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ABSTRACT
Vibration induced by gears includes important data about gearbox condition. We can use
dynamic modeling of gear vibration for increasing our information about vibration generating
mechanisms in gearboxes and dynamic behavior of gearbox in the presence of some kind of gear
defects. In this report a six degree-of-freedom nonlinear dynamic model including different gear
errors and defects is developed for investigation of effects of tooth localized defect and profile
modifications on overall gear dynamics. Interactions between tooth modifications and profile
error are studied and the role of profile modification in dynamic response when a localized
defect is incurred by a tooth is shown. It is indicated that although profile modifications and
profile errors are micro-geometrical, they have considerable effects on vibrations of gear pair.
Especially for the case of root relieved teeth that is shown to be more effective in reduction of
vibration in the presence of tooth localized defect. Finally, the simulation results are compared
with results from literature and the model is verified.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1 DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................................................................ 4
1.2 TYPES OF GEARS ...................................................................................................................................... 5
1.3 ADVANTAGES .......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.4 DISADVANTAGES ..................................................................................................................................... 7
1.5 APPLICATIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 7
1.6 MATERIALS OF SPUR GEAR ..................................................................................................................... 8
2. LINEAR Vs. NONLINEAR ............................................................................................................................. 8
2.1 NONLINEAR DYNAMICS ........................................................................................................................ 10
2.2 DYNAMIC MODELING OF GEARS........................................................................................................... 11
2.3 HISTORY OF DYNAMIC MODELLING...................................................................................................... 11
2.4 TOOLS FOR NONLINEAR DYNAMICS ..................................................................................................... 13
2.4.1 FRACTAL ............................................................................................................................................. 13
2.4.2 BIFUCRATION DIAGRAM .................................................................................................................... 14
2.4.3 POINCARE MAPS ............................................................................................................................... 15
2.4.4 LYAPUNOV EXPONENT ....................................................................................................................... 16
2.4.5 POWER SPECTRUM ............................................................................................................................ 17
2.4.6 DYNAMIC TRAJECTORIES ................................................................................................................... 18
3. MATHEMATICAL MODELING................................................................................................................... 18
3.1 SIX-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM NONLINEAR MODEL ................................................................................... 19
3.2 INCORPORATION OF ECCENTRICITY ERROR.......................................................................................... 21
3.3 INCORPORATION OF PROFILE ERROR ................................................................................................... 21
3.4 CALCULATION OF MESH STIFFNESS ...................................................................................................... 21
3.5 TOOTH PROFILE MODIFICATION ........................................................................................................... 22
3.6 LOCALIZED DEFECT................................................................................................................................ 23
4. RESULTS................................................................................................................................................... 24
5. CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 27
6. FUTURE SCOPE ........................................................................................................................................ 28
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 29
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Nomenclature of Spur Gear ............................................................................................................ 5
Figure 2. Spur Gear and Plastic Spur Gears used in a film winding component. .......................................... 7
Figure 3 Spur Gears are used in automatic packing machine ....................................................................... 8
Figure 4 Fractal in bifurcation diagram. .................................................................................................... 14
Figure 5 Bifurcation diagram of logistic map . ( xn+1 = r xn (1- xn))........................................................... 15
Figure 6In Poincar section S, the Poincar map P projects point x onto point P(x). ................................. 16
Figure 7 Poincare map of journal bearing rotor ......................................................................................... 16
Figure 8 Lyapunov exponent for rotor bearing trajectories......................................................................... 17
Figure 9 Power spectrum gear bearing system ............................................................................................ 18
Figure 10 Six -degree-of-freedom dynamic model. .................................................................................... 19
Figure 11 A couple of spur gear teeth pair in contact ................................................................................. 22
Figure 12 The effect of profile modification coefficient on tooth shape..................................................... 22
Figure 13 Decaying half-sine pulse train .................................................................................................... 23
Figure 14 Pitting on a tooth profile ............................................................................................................. 23
Figure 15 Power spectrum of pinion bearing acceleration .......................................................................... 25
Figure 16 Vibration amplitude of pinion bearing for different modifications ............................................ 25
Figure 17 Vibration amplitude of pinion bearing for different modifications in change-over region......... 26
Figure 18 Acceleration near the change-over region with variation of defect width in face direction f .... 27
1. INTRODUCTION
Spur Gears are the most common means of transmitting power in the modern mechanical
engineering world. They vary from tiny size used in the watches to the large gears used in marine
speed reducers; bridge lifting mechanism and railroad turn table drivers. They form vital
elements of main and ancillary mechanism in many machines such as automobiles, tractors,
metal cutting machine tools, rolling mills, hoisting and transmitting machinery and marine
engines etc.[1]
1.1 DEFINITIONS
1) MODULE:
Module of a gear is defined as ratio of diameter to number of teeth. m= d/N
2) FACE WIDTH
The width along the contact surface between the gears is called the face width.
