4 - Permeability and Seepage

University of Anbar
College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
Iraq-Ramadi
Permeability and Seepage

Topics
1. Permeability
Overview of Underground
Water Flow
Permeability
Theory
Laboratory and Field Tests
Empirical Correlations
Equivalent Permeability in Stratified Soil
W.T.
Impervious Soil
h = hA - hB
pervious Soil
W.T.
hA = total head
Impervious Soil
hB= total head
Datum
Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)
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2. Seepage
Laplaces Equation of Continuity
Continuity Equation for Solution of Simple Flow Problems
Flow Nets
Seepage Calculation
Seepage pressure and Uplift Pressure
Seepage through an Earth Dam
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Permeability
Overview of Underground Water Flow
Hydrologic Cycle
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Aspects of Hydrology
A relatively small amount of the earth's water (<1%) is contained
in the groundwater, but the effects of this water are out of proportion
to their amount
The permeability of soil affects the distribution of water both
between the surface and the ground mass and within the ground mass
itself
Ground Surface
Vadose Zone
(zone of aeration)
Capillary fringe
Water Table
(Phreatic Surface)
Zone of Phreatic Water

(zone of saturation)
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Permeability
DefinitionThe property of soils
allows water to pass through them at some rate.
is a product of the granular nature of the soil, although it can
be affected by other factors (such as water bonding in clays)
Different soils have different permabilities, understanding of
which is critical to the use of the soil as a foundation or
structural element
Soil and rock are porous materials
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Fluid flow takes place through interconnected void spaces

between particles and not through the particles themselves
No soil or rock material is strictly impermeable
Macroscopic flow
Microscopic flow
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The study of flow of water through porous media is necessary

forEstimation Seepage Loss
Estimation Pore Water Pressures
Evaluation Quicksand Conditions
Dewatering System Design
Drainage System Design
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Seepage through the body of the dam
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Pavement Drainage
Drainage behind Retaining Walls

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Theory
Bernoulli's Law
ht
p
w
v2
2g
zero
Where
Pressure head (Kinetic component)
hp
v2
Velocity head (pressure component)
hv
2g
Elevation head (Gravitational (potential) component) = Z=he
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Head Differential
What causes flow of

water through soil?
W.T.
Impervious Soil
h = hA - hB
W.T.
Water In
hA
Impervious Soil
Datum
hB
v .A
kiA
h
L
B
L = Drainage Path
Datum
ZB
Total Head
Elevation Head
hB
Soil
Pressure Head
Water
ZA
A difference in
TOTAL HEAD
i = Hydraulic Gradient
(q)
Answer:
Elevation Head
hA
Pressure Head
Total Head
Head Loss or
Head Difference or
Energy Loss
h =hA - hB
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The loss of head between A & B, can be given by

h hA
hB
PA
ZA) (
PB
ZB )
h can be expressed in nondimensional form as

Hydraulic gradient
h
L
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In general, the variation of velocity (v) with the hydraulic

gradient (i) will be as shown in the figure below
In most soils, the flow of water through the void spaces can be
considered laminar and thus v i
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Darcys Law
In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for discharge velocity
of water through saturated soils, which may expressed as
ki
Where
v = discharge velocity = quantity of water flowing in unit
time through a unit gross sectional area of soil at right
angles to the direction of flow
k = coefficient of permeability
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(v) is based on the gross sectional area of the soil, however the
actual velocity of water (seepage velocity, vs )through the void
spaces is higher than v this can be derived as following:
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If the flow rate is q then

