Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A.D., B.C., C.E., B.C.E (NOTE: MLA does not use periods in these abbrevia-
tions.) A.D. stands for anno Domini, “in the year of our Lord.” It designates
the period since the birth of Christ and precedes the year number.
The emperor Claudius began the Roman conquest of England in A.D. 43.
B.C.
designates the period before the birth of Christ and follows the year
number. For this period, the lower the number, the more recent the year.
Alexander the Great ruled Macedonia from 336 B.C. to his death in 323.
Instead of A.D., writers now often use C.E. (common era). In place of B.C.,
they use B.C.E. (before the common era).
Julius Caesar died in 44 B.C.E.
717
1 gloss Glossary of Usage
affect, effect Affect is most often used as a verb meaning “change,” “dis-
turb,” or “influence.”
The cost of healthcare affects the health of the economy.
all ready, already Use all ready when all refers to things or people.
At noon the runners were all ready to start. [The meaning is that all the
runners were ready.]
all right, *alright All right means “completely correct,” “safe and sound,”
or “satisfactory.”
718
Glossary of Usage gloss 1
My answers on the quiz were all right. [The meaning is that all the
answers were right.]
The car was demolished, but aside from a muscle bruise in my shoulder
and a few minor cuts, I was all right.
In formal writing, do not use all right to mean “very good” or “excellent.”
*Her performance was all right.
EDITED : Her performance was excellent.
all together, altogether Use all together when all refers to things or people.
The demonstrators stood all together at the gate of the nuclear power
plant.
A delusion is a false opinion or belief, especially one that springs from self-
deception or madness.
A megalomaniac suffers from the delusion that he or she is fabulously rich
and powerful.
An illusion is a false impression, especially one that springs from false per-
ception (an optical illusion, for example) or from wishful thinking.
The sight of palm trees on the horizon proved to be an illusion.
719
1 gloss Glossary of Usage
The so-called free gifts offered in advertisements feed the illusion that you
can get something for nothing.
As an adjective or noun, most means “the greater part (of)” or “the major-
ity (of).”
Most birds migrate in the fall and spring.
Most of the land has become a dust bowl.
All means “the whole amount,” “the total number of,” or “entirely.”
All art is useless. —Oscar Wilde
The manufacturer has recalled all (of) the new models.
The new buildings are all finished.
In formal writing, do not use *most all. Use almost all or most.
*Most all of the plants looked healthy, but two of the roses were dying.
EDITED : Almost all of the plants looked healthy, but two of the roses were
dying.
*Most all of the refugees suffered from malnutrition.
EDITED : Most of the refugees suffered from malnutrition.
alumnus, alumni; alumna, alumnae Use alumnus for one male graduate of
a school, college, or university, and alumni for two or more male graduates
or for a predominantly male group of graduates.
Dartmouth alumni are extraordinarily loyal to their college.
720
Glossary of Usage gloss 1
Use alumna for one female graduate, and alumnae for two or more female
graduates or for a predominantly female group of graduates.
Vassar’s alumnae include Mary McCarthy and Meryl Streep.
If you can’t cope with all those Latin endings, use graduate for an individ-
ual of either sex, and just remember that alumni designates a male group,
alumnae a female group. Do not refer to any one person of either sex as an
alumni.
*He is an alumni of Florida State.
EDITED : He is an alumnus [or a graduate] of Florida State.
In general, use between with two persons, two things, or two groups.
Political freedom in America means the right to choose between a Demo-
crat and a Republican.
721
1 gloss Glossary of Usage
Insure also means “make a contract for payment in the event of specified
loss, damage, injury, or death.”
I insured the package for fifty dollars.
because, since, *being that Use since and because to introduce clauses. Do
not use *being that.
Since fossil fuels are becoming scarce, scientists are working to develop
synthetic forms of energy.
The soldiers could not advance because they had run out of ammunition.
can hardly, *can’t hardly Can hardly means virtually the same thing as
cannot or can’t. Do not use *can’t hardly.
*We can’t hardly cut taxes without increasing the deficit.
EDITED : We can hardly cut taxes without increasing the deficit.
Capitol means the building that houses the state or federal legislature.
Remember that the o in capitol is like the o in the dome of a capitol.
The governor delivered his first speech from the steps of the capitol.
could care less, couldn’t care less Don’t use the first expression when you
mean the second.
*Carol likes hard rock and could care less about Beethoven and Brahms.
EDITED : Carol likes hard rock and couldn’t care less about Beethoven and
Brahms.
data Data is the plural of the Latin datum, meaning “something given”—
a piece of information. Data should be treated as plural.
The data transmitted by space satellites tell us much more about distant
planets than we have ever known before.
different from, *different than In formal writing do not use than after dif-
ferent. Use from.
An adult’s idea of a good time is often very different from a child’s.
728
Glossary of Usage gloss 1
ENvelope (first syllable accented) is a noun meaning “container used for
mailing.”
The small white envelope contained a big check.
*etc., et al. The abbreviation *etc. stands for et cetera, “and other things.”
You should avoid it in formal writing. Instead, use and so on, or tell what
the other things are.