3) TOOTH THICKNESS
The thickness of the tooth along the pitch circle is called the tooth thickness.
4) ADDENDUM
The radial distance between the pitch circle and the top land of the gear is called the addendum.
5) DEDENDUM
The radial distance between the pitch circle and the bottomland of the gear is called the
dedendum.
6) PRESSURE ANGLE
The angle between the line joining the centers of the two gears and the common tangent to the
base circles.[1]
Spur
Worm
Helical
Non-circular
Skew gears
Epicyclic
Double helical
Bevel
Harmonic gear
Hypoid
Cage gear
Crown
Magnetic gear
1.3 ADVANTAGES
Gear is one kind of mechanical parts. It can be widely used in industries. A gear is a rotating
machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part in order to
transmit torque.
Spur gear is the simplest type of gear which consists of a cylinder or disk. Its form is not
straight-sided, thus, the edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of
rotation. Only gears fit to parallel axles can they rotate together correctly.
As the most common type, spur gears are often used because they are the simplest to design
and manufacture. Besides, they are the most efficient. When compared to helical gears, they
are more efficient. The efficiency of a gear is the power output of its shaft divided by the
input power of its shaft multiplied by 100. Because helical gears have sliding contact
between their teeth, they produce axial thrust, which in turn produces more heat. This causes
a loss of power, which means efficiency is lost.
In addition to these, they also have many other advantages. Spur gears have a much simpler
construction than helical gears because their teeth are straight rather than angular. Therefore,
it is much easier to design and produce them. And they will not fail or break easily. And this
makes them cheaper to purchase and to maintain which then leads to less cost.
SIMPLICITY
Because their teeth are straight rather than angular, spur gears have a much simpler construction
than helical gears. As such, they are easier to produce, and they tend not to break or fail as easily.
This also makes them easier to find.
Spur gears are more efficient than helical gears. The efficiency of a gear is the power output of
its shaft divided by the input power of its shaft multiplied by 100. Because helical gears have
sliding contact between their teeth, they produce axial thrust, which in turn produces more heat.
This causes a loss of power, which means efficiency is lost.[1]
COST
Because spur gears are simpler, they are easier to design and manufacture, and they are less
likely to break. This makes them cheaper to purchase and to maintain.
1.4 DISADVANTAGES
Although they are common and efficient, spur gears have disadvantages as well. Firstly, they
are very noisy when used at some speeds because the entire face engages at once. Therefore,
they're also known as slow-speed gears. Secondly, they can only be used to transfer power
between parallel shafts. They cannot transfer power between non-parallel shafts. Thirdly,
when compared with other types of gears, they are not as strong as them. They cannot handle
as much of a load because the teeth are small and situated parallel to the gear axis, rather than
being large and situated diagonally as the teeth on a helical gear are.