q
vA
Av
q
Av .v s
As
v ( Av
As )
Av .v s
so
vs
v ( Av As )
Av
1
vs
Vv
Vs
Vv
Vs
v ( Av As ) L
Av L
1 e
e
v (Vv Vs )
Vv
Vs
v
n
vs
v
n
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Horizontal flow
1.2
Air pressure
Length (m)
0.6
Datum
Elevation (m)
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Head at center of soil sample (m)
2.4
1.8
1.2
0.6
0
-0.6
-1.2
(cm/sec)
Velocity
2
1
0
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In this case the air pressure will produce the required head for
horizontal flow. Thus
Total head loss
k .i
2.385
0.5
1.8
23.4
9.81
2.385 m
0.663
vs
.
v
n
0.663
0.33
2 cm / sec
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Downward Flow
Total head
Elevation head
Elevation (m)
3.6
3.0
2.4
1.8
1.2
Datum
0.6
-0.6
0.6
1.2
1.8
2.4
Head (m)
3.0
3.6
Velocity (cm/sec)
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k .i
vs
0.5.
v
n
3.6
1 cm/sec at the entranceand the exit parts of the tube .
1.8
1
0.33
3 cm/sec through the soil sample
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Upward flow
The same tube was tested under upward flow as shown in the
figure below
Elevation (m)
Total head
Datum
0
0.6
1.2
1.8
2.4
3.0
3.6
4.2
4.8 0
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k .i
1.2
0.5.
1.8
0.33
vs
v
n
0.33
0.33
1 cm/sec
Hydraulic Conductivity or Coefficient of permeability (k)

It is defined as the rate of flow per unit area of soil under
unit hydraulic gradient, it has the dimensions of velocity (L/T)
such (cm/sec or ft/sec).
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It depends on several factors as follows:

1.Shape and size of the soil particles.
2.Distribution of soil particles and pore spaces.
3.Void ratio. Permeability increases with increase of void
ratio.
4.Degree of saturation. Permeability increases with
increase of degree of saturation.
5.Composition of soil particles.
6.Soil structure
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7.Fluid properties. When the properties of fluid (water)

affecting the flow are included, we can express k by the
relation
k (cm / s)
K g
(12)
Where K = intrinsic or absolute permeability, cm2

= mass density of the fluid, g/cm3
g = acceleration due to gravity, cm/sec2
= absolute viscosity of the fluid, poise [that is, g/(cm.s)]
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(k) varies widely for different soils, as shown in the table

below
Typical values of permeability coefficient (k)
Soil type
k (mm/sec)
Coarse gravel
10 to 103
Fine gravel, coarse and medium sand
10-2 to 10
Fine sand, loose silt
10-4 to 10-2
Dense silt, clayey silt
10-5 to 10-4
Silty clay, clay
10-8 to 10-5
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The coefficient of permeability of soils is generally expressed at

a temperature of 20oC. at any other temperature T, the coefficient
of permeability can be obtained from eq.(12) as
k 20
kT
(
(
20 )( T )
T )( 20 )
Where
kT , k20 = coefficient of permeability at ToC and 20oC,
respectively
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o
o
,
=
mass
density
of
the
fluid
at
T
C
and
20
C, respectively
T
20
o
o
,
=
coefficient
of
viscosity
at
T
C
and
20
C, respectively
T
20
Since the value of 20 / T is approximately 1, we can write
k 20
kT
T
20
Where
f (T ) 1.682 0.0433T
0.00046T 2
20
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Laboratory and Field Tests

The four most common laboratory methods for determining the
permeability coefficient of soils are the following:
1. Constant head test.
2. Falling head test.
3. Indirect determination from consolidation test
4. Indirect determination by horizontal capillary test.
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Laboratory Tests
Constant head test
Distilled de aired
QL
hAt
Suitable for cohesionless soils with permeabilities
> 10 x10-4 cm/sec
Q qt
kiAt
Overflow
The simplest of all methods for determining the

coefficient of permeability
L
This test is performed by measuring

the quantity of water, Q, flowing through
the soil specimen,
the length of the soil specimen, L,
the head of water, h, and
the elapsed time, t.
Permeability Cell filed with soil
Collection of water in a
cylinder (Q at time t)
Permeability Cell with
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Falling head test

Suitable for cohesive soils with permeabilities < 10 x 10-4 cm/sec
Standpipe with cross

section area = a
h1
h
h2
Soil sample with cross section
area = A
Overflow
Falling head apparatus (ELE)

