blackwell, l993), 20. spaces.

663
42.5 cms Writing and Research in Different Disciplines

Bibliographic Goldberg, David Theo. Racist Culture: Philosophy and the Politics
entries are
formatted as of Meaning. Cambridge: Blackwell, l993.
hanging-indent
paragraphs.
2. BOOK BY TWO AUTHORS

Kinder and Sanders maintain that “the most complicated aspect of

race relations in America today concerns attitude.”2

Footnotes,
2. Donald R. Kinder and Lynne M. Sanders, Divided by Color:
endnotes, and
Racial Politics and Democratic Ideals (Chicago:
bibliographic
entries are University of Chicago Press, l996), 6.
single-spaced,
with a double
space between
them. Kinder, Donald R., and Lynne M. Sanders. Divided by Color: Racial
Politics and Democratic Ideals. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, l996.

3. BOOK BY THREE OR MORE AUTHORS

Medhurst et al. argue that the “cold war, like its ‘hot’ counter-
part, is a contest.”3

3. Martin J. Medhurst, Robert L. Ivie, Philip Wander, and

Robert L. Scott, Cold War Rhetoric: Strategy, Metaphor, and Ide-
ology (New York: Greenwood, 1990), 19.

For subsequent references in text and footnotes, use Medhurst et al. (Latin et
alia, “and others”).

Medhurst, Martin J., Robert L. Ivie, Philip Wander, and Robert L.

Scott. Cold War Rhetoric: Strategy, Metaphor, and Ideology.
New York: Greenwood, 1990.

664
 Writing and Research in Different Disciplines cms 42.5
4. BOOK , EDITED , WITH FOCUS ON ORIGINAL AUTHOR

Thoreau says “we need to witness our own limits transgressed, and
some life pasturing freely where we never
wander.”4

4. Henry David Thoreau, Walden, ed. William Rossi (New York:

Norton, 1992), 212.

Thoreau, Henry David. Walden. Edited by William Rossi. New York:

Norton, 1992.

CMS allows the abbreviations Ed. (Edited by), Trans. (Translated by), and
Comp. (Compiled by).

5. BOOK , EDITED , WITH FOCUS ON EDITOR

“For most of her life,” writes J. Paul Hunter, “Mary Shelley

lived (apparently contentedly) in the shadow of her famous par-
ents and ultimately more famous husband.”5

5. J. Paul Hunter, ed., Frankenstein, by Mary Shelley (New

York: Norton, 1996), xi.

Hunter, J. Paul, ed. Frankenstein, by Mary Shelley. New York:

Norton, 1996.

6. BOOK WITH EDITOR ( S )

Gary Peller, one of the editors of Critical Race Theory, thinks

“the conflict between nationalists and integrationists in the

665
42.5 cms Writing and Research in Different Disciplines

late sixties and early seventies represented a critical juncture

in American race relations.”6

6. Kimberlé Crenshaw, Neil Gotanda, Gary Peller, and Kendall

Thomas, eds., Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That Formed
the Movement (New York: New York University Press, 1995), 132–3.

For subsequent references in text and footnotes, use Crenshaw et al.

Crenshaw, Kimberlé, Neil Gotanda, Garry Peller, and Kendall

Thomas, eds. Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That
Formed the Movement. New York: New York University Press,
1995.

7. CHAPTER IN A BOOK

“The basic issue in the classical period,” according to

Corbett, “was whether rhetoric or philosophy would be the domi-
nant element in the Greek educational system.”7

7. Edward P. J. Corbett, “Classical and Modern Rhetoric: The

Basic Issues,” in Discourse Studies in Honor of James L. Kinneavy
(Potomac, Maryland: Scripta Humanistica, 1995), l46.

Corbett, Edward P. J. “Classical and Modern Rhetoric: The Basic

Issues.” In Discourse Studies in Honor of James L. Kinneavy.
Potomac, Maryland: Scripta Humanistica, 1995.

8. EDITION OTHER THAN THE FIRST

As Petracca and Sorapure put it, “popular culture encompasses the

most immediate and contemporary elements in our lives--elements
which are often subject to rapid changes in a highly technological
world . . . by the ubiquitous mass media.”8

666
 Writing and Research in Different Disciplines cms 42.5
8. Michael Petracca and Madeline Sorapure, eds., Common Cul-
ture: Reading and Writing about American Popular Culture, 2nd ed.
(Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998), 3.

Petracca, Michael, and Madeline Sorapure, eds. Common

Culture: Reading and Writing about American Popular Culture,
2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, 1998.