According to the above, we can conclude that spur gears have many advantages as well as
some disadvantages. Although sometimes, its disadvantages may affect them a lot, their
advantages still outweigh their disadvantages. That is to say, spur gears are still popular
among many industries. And they can have good performances to meet people's
requirements[1]
1.5 APPLICATIONS
Figure 2. Spur Gear and Plastic Spur Gears used in a film winding component.[7]
Steel
Cast iron
Nylon
Phenolic
Aluminium
Bakelite
Bronze
Plastics
incompatible with each other. Medications, especially for children, are often prescribed in
proportion to weight. This is an example of a linear relationship.
Nonlinear relationships, in general, are any relationship which is not linear. What is important in
considering nonlinear relationships is that a wider range of possible dependencies is allowed.
When there is very little information to determine what the relationship is, assuming a linear
relationship is simplest and thus, by Occam's razor, is a reasonable starting point. However,
additional information generally reveals the need to use a nonlinear relationship.
A linear dynamical system is one in which the rule governing the time-evolution of the system
involves a linear combination of all the variables.
EXAMPLE
+ sin = 0
(nonlinear pendulum)
10
11
In many of earlier gear dynamic models, tooth defects have not been taken into account. And in
some cases, assembly, eccentricity, and manufacturing errors have been included in dynamic
models. In past few years, researchers have been working on gear dynamic models including
gear defects like surface pitting, spalling, wear, crack, and broken tooth. Kuang and Lin studied
the effects of tooth wear on vibration spectra of a spur gear pair, their findings showed that the
dynamic loading and vibration spectra of spur gear pair may vary significantly due to tooth wear.
Their study revealed that this variation could be a symptom for monitoring tooth wear. A study
on dynamic models including gear defects has been performed by Parey and Tandon [3]. The
review suggested that although much work had been done on gear vibration modeling in the
presence of gear defects, yet a precise analytical procedure for prediction of gear vibration
considering tooth local defect could be developed. Most of gear defects are incurred by gear
teeth for which tooth profile is perturbed from the original involute.[1]
12
errors and defects and tooth profile modifications. They used impulse phenomenon to simulate
the effect of localized defect. In a different approach, some of authors like Fakh fakh
investigated the effect of tooth defect through the change it makes in mesh stiffness. Lin and
Kuang also performed a simulation to investigate the effects of tooth profile defects on dynamic
contact loads. Chen and Shao proposed an analytical method for calculation of tooth mesh
stiffness with root crack and successfully examined the effects of crack propagation on dynamic
response by calculating some statistical indicators, their work could assist the researchers who
aim to simulate tooth root crack in dynamic modeling without a need to FEA models of meshing
gears.
Often, tooth profile is intentionally modified to reduce the effects of some incipient defects. Tip
or root relief is considered as a method for prevention of undercutting gear teeth. This
modification has another important effect and it is the reduction of transmission error which
leads in reduction of gear system noises. Gear tooth profile has a great influence on the vibration
and noise of gear system. Tavakoli and Houser were of the first who investigated the
optimization of tooth profile to minimize the static transmission error. Lin. Implemented an
analytical approach to study the effect of profile modifications on static transmission error and
dynamic loading of spur gears, one of the important results drawn from their work was that
increasing applied load reduces the sensitivity of spur gears to changes in length of profile
modifications. Cai and Hayashi developed a method to optimize the modification of tooth profile
for a pair of spur gears to make its rotational vibration become zero by using a vibration model.
Optimization of static transmission error characteristics for a range of torques by introducing
appropriate tooth profile modifications and micro geometries to minimize the static transmission
error variations was considered as a method for gear system noise and vibration. In an attempt by
Kuang and Lin, an analytical formulation for dynamics of a spur gear pair is developed in which
a harmonically varying input torque has been used. They showed that an increase in contact ratio
and addendum modification causes the transmitted torque variation and peaks of its
corresponding frequency spectra to decay. Wang adopted a mathematical model to identify the
relationship between the rotational movement of gears and acoustical measured noise signals
from a gear tester, and then they could optimize the profile modification by the use of identified
model. Through the use of dynamic modeling, Barbieri showed that the vibration level of the
profile, optimized using modifications was lower than that of pure involute even if profile errors
13
were taken into account. An original model combining the analysis of crack initiation and
propagation in relation to dynamic tooth loads has been developed by Osman and Velex. They
found the role of profile relief to be crucial as a substantial reduction of fatigue risk could be
expected in the part of the teeth close to the engagement area.[1]
To our knowledge based on the published literature, none of authors have considered the
interactions between tooth profile modification and tooth localized defect on vibrations of a gear
system. In this report the effect of different profile modifications and profile error on dynamic
response of gear system in the presence of tooth localized defect, both in time and frequency
domain will be studied. The role of profile modification in reduction of vibration especially in
change-over region will be investigated. At the end, simulation results are presented and through
the comparison with results included in literature, modeling procedure is verified.