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The rate of flow through the soil is

q kiA k
h
A
L
dh
dt
where h = head difference at any time t

A = area of specimen
a = area of standpipe
L = length of specimen
From eq.(above),
t
dt
0
h2
h1
aL
Ak
dh
h
h1
aL
2.303 log
At
h2
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Field tests
There are many useful methods to determine the permeability
coefficient in field such as
1. pumping from wells
2. Bore hole test
3. Open end test
4. Packer test
5. Variable head tests by means of piezometer observation
well
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Pumping from wells

Gravity wells (unconfined aquifer)
r2
R
r1
Original G.W.T before pumping
dr
dh
Test well
Observation wells
h
H1
h1
h2
H
2rw
Impermeable layer
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q kiA
dh
k
2 hr
dr
q
r2
r1
dr
r
h2
2 k
hdh
q h
1
So
2.303q log
k
h22
r2
r1
h12
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Artesian wells (confined aquifer)

r2
R
r1
dr
dh
Observation wells
Test well
h
H1
h1
h2
Hw
2rw
Impermeable layer
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dh
kiA k 2 rT
dr
q
r2
r1
dr
r
h2
h
2 kT
dh
q
q log(r2 / r1)
2.727T (h2
h1 )
If we substitute h1 = Hw at r1 = rw and h2 = H1 ar r2 = R in, we get

k
q log( R / rw )
2.727T ( H1 H w )
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Empirical Correlations
Several empirical equations for estimation of the permeability
coefficient have been proposed in the past.
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Equivalent Permeability in Stratified Soil

Horizontal direction.
k v1
k v2
k h1
k h2
k v3
Direction of flow
k h3
H
k vn
k hn
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v .1 . H
v1.1.H 1
v 2 .1. H 2
v 3 .1 . H 3
........ v n .1.H n
Where v = average discharge velocity

v1 , v2 , v3 , ..vn = discharge velocities of flow in layers
denoted by the subscripts.
From Darcy,s law
v
k H ( eq ) .i eq
v1
k h1 .i 1
v1
k h 2 .i 2
v1
k h 3 .i 3
v1
k hn .i n
Since
ieq
i1
i2
i3
in
then
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k H (eq )
1
k h1 H1 k h2 H 2
H
k h3 H 3
k hn H n
Or
n
k hi H i
k H (eq )
i 1
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Vertical direction
h
h
k v1
k h1
k v2
k h2
k v3
k h3
H
k vn
k hn
Direction of flow
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v1
v2
v3
vn
h1 h2
h3
hn
and
h
using Darcy,s law v ki , we can write

kv (eq ) .
h
H
kv1.i1
k v 2 .i2
k v 3 .i3
kvn .i n
again
h
H1.i1
H 2 .i2
H 3 .i3
H n .in
the solutions of these equations gives

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kv (eq )
H1
kv1
H2
kv 2
H
H3
kv 3
Hn
kvn
or
kv ( eq )
H
n H
i
i 1 k vi
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Examples
1.
An impervious layer as shown in the figure underlies a permeable soil layer.
With k = 4.8x10-3 cm/sec for the permeable layer, calculate the rate of seepage
through it in cm3/sec/cm length width. Given H = 3 m and
= 5o .
Ground surface
G.W.T (free surface)
H cos
Direction
of seepage
L /cos
H
Impervious layer
h = L tan
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Solution
From the above figure
i
headloss
length
kiA
L tan
L
cos
k sin
sin
H cos .1
4.8 x10
sin 5 . 3 cos 5.
12.5 x10
q 12.5 cm3/sec/cm length
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2. The following figure shows the layers of soil in a tube 100mmx100mm in cross
section. Water is supplied to maintain a constant head difference of 300 mm across the
sample. The permeability coefficient of the soils in the direction of flow through them
are as follows: Find the rate of supply.
Water
supply
Constant head difference =
300 mm
B
A
C
150 mm
150 mm
150 mm
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Soil
A
B
C
k (cm/sec)
1x10-2
3x10-3
5x10-4
Solution
For the soil layers B & C (the flow is parallel to the stratification)
k H ( eq )
1
kh1H1 k h 2 H 2
H
1
(3x10 3 (5) 5 x10 4 (5)) 1.75 x10
10
cm/sec
For the layer A with equivalent layer of B&C
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keq
keq
q
45
H
H1
k1
H2
k2
30
1x10
15
1.75 x10
3.8 x10
0.003888cm / sec
keqiA
300
0.003888
10
450
0.259 cm3 / sec
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3.The permeability coefficient of a sand at a void ratio of 0.55