9. REPRINT

“Women who had only known maid’s uniforms and mammy-made

dresses,” Angelou writes, “donned the awkward men’s pants and
steel helmets.”9

9. Maya Angelou, Gather Together in My Name (New York: Ran-

dom House, 1974; reprint, New York: Bantam, 1993), 38.

Angelou, Maya. Gather Together in My Name. New York: Random

House, 1974. Reprint, New York: Bantam, 1993.

£ When you cite a reprint of a very old book, give only the year of the
original publication along with full publication facts of the reprint.

£ If the reprint adds something new or combines two or more volumes in

one, give that information before the name of the city and publisher.

£ If, as above, you give all the original publication data, you may omit
the word reprint, though you may also retain it for clarity.

£ Finally, if you give page references and are not certain that both edi-
tions have the same pagination, identify the edition used. For example:
(page citation is to the reprint edition).

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42.5 cms Writing and Research in Different Disciplines

10. TRANSLATION

Albert Camus argues, “Capital punishment upsets the only indis-

putable human solidarity--our solidarity against death.”10

10. Albert Camus, Resistance, Rebellion, and Death, trans.

Justin O’Brien (New York: Vintage, 1960), 222.

Camus, Albert. Resistance, Rebellion, and Death. Translated by

Justin O’Brien. New York: Vintage, 1960.

11. CORPORATE AUTHOR

According to Resources for Teaching Middle School Science, “stu-

dents explore the melting points and conductivity of ionic and
covalent compounds.”11

11. National Science Resource Center, Resources for Teaching

Middle School Science (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press,
1998), 82.

National Science Resource Center. Resources for Teaching Middle

School Science. Washington, D.C.: National
Academy Press, 1998.

12. SELECTION FROM AN ANTHOLOGY

“My literary agenda,” Mukherjee explains, “begins by acknowledg-

ing that America has transformed me. It does not end until I show
how I (and the hundreds of thousands like me) have transformed
America.”12

668
 Writing and Research in Different Disciplines cms 42.5
12. Bharati Mukherjee, “A Four-Hundred-Year-Old Woman,” in
The Norton Anthology of Short Fiction, 6th ed., ed. R. V. Cassill
and Richard Bausch (New York: Norton, 2000), 1704.

Mukherjee, Bharati. “A Four-Hundred-Year-Old Woman.” In The Nor-

ton Anthology of Short Fiction, 6th ed., edited by R. V.
Cassill and Richard Bausch. New York: Norton, 2000.

13. ARTICLE IN A MAGAZINE

“In South Florida,” Martine Bury reports, “street gangs

that represented most countries on the Caribbean, Central Ameri-
can and South American maps have created a blunt, broad geography
to demarcate their turfs.”13

13. Martine Bury, “Lost Ones,” The Source, March

1999, 67.

Bury, Martine. “Lost Ones.” The Source, March 1999, 67.

14. ARTICLE IN A JOURNAL WITH YEARLY VOLUME NUMBERS

Pamela L. Caughie states that “passing traditionally refers to

the practice of representing oneself--for social, economic, or
political reasons--as a member of a particular group not consid-
ered one’s own.”14

14. Pamela L. Caughie, “Let It Pass: Changing the

Subject, Once Again,” PMLA 112 (1997): 26–40.

Volume number

669
42.5 cms Writing and Research in Different Disciplines

Caughie, Pamela L. “Let It Pass: Changing the Subject, Once

Again.” PMLA 112 (1997): 26–40.

15. ARTICLE IN A REFERENCE BOOK , SIGNED

Robert Brandt describes the Appalachian Trail as “a continuous

marked footpath extending 2,140 miles through 14 states from
Springer Mountain, Georgia, to Katahdin, Maine.”15

15. Robert Brandt, “Appalachian Trail,” in The

Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture, ed. Carroll Van
West (Nashville: Tennessee Historical Society, 1998), 22.

Brandt, Robert. “Appalachian Trail.” In The Tennessee Encyclope-

dia of History and Culture, edited by Carroll Van West.
Nashville: Tennessee Historical Society, 1998.

16. ARTICLE IN A REFERENCE BOOK , UNSIGNED

“The bark and fruits” of the greenheart tree “contain bebeerine,

an alkaloid formerly used to reduce fever.”16

16. Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed., s.v., “greenheart.”

In notes for well-known, alphabetically arranged reference books, as

above, omit facts of publication (place, publisher, and date), volume, and
page number. Cite the edition if it’s not the first, then cite the item, pre-
ceded by s.v. (sub verbo, Latin for “under the word”).