2.4.1 FRACTAL
A fractal is a natural phenomenon or a mathematical set that exhibits a repeating pattern that
displays at every scale. If the replication is exactly the same at every scale, it is called a selfsimilar pattern. Fractals can also be nearly the same at different levels. This latter pattern is
illustrated in Figure 4. Fractal also includes the idea of a detailed pattern that repeats itself.
Fractals are different from other geometric figures because of the way in which they scale.
Doubling the edge lengths of a polygon multiplies its area by four, which is two (the ratio of the
new to the old side length) rose to the power of two (the dimension of the space the polygon
resides in). Likewise, if the radius of a sphere is doubled, its volume scales by eight, which is
two (the ratio of the new to the old radius) to the power of three (the dimension that the sphere
resides in). But if a fractal's one-dimensional lengths are all doubled the spatial content of the
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fractal scales by a power of two that is not necessarily an integer. This power is called the fractal
dimension of the fractal, and it usually exceeds the fractal's topological dimension.[2]
Characteristics:
A fractal is a geometric object which can be divided into parts, each of which is
similar to the original object.
They possess infinite detail, and are generally self-similar (independent of scale)
They can often be constructed by repeating a simple process (a map, for instance)
ad infinitum.
They have a non-integer dimension.
15
16
Poincar map of the dynamic system. When the system performs quasi-periodic motion, the
return points in the Poincar map form a closed curve. For chaotic motion, the return points form
a fractal structure comprising many irregularly-distributed points. Finally, for nT-periodic
motion, the return points have the form of n discrete points.[11]
Figure 6 In Poincar section S, the Poincar map P projects point x onto point P(x). (Shivakumar
Jolad,2005)
17
j(t)|
= jt|0|
Figure 8 Lyapunov exponent for rotor bearing trajectories.( C.K. Chen, 2007)
18
3. MATHEMATICAL MODELING
In many of gear systems, the coupling between torsional vibration modes is controlled by mesh
stiffness. So in most of practical cases a two-degree-of-freedom model which only includes
torsional vibrations may yield accurate results. However, when torsional mode which is
controlled by mesh stiffness, is coupled with other vibration modes, in such cases increasing the
degrees-of-freedom of the model is more important than elaborating it with some secondary
19
effects such as tooth friction. The model presented here, is the same developed by Ozguven with
some modifications, which includes the effects of gear teeth profile modification and localized
tooth defect.[10]
The 6-degree-of-freedom nonlinear model, which is shown in Fig. 1, has four angular rotations
of prime mover, pinion, gear and load) and two translations (of pinion and gear) along the line of
action. The effects that are included in the mathematical model and thus considered in the
dynamic analysis are: Time varying mesh stiffness and damping; torsional compliances of pinion
and gear shafts; material damping in shafts (linear viscous); bearing compliances and dampings
20
(linear viscous); transverse compliances of shafts; inertia of prime mover and load; drive and
load torques; separation of teeth in mesh; backlash and backside collision that may follow tooth
separation. The dynamic analysis is done in the plane of gears and any out-of-plane motion is
neglected. As the excitation is basically along the line of action, transverse vibration of gears in
the direction perpendicular to the line of action is neglected. Another simplifying assumption
made is to neglect off-line of action and the friction between the teeth in contact. The main
advantage of this model is that the vibration transmitted to the bearings through the gears can be
used for further investigations and comparison with experimental test data.[4]
According to Fig. 1 equations of motion (1-6) can be derived.[11]
D
D + ct1 (D - 1) + kt1 (D - 1) = TD
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
m1 1 + c1 1 + k1y1 = F0
(5)
m2 2 + c2 2 + k2y2 = -F0
(6)
(7)
21
(8)
where e1, e2 are the eccentricity errors of gear 1 and gear 2, respectively.