is 0.1 ft/min. estimate its permeability coefficient at avoid ratio
of 0.7. Use Casagrande empirical relationship
Solution
2
From Casagrande relation k=1.4e k0.85

k1
k2
e12
e22
0.1
k2
0.55
0.7
2
2
k2
0.1 0.7
0.55
e 2 .So
0.16
ft/min at e = 0.7
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4.for normally consolidated clay soil, the following are given:

Void ratio
k (cm/sec)
-7
1.1
0.302x10
0.9
0.12x10-7
Estimate the permeability coefficient of clay at void ratio of

1.2 .
Use Samarasingh et. al. relation.
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Solution
Samarasingh et.al. eq. k
k1
k2
03.02 x10 7
0.12 x10 7
en
C3
1 e
e1n
1 e1
e2n
1 e
1.1 n
1 1.1
0. 9 n
1 0.9
2.517
1.9 1.1
2.1 0.9
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2.782 1.222 n
log 2.782 0.444
n
log 1.222 0.087
So
5. 1
5.1
e
C3
1 e
To find C3
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0.302 x10
C3
1.1 5.1
1 1.1
0.302 x10 7 2.1

C3
1.626
Hence
k
0.39 x10
1.626
C3
2. 1
0.39 x10 7 cm / sec
e 5.1
1 e
At a void ratio of 1.2

k
0.39 x10
1.25.1
1 1.2
0.449 x10
cm /sec.
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5. pumping test from Gravity well in a permeable layer

underlain by an impervious stratum was made. When steady
state was reached, the following observations were made q =
100 gpm; h1 = 20 ft; h2 = 15 ft; r1 = 150 ft; and r2 = 50 ft.
Determine the permeability coefficient of the permeable layer.
Solution
2.303q log10
Since
r1
r2
h12 h22
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Given: q = 100gpm = 13.37 ft3 / min, so
2.303 x13.37 log10

k
20
15
150
50
0.0267 ft / min
0.027 ft / min
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Seepage
Laplaces Equation of Continuity
Introduction
In many instances, the flow of water through soil is not in one
direction only, nor is it uniform over the entire area
perpendicular to the flow.
In such cases, calculation of ground water flow is generally
made by use of graphs referred to as flow nets.
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The concept of the flow net is based on Laplace,s equation of

continuity, which describes the steady flow condition for a
given point in the soil mass.
Derivation
To derive the Laplace differential equation of continuity, let
us take a single row of sheet piles that have been driven into a
permeable soil layer, as shown in the figure below.
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Sheet
H1
Outflow
vz
h
H2
vz
dz dxdy
z
vx
dy A
dx
Permeable layer
v x dzdy
vx
dx dzdy
x
vy
v z dxdy
Impermeable layer
vx
Inflow rates
Flow at element A
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Assumptions:
1.The row of sheet piles is impervious
2.The steady state flow of water from the upstream to the
downstream side through the permeable layer is a two
dimensional flow.
3.The water is incompressible
4.No volume change occurs in the soil mass. Thus, the total
rate of inflow should be equal to the total rate of outflow
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vx
vx
dx dz.dy
x
vz
vz
dz dx.dy
z
v x .dz.dy v z .dx.dy
Or
vx
x
vz
z
(1)
Using Darcy s law, the discharge velocities can be expressed as
vx
kxix
kx
h
vz
and
x
kz iz
kz
h
z ..(2)
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Where k x , k z are the permeability coefficients in the horizontal