Do not list well-known reference books in your bibliography.

17. ARTICLE IN A NEWSPAPER

Wilgoren reports that “in retrospect, the name sounds a

little menacing, now that it is linked to the two young men be-
hind one of the deadliest school massacres in American history.”17

670
 Writing and Research in Different Disciplines cms 42.5
17. Jodi Wilgoren, “Menacing ‘Trench Coat Mafia’ Was Just a
Joke, at First,” New York Times, 25 April 1999,
national edition, sec. A, p. l.

Wilgoren, Jodi. “Menacing ‘Trench Coat Mafia’ Was Just a Joke, at

First.” New York Times, 25 April 1999,
national edition, sec. A, p. l.

18. ONLINE BOOK Specify the

edition.

Austen describes Emma Woodhouse as “handsome, clever, and rich

with a comfortable home and happy disposition.”18

18. Jane Austen, Emma, Berkeley Digital Library SunSITE,

University of California, Berkeley, May 15, 1997, <http://sun-
site.berkeley.edu/Literature/Austen/Emma/
1emma1.html> (25 June 1999).

Austen, Jane. Emma. Berkeley Digital Library SunSITE,

University of California, Berkeley, May 15, 1997.
<http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Literature/Austen/Emma/
1emma1.html> (25 June 1999).

19. ONLINE ARTICLE

An article in the Society for American Archaeology Bulletin

states that the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reser-
vation could claim the 9,300-year-old find because “the area in
which the find was made is Umatilla aboriginal land.”19

671
42.6 social Writing and Research in Different Disciplines

19. “9,300-Year-Old Skeleton Sparks Controversy in North-

west,” Society for American Archaeology Bulletin 14, no. 5 (No-
vember 1996), <http://www.sscf.ucsb.edu/
SAABulletin/14.5/SAA5.html> (24 June 1999).

“9,300-Year-Old Skeleton Sparks Controversy in Northwest.” Soci-

ety for American Archaeology Bulletin 14, no. 5 (November
1996). <http://www.sscf.ucsb.edu/
SAABulletin/14.5/SAA5.html> (24 June 1999).

The current CMS provides very limited coverage of online-source docu-

mentation. Until the appearance of the fifteenth edition, the CMS editors
recommend that you consult any of several other style guides, including
MLA (see chapter 39); APA (see 42.7); Xia Li and Nancy B. Crane, Electronic
Styles: A Handbook for Citing Electronic Information (Medford, NJ: Informa-
tion Today, 1996); and Andrew Harnack and Eugene Kleppinger, Online! A
Reference Guide to Using Internet Sources (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997), the
basis for our formats. Ask your instructor about which style guide you
should follow.

42.6 ORGANIZING RESEARCH PAPERS IN THE

SOCIAL SCIENCES

Research papers in the social sciences are commonly based on the observa-
tion of particular cases or groups. If you are asked to write a case study or to
report your findings on an assigned question, your most important pri-
mary source will be the record of your own observations, including the re-
sults of interviews you may conduct and questionnaires you may distrib-
ute. Together with published sources, these will provide the material for
your paper.
A report of findings in the social sciences normally includes five parts:

1. The introduction states the question you propose to answer and ex-
plains how the methods of a particular social science can help you answer
it. Suppose the question is “Do children with disabilities gain more confi-
dence from competitive sports (such as the Special Olympics) than from
noncompetitive activities?” Having posed this question, the introduction

672
 Writing and Research in Different Disciplines social 42.6
explains how the methods of developmental psychology can help you find
and interpret the data needed to answer it.

2. The methods section of the paper indicates how you gathered the
data for your study. Here you describe the particular characteristics of the
group you studied, your methods of study (observation, interview, ques-
tionnaire), the questions you asked, and the printed sources you con-
sulted, such as previous studies of children with disabilities who engage in
competitive sports. You should describe your methods of gathering data
in such a way that someone else can repeat your study and thus test its
results.

3. The results section puts the raw data you have gathered into clearly
organized form: into paragraphs, tabulated listings, illustrations, or graphs.
(On tables and figures, see 42.10.)

4. The discussion section interprets the results of the study and explains
its significance for an understanding of the topic as a whole. With refer-
ence to the sample question above, for instance, it could explain whether
or not competitive sports actually benefit children with disabilities. If
competition threatens their confidence rather than strengthening it, then
programs like the Special Olympics should be reevaluated.