(9)
where e is the maximum error value, d is coefficient of error variation, range (0 - 1), li is a
random value, range(0 - 1), whose elements are randomly distributed for z1 pair of teeth; z1 is
the number of pinion teeth.[4]
(10)
where E is young modulus and v is Poissons ratio. An equation has been proposed for
calculation of bending stiffness of an addendum modified gear tooth [5].
22
Figure 12 The effect of profile modification coefficient on tooth shape(Gitin M Maitra, 1985)
23
24
(
where
deformation; 0 =
sin
)
2
0t
+ sin
)}
(11)
) and k is the height of the pulse; is the damping ratio for linear
frequency of the generated pulse;
width in profile direction; and va is the relative velocity at the defect point.
After including the profile error, eccentricities and defect, the dynamic mesh force F0 is modified
as follows:
4. RESULTS
Time domain signals (acceleration (m/sec2)), representing one complete revolution of
gear/pinion set from simulations. To gain more insight into the signals, the acceleration signal is
shown in a smaller time interval. The parameters of the gear system used in computer
simulations presented in Table 1 are determined based on reference. To demonstrate the effect of
profile modification coefficient ton gear vibration, simulated signals for different values of X are
first compared in frequency domain (Fig. 15).Power spectral densities were calculated using
Welchs averaged, modified periodogram method. Spectrum comparisons for the gears with
different values of profile shift coefficients are shown in Fig. 16. It can be seen that at
frequencies lower than 1kHzwhere meshing frequency and its multiples are present, and
frequencies higher than 4kHz, vibration level is the highest for the tip relieved teeth and the
lowest for root.
25
relieved ones. It is interesting, because it follows the same behavior as mesh frequency for the
same tooth modifications. Actually it can be said that an increase in mesh stiffness due to profile
modification causes an increase in the level of vibration, in frequency domain, where an increase
in addendum modification value caused a decrement in vibration level both in time and
frequency domains.[5]
Holding the maximum error value at a fixed level and changing the profile modification value
from minus to positive, the vibration amplitude at mesh frequency and its multiples increases.
Figure 16 Vibration amplitude of pinion bearing for different modifications (M. Divandari,2012)
In order to investigate the effect of profile error in change-over region, where double tooth pair
contact changes to single tooth contact, profile error value is increased for two types of profile
shift, positive and minus. The results are shown in Fig. 16. It is indicated that increasing the
profile error amplitude, generally increases the oscillations in the system in case of tip relief
(negative value of X) or root relief (positive value of X) and has an effect on discontinuity in this
26
region. But the effect of addendum modification is mainly important at change-over region,
where the smoother meshing occurs in case of tip relief (X = 0.1)and the lowest profile error
(Fig. 16). A closer view of the change-over region is demonstrated in Fig. 17.[5]
Figure 17 Vibration amplitude of pinion bearing for different modifications in change-over region.
(M. Divandari,2012)
For investigation of effects of tooth surface pitting, dimensions of pitting are varied for different
modifications and the results are presented in Figs. 17 and 18.In Fig. 17, the effect of increment
of defect width in face direction f for two kinds of tooth modifications i.e. tip relief (positive X
value) or root relief (negative X value), is studied. The left part of these curves shows the region
where a single pair of teeth is in contact just near the pitted zone and the right part is for double
teeth pairs contact. It id indicated that discontinuity value is smaller for the case of root relief
and an increase in defect dimension causes an increase in the discontinuity for both cases. It
means that a sudden impact due to localized defect is well tolerated in case of minus addendum
modification coefficient (root relief). But when either side of the change-over region is
considered, it is seen that the impact due to pitting has more effect on root relieved tooth pair. If
the simple case of single pair of tooth contact at the left side of the region is considered, a clear
insight can be achieved.