and vertical directions respectively.
From Eqs. 1 and 2, we can write that
2
h
h
k x 2 kz 2 0
x
z
If the soil is isotropic with respect to the permeability coefficients
that is, k x
2
h
x2
kz 0
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Continuity Equation for Solution of Simple Flow Problems
h1
H1
Z
Datum
H2
Soil 1
k1
h2
Soil 2
k2
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h
z2
Soil 1
@z=0
@ z = H1
h1
A2
h2
A1 H 1
h
A1 z
A2
h = h1
h = h2
h1
A1
( h1 h2 )
z h1
H1
( h1 h2 )
H1
for
H1
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Soil 2
@ z = H1
@ z = H1+H2
h2
A1 H 1
A1 ( H 1
h = h2
h=0
A2
H2 )
A2
A2
h2
z h2 (1
H2
A1
H1
)
H2
h2
A1 H 1
h2
H2
for
and
H1
A2
h2 (1
H1
H1
)
H2
H2
At any given time
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q1
q2
h1 h2
k1
A
H1
h2
H1
h1 (1
h1
h2 0
k2
A
H2
h1 k1
k1
k2
H1 H 2
k2 z
)
k1 H 2 k2 H 1
k1
k1 H 2
k2 H 1
( H1
for 0
H2
z)
for
H1
H1
z
H1
H2
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Flow Nets
The following methods are available for the determination of
flow nets:
1. Graphical solution by sketching
2. Mathematical or analytical methods
3. Numerical analysis
4. Models
5. Analogy methods
All the methods are based on Laplaces continuity equation.
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Flow net in isotropic medium

2
h
2
x
It represents two orthogonal families of curves that is, the flow lines and
the equipotential lines.
Flow line is a line along which a water particle will travel from upstream to
the downstream side in the permeable soil medium.
Equipotential line is a line along which the potential head at all points is the
same.
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A combination of number of flow lines and equipotential lines is

called a flow net.
To construct a flow net, the flow and equipotential lines are
drawn (see the above figure which is an example of a completed
flow net) in such a way that
1. The equipotential lines intersect the flow lines at right
angles.
2. The flow elements formed are approximate squares.
The following figure shows another example of a flow net in an
isotropic permeable layer.
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Seepage Calculation
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Let h1, h2, h3, h4,,hn be the Piezometric levels
q1
q2
q3
From Darcy,s law, the rate of flow is equal to k.i.A . Thus

q
h1
h2
l1
l1
h2
h3
l2
l2
h3
h4
l3
l3
So
h1 h2
h2 h3
h3 h4
H
Nd
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potential drop between any adjacent equipotential lines

And
H
k
Nd
Where
H = the difference of head between the upstream and
downstream sides
Nd = number of potential drops
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If the number of flow channels in a flow net is equal to Nf , then
k .H .
Where
Nf
Nd
k .H .
shape factor of the flow net
Nd
Nf
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h1 h2
k
b1
l1
b1
l1
If
b2
l2
b3
l3
h2
h3
l2
b2
h3
h4
l3
b3
So
n
k .H .
Nd
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k .H .
Nf
Nd
.n
k .H . .n
for square elements n =1

In general the flow nets may contain square and rectangular
elements, in that case we can solve the problem by treating each
part separately then we get the sum of the parts.
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Flow nets in anisotropic meduim

In nature, most soils exhibit some degree of anisotropy. So to
account for soil anisotropy with respect to permeability, some
modification of the flow net construction is necessary.
The differential equation of continuity for two dimensional
flow in anisotropic soil, where k
2
kx
k z , is
h
h
kz 2
2
z
x
0
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in that case the equation represents two families of curves that do

not meet at 90o . However, we can rewrite the preceding equation
as
2
h
(k z / k x ) x 2
kz
Substituting x
kz / k x .x
then
2
0
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To construct the flow net, use the following procedures:

1.Adopt a vertical scale (that is, z axis) for drawing the cross
section.
2.Adopt a horizontal scale (that is, x axis) such that horizontal
scale =
k z / k x . (vertical scale).
3.With scales adopted in steps 1 and 2, plot the vertical section

through the permeable layer parallel to the direction of flow.
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4.Draw the flow net for the permeable layer on the section
obtained from step 3, with flow lines intersecting equipotential
lines at right angles and the elements as approximate squares.
Depending on the problem geometry, we can also adopt
transformation in the z axis direction in the same manner
describe above by adopting horizontal scale and then vertical
scale will equal horizontal scale multiplying by
k x kz
i.e. that the continuity equation will be written as follow:

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h
x2
0 where z
k x k z .z
The rate of seepage per unit width can be calculated by the

following equation
q
k e .H .
k x .k z .H .
Nf
Nd
Where
ke = effective permeability to transform the anisotropic soil to

isotropic soil
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To prove that ke
k x .k z whatever is the direction of flow let
us consider two elements one from a flow net drawn in natural

scale the other one drawn in transformed scale as shown below.
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Transformed Scale
Natural Scale
h
b
Flow direction
l k x kz
ke .
h
b(1)
l
kx
h
l k x kz
ke
k x .k z
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Transformed Scale
Natural Scale
Flow direction
l kx kz
ke
h
l (1 )
b
kz
h
.l k x k z
b
ke
k x .k z
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In the anisotropic soil, the permeability coefficient having a

maximum value in the direction of stratification and a minimum
value in the direction normal to that of stratification: these
directions are devoted by x & z i.e.
kx
kmax and
kz
k min
From Darcy, s law
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vx
vz
k x .i x
k z .i z
h
x
kx.
h
z
kz .
Also, in any direction S, inclined at angle

vs
k s .i s
ks .
to the x direction
h
s
Now
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h
S
x
S
z
S
vs
ks
h x
.
x S
h z
.
z S
cos
sin
vx
cos
kx
vz
sin
kz
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Also
vx
v s cos
vz
v s sin
1
ks
cos2
kx
S2
ks
x2
kx
sin 2
kz
Or
z2
kz
is in the form of the ellipse as shown in the figure below
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Z
S
kz
ks
X
kx
Permeability Ellipse
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Transfer Condition
In case of flow perpendicular to soil strata, the loss of head and
rate of flow are influenced primarily by the less pervious soil
whereas in the case of flow parallel to the strata, the rate of flow
is essential controlled by comparatively more pervious soil.
The following shows a flow channel (part of two dimensional
flow net) going from soil A to soil B with k A k B (two layers).
Based on the principle of continuity, i.e., the same rate of flow
exists in the flow channel in soil A as in soil B, we can derive the
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relationship between the angles of incident of the flow paths with

the boundary for the two flow channels. Not only does the
direction of flow change at a boundary between soils with
different permeabilities, but also the geometry of the figures in
the flow net changes. As can be seen in the figure below, the
figures in soil B are not squares as is the case in soil A, but rather
rectangles.
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qA
qB
qA
kA
qB
kB
kA
lA
bA
h
lA
lA
h
lB
bA
tan
kA
tan A
bA
bB
kB
A
h
lB
bB
and
kB
tan B
lB
bB
kA
kB
tan
tan
tan
B
A
B
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Example
A flow net for flow around single row of sheet piles in a
permeable soil layer is shown in the figure. Given k k k 5 x10
cm/sec. Determine:
1. How high (above the ground surface) the water will rise if
piezometers are placed at points a, b, c, and d.
2. The total rate of seepage through the permeable layer per
unit width.
3. The rate of seepage through the flow channel II per unit
width (perpendicular to the section shown)
3
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Sheet pile
H1 = 4.5 m
H2 = 1.5 m
0
I c
-4.5
II
III
Nf = 3
b
Datum
-9.0
Impermeable layer
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Point
Potential drop, m
Rise above the ground surface, m
1x 0.5 = 0.5
4.5 0.5 = 4.0
2 x 0.5 = 1.0
4.5 1.0 = 3.5
5 x 0.5 = 2.5
4.5 2.5 = 2.0
5 x 0.5 = 2.5
4.5 2.5 = 2.0
Solution
a. H = 4.5 1.5 = 3.0 m
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3
So, head loss / drop = 6
b. q
k .H .
k.H .
Nf
Nd
= 0.5 m drop
0.05 x10 3 (3.0)
3
6
7.5 x10
m3 / sec / m
length
c.
H
k
Nd
3
0.05 x10 .
6
3
2.5 x10
m3 /sec /m length
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Seepage pressure and Uplift Pressure