*Before setting out that morning, I put on my hat, mittens, etc.
EDITED : Before setting out that morning, I put on my hat, mittens, scarf,
and boots.
The abbreviation et al. stands for et alia, “and others.” On using it when
citing books by multiple authors, see 39.2 (MLA), 42.5 (CMS), and 42.7
(APA).
729
1 gloss Glossary of Usage
Fateful means “momentous in effect” and can be used whether the out-
come is good or bad.
In the end, Eisenhower made the fateful decision to land the Allies at
Normandy.
Use little (in the sense of “not much”) or less with uncountable nouns.
A little honey on your hands can be a big sticky nuisance.
In spite of the grandiloquent title, the vice-president of the United States
often has less power than a member of Congress.
730
Glossary of Usage gloss 1
frightened, afraid Frightened is followed by at or by.
Many people are frightened at the thought of dying.
As I walked down the deserted road, I was frightened by a snarling
wolfhound.
fun Use fun as a noun, but not (in formal writing) as an adjective before a
noun.
As soon as Mark arrived, the fun began.
*We spent a fun afternoon at the zoo.
EDITED : We spent an enjoyable afternoon at the zoo.
Use well as an adverb when you mean “in an effective manner” or “ably.”
Fenneman did so well in practice that the coach decided to put him in the
starting lineup for the opening game.
has to, have to, *got to In formal writing, do not use *got to to denote an
obligation. Use have to, has to, or must.
*Anyone who wants to win the nomination has got to run in the
primaries.
731
1 gloss Glossary of Usage
EDITED : Anyone who wants to win the nomination has to run in the
primaries. [or] Anyone who wants to win the nomination must run in the
primaries.
Do not use hopefully when you mean “I hope that,” “we hope that,” or the
like.
*Hopefully, the company will make a profit in the final quarter.
EDITED : The stockholders hope that the company will make a profit in
the final quarter.
732
Glossary of Usage gloss 1
Use into to mean movement toward the inside.
Before she started drilling, the dentist shot Novocain into my gum.
733
1 gloss Glossary of Usage
kind of, sort of In formal writing, do not use kind of or sort of to mean
“somewhat” or “rather.”
*When I got off the roller coaster, I felt sort of sick.
EDITED : When I got off the roller coaster, I felt rather sick.
Use latter when referring to the second of two persons or things mentioned
previously.
Muhammed Ali first fought Leon Spinks in February 1978. At the time, the
former was an international celebrity, while the latter was a twenty-four-
year-old unknown.
lead, led Lead (rhymes with seed) is the present-tense and infinitive form
of the verb meaning “cause,” “guide,” or “direct.”
Deficit spending leads to inflation.
An effective president must be able to lead Congress without bullying it.
leave, let Leave as a verb means “go away from” or “put in a place.”
I had to leave the house at 6:00 A.M. to catch the bus.
I had to leave my suitcase at the bus station.
734
Glossary of Usage gloss 1
Some colleges let students take courses by mail.
let’s, *let’s us Use let’s before a verb. Do not follow let’s with us; that
would mean “let us us.”
*Let’s us finish the job.
EDITED : Let’s finish the job.
lie, lay Lie (lie, lying, lay, lain) is an intransitive verb meaning “rest,”
“recline,” or “stay.”
I love to lie on the sand in the hot sun.
Lying on the sand, I watched the clouds and listened to the surf.
After she lay in the sun for three hours, she looked like a boiled lobster.
On April 26, 1952, workers digging peat near Grueballe, Denmark, found a
well-preserved body that had lain in the bog for fifteen hundred years.
735
1 gloss Glossary of Usage
loose, lose Loose (rhymes with moose) means “free” or “not securely tied
or fastened.”
The center grabbed the loose ball and ran for a touchdown.
From the rattling of the door, I could tell that the catch was loose.
lots of, a lot of, *alot of A lot of and lots of are colloquial and wordy. In
formal writing, use much for “a great amount” and many for “a great
number.” Do not use *alot anywhere; it is a misspelling of a lot.
Lots of students come to college with no clear notion of what they want to
do.
BETTER : Many students come to college with no clear notion of what they
want to do.
736
Glossary of Usage gloss 1
MoRALE (second syllable accented) is a noun meaning “spirit,” “attitude.”
Eisenhower’s habit of mixing with his troops before a battle kept up their
morale.
not very, none too, *not too In formal writing, use not very or none too
instead of *not too.
*Not too pleased with the dull and droning lecture, the students filled the
air with spitballs and paper planes.
EDITED : None too pleased with the dull and droning lecture, the
students filled the air with spitballs and paper planes.
OK, O.K., okay Avoid all three in formal writing. In business letters or in-
formal writing, you can use OK as a noun meaning “endorsement” or “ap-
proval,” or okay as a verb meaning “endorse,” “approve.”
The stockholders have given their OK.
Union negotiators have okayed the company’s latest offer.
only Place only carefully. Usually, it belongs just before the word, phrase,
or clause it modifies.
*At most colleges, students only get their diplomas if they have paid all
their bills.
EDITED : At most colleges, students get their diplomas only if they have
paid all their bills.