With respect to Fig.12(d), root relieved tooth is similar to a cantilever beam that is weakened at
its supported end, so the impact to a pair of these teeth in mesh may have more significant effect
due to lower stiffness, in comparison with tip relieved tooth pair.
27
Figure 18 Acceleration near the change-over region with variation of defect width in face direction f
(R. Barzamini,2012)
In another case, defect width in profile direction b is altered and the results are shown in Fig. 18.
The same effects as of Fig. 17 can be seen here, except that because of an increment in impulse
duration, the impact to the system is a little smoother in comparison with the case of reduced
defect width in profile direction. In this case, again the impact is better absorbed with gear
shaving root relieved teeth.
5. CONCLUSIONS
This report presented a combined gear/bearing dynamic model for a gearbox to study the effect
of tooth profile modification on gear vibration. The dynamic model considered here, has the
ability of modeling different types of gear errors and defects also showed a good ability in
modeling tooth profile modification interaction with profile error and tooth localized defect and
its effect on vibration response of the system. Results obtained from simulations showed that the
change in mesh stiffness due to profile modifications (root/tip relief), although they are microgeometrical, causes the change in vibration response of gear pair in a manner similar to the
change in mesh stiffness. The simulated signals showed the same behavior as the measured
signals. Two interesting results were drawn from the simulations:
First is that increasing the profile error, while profile modification coefficient is kept constant,
increases the overall oscillations of the system, and also affects the meshing at change-over
region. But when comparing the effect of profile modification to that of profile error, addendum
28
6. FUTURE SCOPE
This model can be further extended to consider the effect of the other tooth defects, such as wear
with varying load in presence of tooth modifications and specially profile error which seems to
be an important factor in gear systems simulations.
29
REFERENCES
1. B.Harish Reddy, G.Shiva Kumar , Static And Dynamic Analysis Of Spur Gear,
Department Of Mechanical Engineering Gokaraju Rangaraju Isntitute Of Engineering
And Technology, April 2011.
2. Ozguven, H. N. and Houser, D. R., Mathematical Models Used in Gear Dynamics-A
Review, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 121, pp. 383-411 (1988).
3. Parey, A., Badaoui, M. E., Guillet, F. and Tandon,N., Dynamic Modeling of Spur Gear
Pair and Application of Empirical Mode Decomposition-Based Statistical Analysis for
Early Detection of Localized Tooth Defect, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 294, pp.
547-561 (2006).
4. White, M. F., Simulation and Analysis of Machinery Fault Signals, Journal of Sound
and Vibration, 93, pp. 95-116 (1984).
5. M. Divandari, B. H. Aghdam and R. Barzamini, Tooth profile modification and its
effect on spur gear pair vibration in presence of localized tooth defect, Journal of
Mechanics, Vol. 28, No. 2,pp. 373-381, June 2012.
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Double-compound-pendulum.gif.
7. American National Standard and Former American Standard Gear Tooth Forms ANSI
B6.1-1968, R1974 and ASAB6.1-1932.
8. http://www.khkgears.co.jp/en/gear_technology/img/spur2.jpg.
9. Gitin M Maitra, Handbook of Gear Design, TATA McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited (1985).
10. C.W. Chang-Jian, C.K. Chen, Chaos and bifurcation of a flexible rub- impact rotor
supported by oil film bearings with non-linear suspension, Mech. Mach. Theory 42 (3)
(2007) 312-333.
11. Ozguven, H. N., A Non-Linear Mathematical Model for Dynamic Analysis of Spur
Gears Including Shaft and Bearing Dynamics, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 145, pp.
293-260 (1991).
12. Shivakumar Jolad, Poincare Map and its application to 'Spinning Magnet' problem,
(2005).
13. http://www.necsi.edu/guide/concepts/linearnonlinear.html.