1. Seepage Pressure on Sheet Piles
Example
Given. Flow net in the following figure
Find. Pore pressure at points a to i; quantity of seepage; exit
gradient.
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The water pressure plot, such shown in the above figure, is

useful in the structural design of the wall and in study of water
pressure differential tending to cause leakage through the
wall.
Total head loss H = 27 19.5 =7.5 m
Head loss /drop = 7.5 8 0.9375 m
Let
2
=
10
kN/m
w
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Point
he , m
ht , m
hp , m
a
b
27
18
0
9.0
14.7
11.325
113.25
11.7
13.425
134.25
9.0
14.25
142.5
11.7
9.675
96.75
14.7
5.7375
57.375
h
i
18.0
19.5
27.0
27.0
27 1x0.9375 =
26.0625
27 2x0.9375 =
25.125
27 4x0.9375 = 23.25
27 6x0.9375 =
21.375
27 7x0.9375 =
20.4375
27 8x0.9375 = 19.5
19.50
Water pressure
kN/m2
0
90
1.50
0
15.0
0
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Seepage under wall

q
kH
4
5 x10 (7.5)
8
9
18.75 x10
m3 /sec / m. length
Exit gradient
i
h
l
1.25
3.45
0.362
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2. Uplift Pressure under Hydraulic structures

Example
The following figure shows a weir, the base of which is 1.8 m
below the ground surface. The necessary flow net also been
drawn (assuming k x k z k ).
H = 6.3 m.
So, the loss of head
H 7 6.3 7 0.9 m.
for
each
potential
drop
is
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6.3 m
1.8 m
9.0 m
Impermeable layer
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The total head at the ground level in the upstream side = 6.3 + 1.8
= 8.1 m
Let w = 10 kN/m2
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Point
Total head, ht
Pressure
Uplift pressure, kN/m2
head, hp
U = hp x w
8 .1 1 x 0 . 9
7.2
7.2
72
8 .1 2 x 0 .9
6 .3
6.3
63
8.1 3 x 0.9
5.4
5.4
54
8.1 4 x 0.9
4 .5
4.5
45
8.1 5 x 0.9
3 .6
3.6
36
8.1 6 x 0 .9
2.7
2.7
27
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iexit = 0.9 / L
High value of exit gradient will affect the stability of the structure
and a factor of safety will be applied. This will discussed later
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Seepage through an Earth Dam

The flow through an earth dam differs from the other cases in
that the top flow line is not know in advance of sketching the
flow net. Thus, it is a case of unconfined flow. The top flow
line as well as the flow net will be dependent upon the nature of
internal drainage for the earth dam. Typical cases are shown in
Fig. 6.8; the top flow line only is shown.
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Assuming that the top flow line is determined, a typical flow net
for an earth dam with a rock toe, resting on an impervious
foundation is shown in Fig. 6.9:
hp = 0 thus ht = he
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AB is known to be an equipotential and AD a flow line. BC is