5. The conclusion briefly summarizes what the study has found and
states the implications of its findings, including points to be further
explored.

In addition to the paper itself, you may be asked to furnish an abstract of

it. If so, read on.

WRITING ABSTRACTS FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE PAPERS

The abstract of a social science paper normally appears at the beginning. It
consists of a single paragraph that succinctly explains what your paper
tries to show. Here, for instance, is an abstract of a sociology article:
Pollution knows no frontiers: dirty or dangerous substances dumped
in rivers or off the coast, or spewed into the atmosphere in one European
country, have both direct and indirect harmful consequences for neigh-
boring countries. Attempts by the capitalist democracies of Western Eu-
rope to clean up the local environment and avoid continental or even
global ecological damage, have in the past been thwarted by the dirty, in-
efficient, and irresponsible modes of production adopted by the socialist
countries of Eastern Europe. This was compounded by the political secrecy

673
42.7 apa Writing and Research in Different Disciplines

surrounding many of the polluting activities of the socialist military-

industrial complex. Only recently, with the fall of socialism, has it been
possible to envisage a full and free exchange of information about pollu-
tion and establish the basis for ecological cooperation throughout the
entire continent.
—Christie Davies, “The Need for Ecological Cooperation in Europe,”
International Journal on the Unity of the Sciences 4 (1991):201–16.

This paragraph illustrates what every effective abstract should be: succinct,
informative, and comprehensive.
First, the paragraph is succinct. Its first four words state one of the
main points of the article: “Pollution knows no frontiers.”
Second, the paragraph is informative. Using highly significant modi-
fiers such as “dumped in rivers or off the coast” and “dirty, inefficient, and
irresponsible,” it tersely reveals how pollution moves from one country to
another. Every sentence, in fact, is richly modified to deliver the maximum
amount of information in a small number of words.
Third, the paragraph is comprehensive. It not only states the main
point of the essay but shows how the point is developed. The recent his-
tory of pollution in Europe, we learn, is presented as a conflict between the
cleanup efforts made by Western European democracies and the messes
made by the socialist countries of Eastern Europe. Just as importantly, we
learn what the article tells us about the latest development in this history:
the fall of socialism may lead to full cooperation in the control of pollu-
tion throughout Western Europe.

42.7 DOCUMENTING SOURCES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

USING APA STYLE

The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 4th ed.
(Washington, D.C.: APA, 1994), presents APA style, which is used in the
behavioral and social sciences. If you are writing a paper for a psychology
or sociology class, for example, check to see whether your instructor ex-
pects you to use APA. (To obtain print publications or software devoted to
APA style, visit <www.apa.org>.)
In APA style, parenthetical citations appear within the text, and full
bibliographic entries appear in a list titled “References” at the end of the
text.

674
 Writing and Research in Different Disciplines apa 42.7
CAPITALIZATION Within the body of your text, use standard capitaliza-
tion. For the References page, follow this example:
Initials of first and middle names
Author’s last
name Comma Period Capitalize first word of title and subtitle (if any), plus proper nouns.

Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and responsibility: Lectures on

Date of
publication the ethical implications of psychoanalytic insight. New
parenthesized
Place of
York: Norton.
publication Colon Publisher Underlined period

IN-TEXT CITATION AND REFERENCE-PAGE FORMATS

1. BOOK BY ONE AUTHOR

Author’s name used in discussion:

Levine (1976) has found that “marriages in which the parents

share responsibilities equally tend to be the happiest”
(p. 176).

Author’s name not used in discussion:

One researcher has found that “marriages in which the parents

share responsibilities equally tend to be the happiest” (Levine,
1976, p. 176).

Levine, J. A. (1976). Who will raise the children? Philadelphia: All lines after
the first are
Lippincott. indented five
spaces.
2. BOOK BY TWO AUTHORS
Double-space
throughout.
If a work has two authors, give both authors’ names each time the refer-
ence occurs in the text.

According to one team of scholars, “Perhaps the most complicated

aspect of race relations in America today concerns
attitude” (Kinder & Sanders, 1996, p. 6).
Ampersand for and

675
42.7 apa Writing and Research in Different Disciplines

Kinder, D. R., and Sanders, L. M. (1996). Divided by color:

Racial politics and democratic ideas. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.

3. BOOK BY MORE THAN TWO AUTHORS

Give all the names in the first citation only:

Miller, Dellefield, and Musso (1980) have called for more effec-
tive advertising of financial aid programs.

In later citations give just the first author’s name followed by et al. (Latin
et alia, “and others”):

Miller et al. (1980) have studied the institutional management of

financial aid.