*Some busy executives only relax on Sundays.
EDITED : Some busy executives relax only on Sundays.
737
1 gloss Glossary of Usage
Use ourself only on the rare occasion when the antecedent is a single per-
son using the royal we in place of I.
“Be as ourself in Denmark” (Hamlet 1.2.122).
738
Glossary of Usage gloss 1
Old Barney is a phenomenon. At eighty years of age he still swims five
miles every day.
739
1 gloss Glossary of Usage
The school principal wanted all of us to think of him as a pal, but none of
us did.
The interest on the principal came to $550 a year.
Do not use quote to mean “refer to” or “paraphrase the view of.” Use cite.
In defense of his stand against segregation, King cites more than a dozen
authorities, and he quotes Lincoln: “This nation cannot survive half slave
and half free.”
740
Glossary of Usage gloss 1
Rise (rise, rising, rose, risen) is an intransitive verb—one that has no object.
Puffs of smoke rose skyward.
The farmhands rose at 5:00 A.M. Monday through Saturday.
Have you ever risen early enough to see the sun rise?
reason . . . is that, *reason . . . is because Use reason with that, not with
because, or use because by itself.
*The reason many college students have trouble with writing is because
they did little or no writing in high school.
EDITED : The reason many college students have trouble with writing is
that they did little or no writing in high school. [or] Many college students
have trouble with writing because they did little or no writing in high
school.
741
1 gloss Glossary of Usage
set, sit Set (set, setting, set, set) means “put” or “place.”
She set her trophy on the mantel.
When daylight saving changes to standard time, I can never remember
whether to set my watch forward or back.
Sit (sit, sitting, sat, sat) means “place oneself in a sitting position.”
On clear summer nights I love to sit outside, listen to crickets, and look at
the stars.
Grandfather sat in an easy chair and smoked his pipe.
sight, cite, site As a verb, sight means “observe” or “perceive with the
eyes.”
After twenty days on the open sea, the sailors sighted land.
742
Glossary of Usage gloss 1
Cite means “refer to,” “mention as an example or piece of evidence.”
Anyone opposed to nuclear power cites the case of Three Mile Island.
so See very.
743
1 gloss Glossary of Usage
Though the Supreme Court has ruled that abortion is legally permissible,
some state legislatures have enacted statutes restricting the conditions
under which it may be performed.
such a Do not use such a as an intensifier unless you add a result clause
beginning with that.
WEAK : The commencement speech was such a bore.
BETTER : The commencement speech was such a bore that I fell asleep after
the first five minutes.
supposed to, *suppose to Use supposed to when you mean “expected to”
or “required to.” Do not use *suppose to.
*Truman was suppose to lose when he ran against Dewey, but he surprised
almost everyone by winning.
EDITED : Truman was supposed to lose when he ran against Dewey, but he
surprised almost everyone by winning.
that, which, who Use which or that as the pronoun when the antecedent
is a thing.
There was nothing to drink but root beer, which I loathe.
Any restaurant that doesn’t serve grits ought to be closed.
744
Glossary of Usage gloss 1
there, their, they’re Use there to mean “in that place” or “to that place,”
and in the expressions there is and there are.
I have always wanted to see Las Vegas, but I have never been there.
There is nothing we can do to change the past, but there are many things
we can do to improve the future.
There is and there are should be used sparingly, since most sentences are
tighter and better without them.
We can do nothing to change the past, but many things to improve the
future.
thus, therefore, *thusly Use thus to mean “in that manner” or “by this
means.” In formal writing, do not use *thusly.
Carmichael bought a thousand shares of Microsoft when it was a brand-
new company. Thus he became a millionaire.
to, too Use to when writing about place, direction, or position, and with
infinitives.
We drove from Cleveland to Pittsburgh without stopping.
Like many before him, Fenwick was determined to write the great American
novel.
try to, *try and Use try to, not try and.
* Whenever I feel depressed, I try and lose myself in science fiction.
EDITED : Whenever I feel depressed, I try to lose myself in science fiction.
745
1 gloss Glossary of Usage
used to, *use to Write used to, not *use to, when you mean “did
regularly” or “was accustomed to.”
*She use to practice the flute every morning.
EDITED : She used to practice the flute every morning.
very, awfully, so Use very sparingly, if at all. It can weaken the effect of
potent modifiers.
The very icy wind cut through us as we walked across the bridge.
BETTER : The icy wind cut through us as we walked across the bridge.
wait for, wait on To wait for means “to stay until someone arrives, some-
thing is provided, or something happens.”
The restaurant was so crowded that we had to wait half an hour for a table.
way, ways Use way, not ways, when writing about distance.
*A short ways up the trail we found a dead rabbit.
EDITED : A short way up the trail we found a dead rabbit.
746
Glossary of Usage gloss 1
were, we’re Use were as a verb or part of a verb phrase.
The soldiers were a sorry sight.
They were trudging across a wheat field.
whose, who’s Whose, meaning “of whom,” is the possessive form of who.
Whose property has been destroyed?
Have, not of, is also customary after may, might, must, and should.
747