the top flow line; at all points of this line the pressure head is
zero. Thus BC is also the phreatic line; or, on this line, the
total head is equal to the elevation head. Line CD is neither an
equipotential nor a flow line, but the total head equals the
elevation head at all points of CD.
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abcd is the phraetic or free surface
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Schaffernaks solution
,
using Dupuit s assumption
dz
dx
sin
Considering cde
q
kiA
dz
dx
A (c e )(1)
L sin
so
q
k (tan )( L sin )
kL tan sin
(1)
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Again,
q
kiA
dz
k
( zx1)
dx
dz
kz
dx
( 2)
For continuous flow
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q1
q2
dz
kz
dx
kL tan sin
z H
x d
kzdz
z L sin
( kL tan sin )dx
z L cos
.......
.......
L
d
cos
d2
cos 2
H2
......................( 3)
2
sin
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Steps to find rate of seepage q (per m length of the dam)

1. obtain
2. calculate (see the Fig.) and then 0.3
3. calculate d
4. with known values of and d , calculate L from Eq. 3
5. with known values of L, calculate q from Eq.1
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L. Casagrande,sSolution
Casagrande show that when is more than 30o the deviation from
Dupuits
Assumption is more noticeable, he suggested that
i
dz
ds
kiA
sin
where ds
k sin ) L sin )
dx 2
dz 2
kL sin 2
again
q
kiA
dz
k
(1xz )
ds
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Combining these questions e get,

z H
L sin 2
kzdz
z L sin
where s = length of the curve a/bc
2
H
L s
s2
sin 2
With an error about 4-5%, e can write
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Then
L
d2
H2
d2
H 2 cot 2
Once L is known, the rate of seepage can be calculated
kL sin
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Example
The cross-section of an earth dam is shown in Figure. Calculate
the rate of seepage through the dam [q in m3/min m] by
1. Schaffernaks solution
2. L. Casagrandes method;
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30 m
25 m
3x10-4 m/min
50m
60m
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Schaffernaks solution
L
d
cos
d2
cos 2
H2
.
2
sin
90
cos
90 2
cos 2 26.57
25 2
sin 2 26.57
16.95
d = 125 0.7x50=
90 m; = 26.57o
q kL tan sin
3 x10 (16.95)(tan 26.57 )( sn 26.57 ) 11.37 x10
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L. Casagrandes method;
L
d2
H2
90 2
kL sin 2
25 2
d2
90 2
H 2 cot 2
25 2 cot 2 26.57
3 x10 4 (19 )(sin 26.57 )
19m
11.4 x10
m 3 /( m . min)
214

4 - Permeability and Seepage

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4 - Permeability and Seepage

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University of Anbar

Permeability and Seepage

hB= total head

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Zone of Phreatic Water

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Fluid flow takes place through interconnected void spaces

No soil or rock material is strictly impermeable

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

The study of flow of water through porous media is necessary

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Seepage through the body of the dam

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Drainage behind Retaining Walls

Pressure head (Kinetic component)

What causes flow of

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

The loss of head between A & B, can be given by

h can be expressed in nondimensional form as

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

In general, the variation of velocity (v) with the hydraulic

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

If the flow rate is q then

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Head at center of soil sample (m)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

3 cm/sec through the soil sample

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Hydraulic Conductivity or Coefficient of permeability (k)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

It depends on several factors as follows:

7.Fluid properties. When the properties of fluid (water)

Where K = intrinsic or absolute permeability, cm2

(k) varies widely for different soils, as shown in the table

Fine gravel, coarse and medium sand

Fine sand, loose silt

Dense silt, clayey silt

Silty clay, clay

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

The coefficient of permeability of soils is generally expressed at

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Laboratory and Field Tests

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

The simplest of all methods for determining the

This test is performed by measuring

Permeability Cell filed with soil

Permeability Cell with

Falling head test

Standpipe with cross

Falling head apparatus (ELE)

The rate of flow through the soil is

where h = head difference at any time t

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Pumping from wells

Original G.W.T before pumping

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)

Artesian wells (confined aquifer)

Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.)