Miller, S., Dellefield, W., & Musso, T. (1980). A Guide to se-

lected financial aid management practices. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Education.

4. MORE THAN ONE WORK BY THE SAME AUTHOR

On your References page, provide complete information for each work and
arrange entries by date, from earliest to most recent. If two or more works
by an author were published the same year, put them in alphabetical order
and assign a lowercase letter to each, placing that letter next to the date.

In Keeping Faith: Philosophy and Race in America, West concen-

trates on “cultural criticism” (1993a). In Prophetic Reflections:
Notes on Race and Power in America (1993b), he focuses on “cul-
tural crisis.”

West, C. (1993a). Keeping faith: Philosophy and race in America.

New York: Routledge.

676
 Writing and Research in Different Disciplines apa 42.7
West, C. (1993b). Prophetic reflections: Notes on race and power
in America. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press.

5. BOOK WITH EDITOR

One author believes “full and free public discussion and

debate is an absolute prerequisite to any process of democratic
decision making” (Green, 1993, p. 164).

Green, P. (Ed.). (1993). Democracy: Key concepts in critical the-

ory. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.

6. EDITION AFTER THE FIRST

“If a therapist can arrange the situation so that the patient

will concede that he is the authority on what the patient is re-
ally saying, then the therapist is in control of what kind of re-
lationship they have” (Haley, 1990, p. 79).

Haley, Jay. (1990). Strategies of psychotherapy (2nd ed.).

Rockville, MD: Triangle Press.

7. TRANSLATION

One author asks, “How and why is the practice of photography pre-
disposed to a diffusion so wide that there are few households, at
least in towns, which do not possess a camera?” (Bourdieu, 1990,
p. 13).

Bourdieu, P. (1990). Photography: A middle-brow art

(S. Whiteside, Trans.). Stanford: Stanford University Press.
(Originally published in 1965)

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42.7 apa Writing and Research in Different Disciplines

8. ARTICLE IN A REFERENCE BOOK

According to the ancient Greeks, “emotional and physical health

depended on a balance of four fluids, called humours” (“Personal-
ity,” p. 311).

Personality. (1993). In The new encyclopaedia Britannica (15th

ed., Vol. 10, pp. 311-312). Chicago: Encyclopaedia
Britannica.

9. ARTICLE IN A MAGAZINE

Shacochis (1999) observes that the recent intervention of the

American military in such international conflicts as Kosovo has
produced the complicated notion of “military
humanism” (p. 45).

Volume Shacochis, B. (1999, December). Soldiers of great fortune.

number
Harper’s, 299, 44-56.

10. ARTICLE IN A SCHOLARLY JOURNAL

Kamerman (1983, p. 36) reports that from 1967 to 1980, kinder-

garten enrollment rose by about a third, and from 1969 to 1980,
nursery school enrollment more than doubled.

Kamerman, S. B. (1983). Child-care services: A national

picture. Monthly Labor Review, 106(12), 35-39.

Issue number
11. ARTICLE IN A NEWSPAPER

The New York Times reports that “a bipartisan group of Senators

will propose a plan on Thursday to deal with Social Security’s

678
 Writing and Research in Different Disciplines apa 42.7
looming problems . . . an issue that had seemed all
but dead this year” (Stevenson, 1999, p. A23). Page number
in section A

Stevenson, R. W. (1999, May 20). Congress and White House try to

break social security deadlock. The New York Times, p. A23.

12. EDITORIAL , LETTER TO THE EDITOR , OR REVIEW

One commentator notes that although Dr. Robert Fiddes

“endangered the lives of study participants, and shows no appar-
ent remorse . . . he is sentenced to [only] 15 months in prison”
(Sims, 1999, p. A28).

Sims, Pat H. (1999, May 17). When drug trials hurt patients;
light sentence. [Letter to the editor]. The New York Times,
p. A28.

13. ONLINE † MAGAZINE

Provide author, year and issue of magazine, article title, magazine title,
URL, and date of access.

As Keegan (1999) notes, “Researchers and marketers have known for

decades that when it comes to kids and their toys, speed sells.
Give a child a choice between a storybook and a television set,
and guess which one will grab his attention” (paragraph 10).

Keegan, P. (1999, November/December). Culture quake. Mother

Jones. [Magazine, selected stories on-line]. Available:
http://www.mojones.com/mother_jones/ND99/quake.html [1999,
December 6].

†Note that APA hyphenates online, though this handbook and Li and Crane’s Electronic
Styles do not.

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42.7 apa Writing and Research in Different Disciplines

14. ONLINE SCHOLARLY JOURNAL

Follows pattern for magazine except volume and series numbers follow the
journal’s title.

Crabtree (2000) asks:

Why is the unnoticed important? I would want to say that is
not just important but of primordial importance in that, and
precisely because, it is within the
practical actions that constitute our mundane reality that
the one and only real world, the one given through percep-
tion, the one and only one that is experienced, is inher-
ently organised or structured. (paragraph 18)

Crabtree, A. (2000, February). Remarks on the social

organisation of space and place. Journal of Mundane Behavior
[Online], 1(1). Available: http://www.mundane-
behavior.org/index2.htm [2000, March 1].

15. WEB SITE

Provide author’s name if available, date of creation or last update of Web

site, title of site, URL, and date of access.

“Citistate is the name Neal Peirce and Curtis Johnson coined in

1993 to describe how metropolitan regions have begun to operate
in the new, post-Cold War world economy” (Citistates, 2000, para-
graph 1).

Citistates [Homepage of The Citistates Group], [Online]. (January

28, 2000). Available: http://www.citistates.
com/whatis.htm [2000, February 14].

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 Writing and Research in Different Disciplines natur 42.8
The current APA guide provides very limited coverage of online-source docu-
mentation and follows Xia Li and Nancy B. Crane’s Electronic Style (1993).
Our formats are based on the updated version of Li and Crane’s book,
Electronic Styles: A Handbook for Citing Electronic Information (1996) and
on the information at their Web site: <www.uvm.edu/~ncrane/estyles/
apa.html>. Ask your instructor about which style guide you should follow.

42.8 ORGANIZING RESEARCH PAPERS IN THE

NATURAL SCIENCES

Research papers in the natural sciences are generally of two kinds: review
papers, which analyze the current state of knowledge on a specialized
topic, and laboratory reports, which present the results of an actual ex-
periment. Both kinds of papers normally begin with an abstract: a brief,
one-paragraph summary of the paper’s most important points. But the two
kinds of papers differ in many respects.
The primary sources for a review paper are current articles in scientific
journals, and the purpose of a review paper is not to make an argument or
develop an original idea but to survey and explain what laboratory re-
search has recently shown about the topic. A review paper normally does
three things: (1) it introduces its topic, explaining why it is important and
what questions about it have been raised by recent research; (2) it develops
the topic by reviewing that research under a series of subheadings; and
(3) it concludes by summarizing what has been discovered and stating
what remains to be investigated.
A laboratory report explains how an experiment made in a natural
science laboratory answers a question such as “How do changes in temper-
ature affect the conductivity of copper?” Resembling in its format a report
of findings in the social sciences, the lab report usually presents its materi-
als as follows:
1. The title succinctly states what was tested. It might be, for instance,
“The Effect of Temperature Changes on the Conductivity of Copper.”

2. The abstract summarizes the report in about two hundred words.

3. The introduction explains the question that the lab test is designed to
answer.

4. A section on methods and materials explains how the experiment was

made, what apparatus was used, and how data were collected.

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42.9 cbe Writing and Research in Different Disciplines

5. A section on results puts the data into clearly organized form, using
graphs, tables, and illustrations where necessary. (See 42.10 on the pre-
sentation of tables and figures.)

6. The conclusion explains the significance of the results.

7. A reference list gives any published sources used, including any manuals
or textbooks.

42.9 DOCUMENTING SOURCES IN THE SCIENCES

Each subject in the sciences has its own style of documentation, which is
explained in one of the following style manuals:
BIOLOGY
Council of Biology Editors. Scientific Style and Format: The CBE Manual
for Authors, Editors and Publishers. 6th ed. New York: Cambridge UP,
1994.

CHEMISTRY
Dodd, Janet S., ed. The American Chemical Society Style Guide: A Manual
for Authors and Editors. 2nd ed. Washington, 1997.

GEOLOGY
Bates, Robert L., Rex Buchanan, and Marla Adkins-Heljeson, eds.
Geowriting: A Guide to Writing, Editing, and Printing in Earth Science.
5th ed. Alexandria: American Geological Institute, 1995.

LINGUISTICS
Linguistic Society of America. LSA Bulletin, Dec. issue, annually.

MATHEMATICS
American Mathematical Society. The AMS Author Handbook: General
Instructions for Preparing Manuscripts. Providence: AMS, 1997.

MEDICINE
Iverson, Cheryl, et al. American Medical Association Manual of Style. 9th
ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1997.

PHYSICS
American Institute of Physics. AIP Style Manual. 4th ed. New York: AIP,
1990 (updated 1997).

Your instructor will tell you which scientific style of documentation you
are expected to use. What follows is a brief guide to the style recommended
by the Council of Science Editors (CSE), which until January 1, 2000, was

682
 Writing and Research in Different Disciplines cbe 42.9
called the Council of Biology Editors (CBE). Complete information on this
style will be found in the CBE manual cited above; for more information
on the CSE, visit <www.councilscienceeditors.org>.

USING CBE STYLE

The CBE style manual presents two documentation systems used in
mathematics and the natural sciences. One is the name-year system; the
other, illustrated below, is the citation-sequence system. In this system,
each source is numbered in the text and then listed by number on a Ref-
erences page at the end of the paper. If a source is used more than once,
the second use and any subsequent uses take the same number as the
first. More than one number may appear in different places in a single
sentence.

IN-TEXT CITATION AND REFERENCE-PAGE FORMATS Raised number

goes inside
1. SINGLE AUTHOR MENTIONED IN TEXT punctuation.

According to Nagle1, sunburn affects reproductive success only in

rare instances.

2. TWO OR MORE AUTHORS MENTIONED IN TEXT

Weiss and Mann2 have shown that folate deficiency retards growth,
causes anemia, and inhibits fertility.

3. THREE OR MORE AUTHORS MENTIONED IN TEXT

Holick and others3 exposed hypopigmented human skin to

simulated solar unltraviolet radiation for various times and de-
termined the photoproducts of 7-dehydrocholesterol.

4. NO AUTHOR MENTIONED IN TEXT

This theory implies that ultraviolet radiation can penetrate more

easily into lightly pigmented skin and will result in a greater
production of vitamin D than will a heavily melanated skin sub-
jected to the same light4.

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42.9 cbe Writing and Research in Different Disciplines

5. SPECIFIC PAGES OR PARAGRAPHS CITED

It is reasonable to assume that dark pigmentation was prominent

among the ancient human populations5.

6. TWO OR MORE SOURCES CITED IN ONE REFERENCE

How is the distribution of skin color among indigenous popula-

tions to be explained? One hypothesis is that heavily melanated
skin emerged in sundrenched countries as protection against sun-
burn2,5.
Use only initials (without space or
punctuation between them) for
authors’ first and middle names.
Capitalize only first word
of title.
References Center.

Single-space
each entry, 1. Nagle JJ. Heredity and human affairs. St. Louis: Mosby; 1974.
double-space
between them. 337 p.

Not underlined
2. Weiss MA, Mann AE. Human biology and behaviour: an anthropo-
logical perspective. Boston: Little, Brown; 1985. 274 p.

3. Holick MF, MacLaughlin JA, Dopplet SH. Regulation of cutaneous

previtamin D3 photosynthesis in man: skin pigment is an essen-
tial regulator. Science 1981;211:589-95.
No spaces
between date,
4. Loomis WF. Skin-pigment regulation of vitamin-D biosynthesis volume number,
and pages
in man. Science 167;157:66-71.

5. Kottack CP. Anthropology: the exploration of human

diversity. New York: Random House; 1978. p. 62.

684
 Writing and Research in Different Disciplines table 42.10
7. ONLINE BOOK

6. Young RM. Darwin’s metaphor: nature’s place in Victorian cul-

ture. [online] 1985. Available from:
http://www.shef.ac.uk/~psych/darwin/dar.html. Accessed 1999
Nov 30.

8. ONLINE JOURNAL

7. Cukelly GJ, McNulty H, and Scott JM. Fortification with low

amounts of folic acid makes a significant difference in folate
status in young women: implications for the
prevention of neural tube defects. Am J Clin Nutr
[online] 1999;70:234-9. Available from:
http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/70/2/234. Accessed 1999
Aug 30.

9. WEB SITE

8. Bry L. Visible human transverse section through the head [on-

line]. 1998. Available from http://www.madsci.org/
cgi-bin/cgiwrap/~lynn/image?name=a_vm1110&
show_this=brain&searc7/20/99. Accessed 1999 Jul 20.

42.10 TABLES AND FIGURES IN RESEARCH PAPERS

Research papers in the social and natural sciences often require tables
(tabular data) or figures (graphs and illustrations). Tables and figures
should be numbered consecutively (Table 1, Table 2; Figure 1, Figure 2) and
accompanied by a descriptive caption, as shown below.

PRESENTING TABLES
Put the caption for a table above it as a heading. Use lowercase letters
(a,b,c) for footnotes, and put the footnotes at the bottom of the table—not
at the bottom of the page or the end of the paper. If the table is photo-

685
42.10 table Writing and Research in Different Disciplines

Table 5.1 Selected Indicators of Development in Eastern Europe and

the USSR: Pre–WWII and 1950–70
PRE-WWII 1950 1960 1970
I LLITERATES (percent of total population)
Bulgaria 31.5% (1934) (10.7%)a
Czechoslovakia 4.1% (1930)
Hungary 9.0% (1930) 3.8% 2.4%
Poland 23.1% (1931) 5.8% 2.7%
Romania 42.9% (1930) 23.1%
USSR 43.4% (1926) 1.5% 0.3%
Yugoslavia 44.6% (1931) 25.4% 21.0% 15.1%

I NFANT M ORTALITY (rates per thousand live births)

Bulgaria 147 (1935) 94.5 45.1 27.3
Czechoslovakia 130 (1935) 77.7 23.5 22.1
Hungary 157 (1935) 85.7 47.6 35.9
Poland 137 (1935) 111.2 54.8 33.4
Romania 182 (1935) 116.7 74.6 49.4
USSR 181 (1926) 80.7 35.3 24.7
Yugoslavia 153 (1935) 118.4 87.7 55.5

A GRICULTURAL P OPULATION (active earners and

dependents in agriculture as percent of total population)
Bulgaria 73.2% (1934) 45.2%
Czechoslovakia 34.7% (1930) 24.9% 19.3% 13.2%
Hungary 51.9% (1930) 49.3% 34.8% 22.8%
Poland 60.0% (1931) 46.4% 37.8% 29.8%
Romania 72.3% (1930) (45.1%)b
USSR 77.5% (1926) 22.8%
Yugoslavia 76.6% (1931) 49.6% 38.2%

U RBANIZATION (population in urban areas 20,000 and over as percent of total population)
Bulgaria 12.1% (1934) (29.1%)c 39.7%
Czechoslovakia 16.6% (1930) 23.6% 25.3% 31.1%
Hungary 29.1% (1930) 34.3% 37.0%
Poland 17.0% (1931) 25.6% 31.8% 37.3%
Romania 13.4% (1930) 17.1% 19.6% 28.4%
USSR 12.0% (1926) 35.6% 44.3%
Yugoslavia 18.8% 26.0%
a Average of 1956 and 1965 figures
b 1966 figure
c Average of 1956 and 1965 figures

Note. From The East European and Soviet data handbook: Politi-
cal, social, and developmental indicators, 1945–1975 (p. 382),
by P. Shoup, 1981, New York: Columbia University Press.

686
 Writing and Research in Different Disciplines table 42.10
copied from a printed source, put a source note under it that follows the
appropriate style for your discipline. (The note for Table 5.1, p. 686, follows
APA style.)

PRESENTING FIGURES
Put the caption for a figure—a graph or an illustration—just below the
figure. The source note should follow the appropriate style. (The note for
Figure 1 below follows APA style.)

100%

M indu
k h ti m
Percentage of

li
us
an
UZB. total state or
TAJIKISTAN

Si hris
union territory
C H I N A

er
population

th
TURKMN.

O
AFGHANISTAN 0
Source: Census
of India. 1981.

Jammu and
Punjab Kashmir

Himachal Pradesh
Chandigarh
PAKISTAN
Meghalaya Arunachal
Sikkim Pradesh
New NEPAL
Delhi BHUTAN ta)
o da
Assam (n
Uttar Nagaland
Dehi Pradesh
Rajasthan Haryana
Bihar BANGLADESH
Calcutta
Gujarat
Madhya Pradesh

Orissa Manipur
Maharashtra
BURMA
Tripura
West Bengal

Andhra B a y Mizoram
Pradesh
Dadra and o f
Goa Nagar Haveli

B e n g a l Andaman
A r a b i a n
Karnataka Islands
S e a
Andaman
Pondicherry
Sea
Lakshadweep Andaman and
Nicobar Islands
Nicobar
Tamil Islands
Nadu SRI
Lakshadweep LANKA
Kerala 0 200 400 Kilometers
Colombo
0 200 400 Miles
INDONESIA
Maldives

Figure 1. The Religions of India

Pop
Note. From From voting to violence: Democratization and
nationalist conflict (p. 288), by J. Snyder, 2000, New York:
Norton. Quiz

back 39

687